GENERAL BIOLOGY
Other Supporting Structures
THE CELL: BASIC PRINCIPLE &
THEORY
Two Types of Cell
 Prokaryotic – single celled
organism
Examples: bacteria, archaea
 Eukaryotic – multi cellular & have
a true nucleus.
Examples: animals, plants, protists,
fungi.
The Cell Theory
1. All living organism are composed
of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of
structure and function of
organisms.
Structure that carries out all
biochemical activities to maintain
cellular life.
3. Cells come from pre existing
cells.
Cells can come only from cells.
Cells cannot come from anything.
CELLULAR ULTRASTRUCTURE &
FUNCTION
 Cell anatomy – study of cellular
ultra structure.
 Cell physiology – study of its
functions and processes.
The Cell/Plasma Membrane
Function/Physiology
An important function that the cell
can do is selectively allowed necessary
molecules and fluids into it.
The plasma membrane carries
out this function.
Structure and Basic Chemistry
 Phospholipid bilayer – makes up
the plasma membrane. It
composed of a phosphate head.
 Amphipathic – characteristics of
having a hydrophilic and a
hydrophobic part.
 Fluid Mosaic Model by Jonathan
Singer and Garth Nicholson –
currently accepting model of the
plasma membrane.
Integral/transmembrane protein
found in the plasma membrane is
important in ion transport & cell
signalling.
 Cholesterols – function as cell
insulators and contribute to the
entry of different molecules.
 Glycocalyx – serve as the
external covering of the plasma
membrane.
Cell Wall
It is a protective structure found
in plants, algae and in some prokaryotic
cells.
Cytoplasm
General Function/Physiology
Cytoplasm – ground substance where
biochemical reactions happen as it
contains viscous fluids called cytosol.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a continuous single
membrane system structure.
Two Basic Forms of ER
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(RER) – rough due to the
presence of ribosomes.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER) – does not contain
ribosome and is tabular and non
granular.
Ribosomes
 Eukaryotic ribosome – total size
of 80S divides into a small
sununit 40s and large subunit
60S
 Prokaryotic ribosome – total size
of 70s divides into a small subunit
of 30S and large sub unit 50S.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondrion – power house of
the eukaryotic cell.
 Chloroplast – organelle found
only in plants and photosynthetic
algae.
Golgi Complex
The cisternae and many vesicles,
which function outside the nucleus & ER
make up the Golgi complex (Golgi
body/apparatus.)
It is a flat, stacked membranous
structure.
Lysosomes & Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes – membrane bound
organelles that contain hydrolytic
enzymes exemplified by
hydrolases.
Vacuoles
 Vacuoles – organelles walled by
a single membrane.
Centrioles
 Centrioles – nine groups of
parallel subunits.
Cytoskeleton
 Cytoskeleton – framework of the
cell and it provides support that
maintains life structure and
appearance of the cell.
 Microfilaments - serve as cell
support and structure.
Secretory Granules
 Secretory Granules – secretes in
a specific manner some
substances such as enzymes,
hormones, or signalling proteins
out of the cell.
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) Granules
 Stress Granules – cellular
oxidation, heat shock, cell aging.
 P-bodies – sites of RNA
degradation
 Neuronal Granules – found only
in neurons, contain ready to be
translated mRNA delivered on the
dendritic synapses.
 Germinal cell Granules – contain
maternal mRNA responsible for
germ cell specification.
Nucleus
It is the main control processing
organelle of the cell.
 Nuclear envelope – lipid bilayer
that separates the nuclear
content from the cytoplasm.
 Nuclear pores- selective
channels, which facilitate the
inward and outward movement of
molecules.
 Nucleoplasm – fluid portion of the
nucleus where the genetic
material is suspended.
 Chromatin – genetic material
wrapped around histone proteins.
 Giemsia
Types of Chromosomes Accrdg to
Centromere
 Metacentric – centromere located
at the geometric center of the
chromosome.
P-arm is same size with the lower arm
called q-arm. P-arm is shorter than q-
arm.
 Submetacentric – centromere is
located in the middle and end
portion chromosome.
 Telocentric – centromere is
located at the end of the
chromosome.
PROKARYOTIC vs EUKARYOTIC
CELL
 Prokaryotic cells are smaller than
Eukaryotic cells.
 Nuclear membrane is absent in
prokaryotes while eukaryotes
have a distinct nucleus covered
by a nuclear envelope in its cells.
 Eukaryotic cells are equipped
with several membrane bound
organelles while prokaryotic cells
are not.
 The fundamental difference
between the two is the presence
and absence of nucleus.
CELLULAR TYPES and HISTOLOGY
Cells of Higher Animals
 Somatic Cells – diverse in the
body of an organism.
Examples: neurons, epithelial cells, liver
cells, somite, etc.
 Germinal Cells – essential for
reproduction.
Examples: sperm and egg cells
Diversity of Human Cells
μm – Micrometer
Hyaluronidase – enzyme of sperm
 Ovum -120 μm in diameter. The
zona pellicuda surrounds the
ovum.
 Neuron – can be 4-150 μm
with multiple dendrites and a
single axon.
 Keratinocyte – scale like
structures full of keratin. Hair,
nails.
 Sperm – has a head (5 μm )
with compact DNA, body (5
μm ) with mitochondrion, and
 tail (50 μm ). The frontal head
contains an enzyme that
penetrate the zona pellucid.
About 100million sperm count is
in the semen.
 Melanocytes – are epithelial cells
that contain long branches that lie
in keratinocytes.
 Muscle Fiber Cell – 10-100
μm in diameter,
multinucleated due to myoblast
fusion.
 Epithelial cells – adhesive cells
fused together with desmosomes
between cells.
 Hepatocytes – liver cells that are
structurally polyhedral, 20-30
μm in diameter, sometimes
multinucleated.
 Lymphocytes – are 6-8 μm in
diameter with a minute
cytoplasm.
 Platelets – about 3-5 μm of
highly structured cytoplasm with
a lifespan of 8 days.
 Fibroblasts – unspecialized cells
of connective tissue.
 Erythrocytes (RBC) – flat,
biconcave discs, about 7.2 μm
in diameter. It does not contain
mitochondria, nucleus and
ribosomes.
 Megakaryocyte – 35-150 μm
in diameter, which has a
lobulated nucleus.
Animal Tissues
In animals, the tissues are either
epithelial, connective, muscular or
nervous tissue
Histology – Study of different tissues
Epithelial Tissue
Polygonal cells make up the
epithelial tissues, very few or no extra
cellular matrix. Their function is to shield
the organism against harmful infective
agents.
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple epithelium – one layer of
cells classified as squamos,
columnar, and cuboidal.
a) Simple squamos
epithelium – flat cells with
a non regular outline,
closely fitted together to
form a sheet.
b) Simple cuboidal
epithelium – box shaped
structure with brush
border in its cell lining
c) Simple columnar
epithelium – cylindrical
structure with a noticeable
height plus a striated
border.
2. Stratified epithelium – comprise
of more than one layer of cells,
classified according to the
structure.
a) Stratified squamos
epithelium – multilayer of
cell groups, often found in
the skin that protects the
organism from bacterial
invasion.
b) Transition epithelium –
overlapping layers of cells
that line the ureters and
urinary bladder
c) Stratified cuboidal
epithelium – multilayered
cube shaped cells fused
together in some glands
d) Stratified columnar
epithelium – elongated cell
structure often found in the
conjunctiva and human
salivary glands.
3. Glandular epithelium – cells that
function for molecular secretion.
a) Number of cells –
monocellular or
multicellular
b) Morphology or shape –
simple, compound, or
saccular
c) Types of secretion –
serous, mucous, or mixed
serous-mucous
d) Presence or absence of
secretory ducts –
endocrine or exocrine
e) The integrity of the
secretory cells – holocrine,
apocrine, merocrine
Connective Tissues and Special
Connective Tissues
 Connective Tissues – group of
tissues that structurally differ
according to their localization.
Types of connective tissue
1. Collagenous connective tissue –
made up of II collagen
2. Reticular connective tissue –
made up of type III collagen and
usually found in the supporting
structure of the hematopoistic
and lymphoid organs.
 3. Elastic connective tissue – made
up of type II collagen containing
retractile fibers with elastin.
4. Connective tissue woth special
properties- adipose tissue, which
acts as insulator and mucous
connective tissue, found in the
umbilical cord and young tooth
pulp.
Specialized Connective Tissue
1. Blood and lymph – fiber in dry
form that functions primarily for
gas exchange, immunity,
hormonal transport and much
more.
2. Cartilage – made up of elastic
fibers and collagen.
3. Bones – rigid connective tissue
composed of osteoblasts,
osteocyts and osteoclasts
The Muscular Tissue
It functions for movement and
locomotion.
 Smooth muscle – no cross
striations and are fusiform-
shaped
 Skeletal muscle – elongated,
multinucleated, cylindrical
 Cardiac muscle – composed of
elongated branced cells that
adhere parallel to each other
Nervous Tissue
It receives stimuli from the
environment and internal signals.
 Synapses – site for physiological
relay of signals
 Neuron – functional unit of
nervous system
1. Function – sensory neurons –
transmission of signals from the
environment
Interneurons – processing of signall
Motor neurons – command effector
organs
2. A number of process – unipolar,
bipolar and multipolar
3. The length of signal relay –
interneurons – small neurons
Projection neurons – have long axons
4. Chemical messenger – chemicals
used to transfer impulses such as
cholinergic, dopaminergic,
serotonergic, adrenergic
Plant Tissues
Multicellular organisms
composed of different types of cells.
 Meristematic Tissue – groups of
undifferiated tissues
 Apical meristems – located on tot
tip and shoot tips
 Protoderm – dermal tissue
 Ground meristem – cortical cells
 Procambium – vascular tissue
 Lateral meristem – horizontal
expansion of tissue
 Intercalary meristems –
regenerating removed parts of
the plant
 Epidermal tissue – single layred
that surround plant body
 Vascular tissue – phloem & xylem
are the main tissues responsible
for the systemic transport
 Ground tissue – group of cells
made up of parenchyma,
sclerenchyma, colloncyma cells.
CELLULAR MODIFICATION
Spores
A special modification in bacteria,
particularly as a defense mechanism to
heat, high pressure and stress. Contains
30% water.
Flagella. Cilia & Pili
Flagella and Cila are flexible
membrane extensions used by
microorganisms and sperm in animals to
move.
Dendrites and Axon of the Nerve Cell
 Neurons – specialized cells of
nervous system
 Dendrites – cellular process that
receive an electrical signal from
another neuron
 Axons – transmit an electrical
signal from the cell bbody to
another neuron
Actin and Myosin
Permits the muscle to contract
and elongate for organism activity
Enucleated Red Blood Cell
RBC does not contain nucleus
but contains hemoglobin
Root Hair
Specialized epidermal cells of
plant that increase the apparent are of
roots
 STEM CELLS and its THERAPEUTIC
PROMISES
Stem Cell – The Origin of Different
Cells and Tissues
 Stem cells – vary depending on
their differiation potential
 Totipotent stem – stem cells
which a whole animal can rise
 Pluriptent stem cell – rise to
many types of cells but not into a
hwole organism
 Multipotent stem cells – potential
of stem cells is very specific
depending on its origin
Medical importance