Literature review on Development of Stirling Engine

Siddhant Jadhao1, Prof .Y.V.Mahantare2

1(Mechanical/Third year/B/56/Bapurao Deshmukh College of Engineering, Sewagram/R.T.M.N.U.,
Nagpur/Maharashtra)
E-mail-ld: - siddhantjadhao@gmail.com

2(Assistant Professor/Mechanical Engg/Bapurao Deshmukh College of Engineering, Sewagram/R.T.M.N.U.,

Nagpur/Maharashtra)

E-mail-ld: - yogesh_mahantare@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT:-

The Stirling engine is both practically and theoretically a significant device, its practical virtue is
simple, reliable and safe. The engine operates on a closed thermodynamic cycle, which is
reversible.
Today Stirling cycle-based systems are in commercial use as a heat pump, cryogenic refrigeration
and air liquefaction. As a prime mover, Stirling cycles remain the subject of research and
development efforts. A n u m b e r o f a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e to build and improve the
performance of Stirling engines. For successful operation of engine system with good
efficiency, a careful design of heat exchangers, proper selection of drive mechanism and engine
configuration is essential. Our Discussion indicates that a Stirling cycle engine
working with relatively low temperature with air of helium as working fluid is
potentially attractive engines of the future, especially solar-powered low-temperature differential
Stirling engines with vertical, double acting, and gamma configuration. It is pollution free engine
and use of any type of fuel characteristics and it shows a greater potential over any other type of
engine existing today. This paper represents a detailed review of the past efforts taken for the
development of the Stirling c y c l e e n g i n e a n d t e c h n i q u e s u s e d f o r e n g i n e a n a l ys i s .

KEYWORDS:-

Drive mechanism, Stirling cycle engine, solar-powered, gamma configuration.

1. INTRODUTION:-
A Stirling engine is one example of a broad class of heat engines which are devices designed to
convert thermal energy into mechanical motion by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other
gas, the working fluid, in a closed thermodynamic cycle at different temperature levels such that
there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work. [1]
The Stirling engine uses an external heat source to heat the working substance. The heat source
can come from burning fossil fuels, solar energy, decaying plant matter, or whatever is available. In
fact, all the Stirling engine requires to operate is a temperature difference. It is possible to run a
Stirling engine by cooling one region of the engine below ambient temperature. The gas inside the
cylinder of a Stirling engine is not burned or consumed in anyway. Hence, in contrast to the internal
combustion engine, the Stirling engine does not require an exhaust or an intake. If a clean external
heat source is used with the Stirling engine, it can be an environmentally friendly alternative to
engines that burn and emit hydrocarbons and other pollutants. [1][2]
Stirling engines also limit noise pollution because they do not require intake and exhaust valves
which usually are the main source of engine noise. However, Stirling engines that would be suitable
for automobile use are larger, heavier, and more expensive than conventional internal combustion
engines. Moreover, Stirling engines require some time to warm up before they starts and the output
of the engine cannot be changed quickly for quick acceleration and deceleration.[3] Although
Stirling engines have not yet found use in the automotive industry, they have been used as a
submarine engine. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in Stirling engines as the
demand for more fuel efficient and clean engines continues to increase. The engine has been
admired over the centuries because of its theoretical efficiency is calculated nearly equal to its
theoretical maximum efficiency (Carnot Cycle efficiency). [4]

The Stirling engine is noted for its high efficiency compared to steam engines, quiet operation,
and the ease with which it can use almost any heat source.[4] This compatibility with alternative and
renewable energy sources has become increasingly significant as the price of conventional fuels
rises, and also in light of concerns such as peak oil and climate change. This engine is currently
exciting interest as the core component of micro combined heat and power (CHP) units, in which it
is more efficient and safer than a comparable steam engine.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW:-
2.1 HISTORY OF STIRLING ENGINE:-
The Stirling engine is perhaps the simplest form of engine. The engine, then called the
economizer, was first developed and patented by Rev. Robert Stirling in Edinburgh, Scotland in
1816. Robert Stirling not only developed and built heat engines, but was also a reverend in the
Church of Scotland. His engine was later explained and further developed by Professor McQuorne
Rankine in the mid 1800's. [2] However, the engine was never developed for common use. It
followed earlier attempts at making an air engine but was probably the first to be put to practical
use when in 1818 an engine built by Stirling was employed pumping water in quarry.[11][12]

Fig 2.1:-Illustration to Robert Stirling's

1816 patent as Stirling Engine.
The patent also described in detail the employment of one form of the economizer in his unique
closed cycle air engine design in which application it is now generally known as a 'regenerator'. [1]
Subsequent development by Robert Stirling and his brother James, an engineer, resulted in patents
for various improved configurations of the original engine including pressurization which had by
1843 sufficiently increased power output to drive all the machinery at a Dundee iron foundry.
The need for Stirling engines to run at very high temperatures to maximize power and efficiency
exposed limitations in the materials of the day and the few engines that were built in those early
years suffered unacceptably frequent failures.
The Stirling engine always took a back seat to more popular engine designs such as the steam
engine and the internal combustion engine. But today as people have forecasted an eventual end to
the fossil fuel source, the Stirling engine concept has regained the interest of many developers. The
engine can run on a variety of fuel sources and has a work output far closer to the theoretical ideal
efficiency than most engines. The Stirling engines are frequently called by other names, including
hot-air or hot-gas engines, or one of a number of designations reserved for particular engine
arrangement. In the beginning of 19th century, due to the rapid development of internal combustion
engines and electrical machine, further development of Stirling engines was severely hampered. [11]
2.2 Key components:-
As a consequence of closed cycle operation, the heat driving a Stirling engine must be transmitted
from a heat source to the working fluid by heat exchangers and finally to a heat sink. A Stirling
engine system has at least one heat source, one heat sink and up to five heat exchangers. Some
types may combine or dispense with some of these.

Fig 2.2:-Cut-away diagram of a rhombic drive beta configuration Stirling engine design:

1. Pink – Hot cylinder wall

2. Dark grey – Cold cylinder wall
3. Yellow – Coolant inlet and outlet pipe
4. Dark green – Thermal insulation separating the two cylinder ends
5. Light green – Displacer piston
6. Dark blue – Power piston
7. Light blue – Linkage crank and flywheels
Not shown: Heat source and heat sinks. In this design the displacer piston is constructed without a purpose-built regenerator
Heat source:-
The heat source may be provided by the combustion of a fuel and, since the combustion products
do not mix with the working fluid and hence do not come into contact with the internal parts of the
engine, a Stirling engine can run on fuels that would damage other types of engines internals, such
as landfill gas which contains siloxane. Other suitable heat sources include concentrated solar
energy, geothermal energy, nuclear energy, waste heat and bioenergy.
Heater / hot side heat exchanger:-
In small, low power engines this may simply consist of the walls of the hot space(s) but where
larger powers are required a greater surface area is needed in order to transfer sufficient heat.
Typical implementations are internal and external fins or multiple small bore tubes. Designing
Stirling engine heat exchangers is a balance between high heat transfer with low viscous pumping
losses and low dead space.
Regenerator:-
In a Stirling engine, the regenerator is an internal heat exchanger and temporary heat store placed
between the hot and cold spaces such that the working fluid passes through it first in one direction
then the other. Its function is to retain within the system that heat which would otherwise be
exchanged with the environment at temperatures intermediate to the maximum and minimum cycle
temperatures, thus enabling the thermal efficiency of the cycle to approach the limiting
Carnot efficiency defined by those maxima and minima.
Cooler / cold side heat exchanger:-
In small, low power engines this may simply consist of the walls of the cold space(s), but where
larger powers are required a cooler using a liquid like water is needed in order to transfer sufficient
heat.
Heat sink:-
The heat sink is typically the environment at ambient temperature. In the case of medium to high
power engines, a radiator is required to transfer the heat from the engine to the ambient air. Marine
engines can use the ambient water. In the case of combined heat and power systems, the engine's
cooling water is used directly or indirectly for heating purposes.
Displacer:-
The displacer is a special-purpose piston, used in Beta and Gamma type Stirling engines, to move
the working gas back and forth between the hot and cold heat exchangers. Depending on the type of
engine design, the displacer may or may not be sealed to the cylinder, i.e. it may be a loose fit
within the cylinder, allowing the working gas to pass around it as it moves to occupy the part of the
cylinder beyond.

2.3 STIRLING ENGINE CONFIGRATION:-

Mechanical configurations of Stirling engines are classified into three important distinct types:
Alpha, Beta and Gamma arrangements.
These engines also feature a regenerator (invented by Robert Stirling). The regenerator is
constructed by a material that conducts readily heat and has a high surface area. When hot gas is
transferred to the cool cylinder, it is first driven through the Regenerator, where a portion of the
heat is deposited. When the cool gas is transferred back, this heat is reclaimed. Thus the regenerator
“pre heats” and “pre cools” the working gas, and so improve the efficiency.

2.3.1 Alpha Stirling:-

Alpha engines have two separate power pistons in separate cylinders which are connected in series
by a heater, a regenerator and a cooler. One is a “hot” piston and the other one a “cold piston”.

Fig 2.3:- Alpha Stirling

The following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers in the compression and expansion spaces,
which are needed to produce power. A regenerator would be placed in the pipe connecting the two cylinders.
The crankshaft has been omitted.
 1. Most of the working gas is in contact
with the hot cylinder walls, it has been
heated and expansion has pushed the hot
2. The gas is now at its maximum volume.
piston to the bottom of its travel in the
The hot cylinder piston begins to move
cylinder. The expansion continues in the
cold cylinder, which is 90° behind the hot most of the gas into the cold cylinder,
where it cools and the pressure drops.
piston in its cycle, extracting more work
from the hot gas.

3. Almost all the gas is now in the cold

4. The gas reaches its minimum volume,
cylinder and cooling continues. The cold
and it will now expand in the hot cylinder
piston, powered by flywheel momentum
where it will be heated once more, driving
(or other piston pairs on the same shaft)
the hot piston in its power stroke.
compresses the remaining part of the
gas.

The complete alpha type Stirling cycle

Fig 2.4:-Alpha Stirling

2.3.2 Beta Stirling:-

A beta Stirling has a single power piston arranged within the same cylinder on the same shaft as a
displacer piston. The displacer piston is a loose fit and does not extract any power from the
expanding gas but only serves to shuttle the working gas from the hot heat exchanger to the cold
heat exchanger. When the working gas is pushed to the hot end of the cylinder it expands and
pushes the power piston.

Fig 2.5: -Beta Stirling

Again, the following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers or a regenerator, which would be placed in the gas
path around the displacer.

1. Power piston (dark

2. The heated gas 3. The displacer piston 4. The cooled gas is now
grey) has compressed the
increases in pressure and now moves, shunting the compressed by the
gas, the displacer piston
pushes the power piston gas to the cold end of the flywheel momentum. This
(light grey) has moved so
to the farthest limit of the cylinder. takes less energy, since
that most of the gas is
power stroke. its pressure drops when it
adjacent to the hot heat
is cooled.
exchanger.
 The complete beta type Stirling cycle.

Fig 2.6 Beta Stirling

2.3.3 Gamma Stirling:-

A gamma Stirling is simply a beta Stirling in which the power piston is mounted in a separate
cylinder alongside the displacer piston cylinder, but is still connected to the same flywheel. The gas
in the two cylinders can flow freely between them and remains a single body. This configuration
produces a lower compression ratio but is mechanically simpler and often used in multi-cylinder
Stirling engines.

Fig 2.7: - Gamma Stirling

Gamma engines are therefore used when the advantages of having separate cylinders balance the
specific power disadvantage. The advantage of this design is that it is mechanically simpler because
of the convenience of two cylinders in which only the piston has to be sealed.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:-
3.1 WORKING OF STIRLING ENGINE:-

The Stirling engine operates by repeatedly completely a sequence of four steps. Each step in the
sequence is reversible and together they form the Stirling cycle. To help understand each of the four
steps in the Stirling cycle consider two gas filled cylindrical pistons whose chambers are connected
by a narrow tube as pictured in Figure 3.1.
The left piston is at temperature TH and the right piston is at temperature TC< TH. In the centre of
the tube that connects the two chambers is a wire mesh that will be used to temporarily store heat as
described below. For each step in the Stirling cycle the schematic diagrams of Figure 3.1 will be
mapped to curves on a pressure-volume plot of the Stirling cycle shown in Figure 3.2.
The four steps of the idealized Stirling cycle engine are:-
(12) The gas in the engine is expanded at the constant temperature TH. The left piston moves
down and the right piston is fixed. In ordered to maintain a constant temperature the gas must
absorb heat QH from the reservoir (Isothermal expansion - Figure 1a, path 12 in Figure 3.2).
P2 = P1V1 = P1rv,
V2
T1 = T2 = Tmin,
Heat transfer Q =Work done W,

Q = Wc = P1V1 ln (1/rv) = mRT1ln (1/ rv),

Change in entropy = (s2 – s1) = R ln (1/ rv).

(23) At constant volume V2, the temperature of the gas is reduced from TH to TC. The left piston
is compressed and the right piston expanded so that the total volume remains fixed. The hot gas is
forced from the left chamber to the right chamber. As the gas passes through the narrow tube it
delivers heat Q to the wire mesh. (Constant volume heat removal – Figure 1b, path 23 in Figure
3.2).
P3= P2T3 = P2 ; V3=V2.
T2 
If  = (T2 / T3) the temperature ratio, defined by Gustav Schmidt,
Heat transfer Q = CV (T3 T2),
Work done W = 0,
Change in entropy = (s3 s4) = R ln (1 /).
(34) The gas is compressed at constant temperature TC. The right piston is compressed and the
left piston is fixed. To maintain a constant temperature the gas releases heat QC to the thermal
reservoir at Tc. (Isothermal compression – Figure 1c, path 34 in Figure 3.2).
P4= P3V3 = P3 (1/rv); T3 = T4 = Tmax,
V4
Heat transfer = Work done, Q = W = P3V3 ln (rv) = mRT3 ln rv,

Change in entropy = (s3s4) = R ln rv,

(41) At constant volume V1, the temperature of the gas is increased from TC to TH. The left piston
is expanded and the right piston compressed so that the total volume remains fixed. The cold gas is
forced from the right chamber to the left chamber. As the gas passes through the narrow tube it
recovers the heat Q stored in the hot wire mesh. (Constant volume heating –Figure 1d, path 41 in
Figure 3.2).
P1 = P4T4 = P4 ; V1 = V4,
T1
Heat transfer Q = CV (T1T4) and
 Change in entropy = (s1 s4) = CV ln,

And if

rv = V4 V3 = V1/ V2
The total heat supplied = RT3ln(rv) and the total heat rejected= RT1ln(rv).
Then the efficiency can be written as

 t = mRT 3 ln(r v )  mRT 1 ln(r v ),

mRT3ln(rv)
t = 1  T1=1  Tmin= 1   .
T3 Tmax

The Stirling cycle is highly idealized thermodynamic cycle, which

Consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes and
t h e c y c l e i s t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l l y reversible.

Figure 3.1:- Dual piston Stirling engine at four different stages of the Stirling cycle.

Figure 3.3 schematically shows the operation of a practical Stirling engine at various stages of the
Stirling cycle. In any real Stirling engine the idealized Stirling cycle cannot be achieved. The four
steps are blurred together and the cycle on a PV-diagram appears elliptical. This type of engine has
one small sealed piston, called the power piston, and one larger loose fitting displacer piston. The
role of the displacer piston is simply to move, or displace, working gas in the engine back and forth
between a heated lower region and the upper cooled region. In the design pictured in Figure 3, the
lower plate is heated with a flame and the upper plate is cooled by water or the ambient
surroundings. The two pistons and linked together such that their movements are 90o out of phase.
That is, when the power piston is either at its maximum or minimum height and moving slowly, the
displacer piston is at its halfway point and moving at its maximum speed. At position 1 of Figure 3,
the displacer piston is in the upper cold region which forces the working gas to occupy the hot
region and be at temperature TH. Heat is added to the gas and it expands forcing the power piston to
move upwards (path 12 in Figure 2). At position 2 the power piston is at its maximum height (the
gas has its maximum volume V2) and is moving very slowly approximating the constant volume
path 23 in Figure 2. The displacer, on the other hand, is moving into the hot region causing the
gas to move to the cold region. In this design, the displacer itself plays the role of the wire mesh of
Figure 1 by temporarily storing energy taken from the gas as it cools from TH to TC. At position 3,
because all of the gas is in the cold region, it contracts (heat is removed from the gas) causing the
power piston to slide down (path 34 in Figure 2). At position 4, the power piston is fully
compressed (minimum volume V1) and is moving slowly. The displacer piston is moving upwards
forcing the gas into the hot region. As the cool gas passes by the displacer it recovers the heat that
was temporarily stored in the displacer (path 41 in Figure 2). At the completion of this process
the state of the Stirling engine returns to 1 and the cycle repeats indefinitely.

Figure 3.2:- PV-diagram & TS-diagram of the Stirling cycle.

Figure 3.3:-The different stages of operation for the common displacer-style of Stirling engine.

3.2 Working fluids for Stirling engine:-

Any working fluid with high specific heat capacity may be used for Stirling cycle engine. With
few exceptions the engines in 19th century used air as a working fluid. Most of them
operated close to atmospheric pressure. Air was cheap, readily available. The working fluid in a
Stirling engine should have following thermodynamic, heat transfer and gas dynamic properties.
1. High thermal conductivity
2. High specific heat capacity
3. Low viscosity
4. Low density

Capability factor = thermal conductivity

Specific heat capacity x density

T o d e t e r m i n e t h e b e s t w o r k i n g f l u i d t h e w h o l e s ys t e m p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h
d i f f e r e n t working fluids can be analyzed. B y u s i n g Reynolds’s analogy, a
relationship between heat transfer and frictional drag in a flowing stream through duct
for a system in terms of heat transfer ratio and temperature limits is derived. The
relation is

Q wf  (2Cp2)0.5

Table 3.1:-Relative heat transfer characteristics for various gases.

Sr.no. Working fluid heat transfer heat transfer
1. Air 1.0 1.0
2. Helium 1.42 0.83
3. Hydrogen 3.42 0.68
4. Water 1.92 0.39
5. Sodium-potassium 32.62 1.32
eutectic

It is required to simulate engine operation with different working fluids by the available
equations so as to select best working fluid. In Table 3.1 various fluids are compared using
at the average temperature and pressure of 800k and 5Mpa. It may be s e e n t h a t
no working fluid satisfies these two requirements except NaK eutectic.
M o s t o f t h e p h ys i c a l p r o p e r t i e s i n v o l v e d v a r y w i t h p r e s s u r e and temperature
and thus heat transfer Q wf and capability factor should be determined under prevailing
conditions. Although, NaK seems to be superior fluid for the future.

3.3 Comparison with internal combustion engines:-

In comparison with internal combustion engines, Stirling engines have the potential to use
renewable heat sources more easily, to be quieter, and to be more reliable with lower maintenance.
They are preferred for applications that value these unique advantages, particularly if the cost per
unit energy generated is more important than the capital cost per unit power.
Compared to an internal combustion engine of the same power rating, Stirling engines currently
have a higher capital cost and are usually larger and heavier. However, they are more efficient than
most internal combustion engines. Their lower maintenance requirements make the overall energy
cost comparable. The thermal efficiency is also comparable (for small engines), ranging from 15%
to 30%.For applications such as micro-CHP, a Stirling engine is often preferable to an internal
combustion engine. Stirling has also been used as a marine engine in Swedish Gotland class
submarines. However, Stirling engines are generally not price-competitive as an automobile engine,
due to high cost per unit power, low power density and high material costs.
4. ADVANTAGES:-

1. Stirling engines can run directly on any available heat source, not just one produced by
combustion, so they can run on heat from solar, geothermal, biological, nuclear sources or
waste heat from industrial processes. If heat comes from a renewable energy source they
produce no emissions.
2. They start easily and run more efficiently in cold weather, in comparison to the internal
combustion which starts quickly in warm weather, but not in cold weather.
3. They are extremely flexible. They can be used as CHP (combined heat and power) in the
winter and as coolers in summer.
4. Waste heat is easily harvested (compared to waste heat from an internal combustion engine)
making Stirling engines useful for dual-output heat and power systems.
5. They run very silent and they don’t need any air supply. That’s why they are used a lot in
submarines.

5. LIMITATIONS:-
1. The engine design is complex due to use of rhombic drive, regenerator, heater and coolers.
2. Stirling engine requires a blower to force the air through the pre-heater and combustion
chamber. This reduces the engine efficiency and increases the noise.
3. Power output of a Stirling is constant and hard to change rapidly from one level to another.
Typically, changes in output are achieved by varying the displacement of the engine or by
changing the mass of entrained working fluid (generally helium or hydrogen). This property is
less of a drawback in hybrid electric propulsion or base load utility generation where a constant
power output is actually desirable.
4. The greatest disadvantage is the high cost of the engine.

6. APPLICATION:-
Applications of the Stirling engine range from heating and cooling to underwater power systems. A
Stirling engine can function in reverse as a heat pump for heating or cooling. Other uses include:
combined heat and power, solar power generation, Stirling crycoolers, heat pump, marine engines, and
low temperature difference engines.

7. FUTURE SCOPE:-
In the military field:-
It is possible to use of Stirling engine as an auxiliary source of electricity for submarines and
surface vessels, like in the Swedish and Australian navies. An appropriate choice of fuel (for
example, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) would reduce the risk of pollution in case of an
accident.
For merchant-ships:-
 The use of the Stirling engine as the mean of main propulsion, we can imagine its use as an
auxiliary source of electricity and heating. Its vibratory level and its faint noise are great assets for
its use.
In the domestic field:-

It is used to produce electricity, heat for home and to produce domestic hot water. This allows
great prospects for the Stirling engine.

8. CONCLUSION:-
T h e S t i r l i n g c yc l e e n g i n e h a s m u l t i - f u e l c a p a b i l i t y t o o p e r a t e w i t h a n y
possible fuel source-liquid, gaseous or solid fuels with wide temperature range. This is an important
feature of the engine that it can use abundant heat source from solar radiation, waste heat from
industry, heat produced from agricultural waste and so many other low-temperature sources.
The study indicates, since from invention of the engine have made a good base line
information for designing engine system, but a more insight is essential to design systems
together for thermo-fluid-mechanical approach. It is seen that for successful operation
of such a system is careful selection of drive mechanism and engine configuration is
essential. An additional development is needed to produce a practical engine by selection
of suitable configuration; adoption of good working fluid and development of better seal may
make Stirling engine a real practical alternative for power generation. This particular
feature of the engine has keep Stirling engine in focus for design and development for better system
efficiency where there is large scope.

9. REFERENCES:-

[1]. Robert Stirling, Patent no. 4081, Stirling air engine and the heat regenerator,
1816.
[2]. M.L.Mathur and R.P. Sharma “Internal Combustion Engine” Dhanpat Rai Publication 2009,
pp:-799-821.
[3]. Dumkundwar’s, “Internal Combustion Engine”1995, pp:-21.23-21.30.
[4]. R.K.Rajput, “Internal Combustion Engine” Laxmi Publication 2011, pp:-163.
[5]. D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics 5th edition Part 2 (John Wiley &
Sons, Inc, 1997).
[6]. Stine WB. Stirling engines. In: Krait F, editor. The CRC handbook of Mechanical Engineers.
Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1998. p. 8-7–8-6.
[7]. Finkelstein T. Generalized Thermodynamic Analysis of Stirling Engines. Paper 118B, Society
of Automotive Engineers, 1960.
[8]. Z. Herzog (2006). “Stirling Engine”. Mont Alto: Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved
2009-01-19.
[9]. R. Sier (1995). Reverend Robert Stirling D.D: A Biography of the Inventor of the Heat
Economizer and Stirling Cycle Engine. L.A Mair.
[10]. www.sciencedirect.com
[11]. www.wikipedia.com
[12]. www.howstuffworks.com
[13]. www.dekarseach.com