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Volume measurements are needed for three different categories of pay items:
• Concrete -- the various classes of concrete used in bridges and other structures; and
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
The pay item unit of measurement for volume usually is the cubic yard.
Volumes of earthwork usually are computed from cross sections taken before and after construction. The volume of concrete in
structures is most often computed by formulas for the geometric shapes involved. And, when items are paid for by truck quantity, use
the manufacturer’s certification or permanent decal showing the truck’s capacity and then simply count the number of loads delivered.
CROSS SECTIONS
In Chapter Two we talked about cross section notes and how they shall be recorded in field notebooks. In this chapter we want to learn
how to use cross sections for measuring volumes of earthwork.
Figure 4-1 below, illustrates typical earthwork cross sections. The example shows all fill sections probably roadway embankment.
Sometimes the sections may be all cut, such as borrow areas or ditches. Quite often, however, both cut and fill areas are shown on the
same section.
A common method of determining volumes from cross sections is that of average end areas. It assumes that the volume between
successive cross sections is the average of their end areas multiplied by the distance between them. This is expressed in the formula:
In which V is the volume in cubic feet, A1 and A2 are the end areas in square feet of successive sections and L is the length in feet
between the sections. (The end areas will be divided by 2 to come up with the average end area).
This formula is exact when A1 equals A2 in both area and configuration, but is only approximate when the cross sections have different
areas. It is generally accepted as close enough for computing earthwork volumes. Later in this chapter we will look at a more accurate
approach called the prismoidal formula. It is used for computing volumes of concrete, a much more expensive item.
Using the examples of cross sections shown in Figure 4-1, let's see if we can compute the volume of earthwork by applying the above
formula.
The end areas shown on the sections were computed by a method described in the Volume Measurements section. We must compute
the volume between each pair of cross sections and add the individual volumes to obtain the total volume of earthwork between station
(9 + 75) and station (12 + 20). See Figure 4-2 below.
FIGURE 4-1
To make the answer come out in cubic yards, we must divide by 27. (Remember that the end areas were divided by 2 originally). So the
formula will now read: (Below are two equations of how to achieve this).
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Volume measurements are needed for which three different categories of pay items?
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
How many Cubic Feet are in 350 Gallons? Note: 1 CF = 7.48 Gallons. Round your answer to the tenth of a cubic foot.
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Based on the areas determined for the Stations shown below, what is the total volume of earthwork between Station 71+25 and
72+75? (solve to the nearest CY)
Total _______
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
The table shows the end areas determined for the indicated cross
sections. Compute the total volume of earthwork between stations
408+00 and 410+10. (Answer to the nearest Cubic Yard)
Total =
CURVATURE CORRECTION
When volumes are computed along a curved base survey line, some error will be introduced unless the center of gravity of the cross
sectional area lies approximately along the base line. This situation is illustrated in the example below:
G = Center of Gravity
VOLUME FORMULAS
Cross sections do not work well for computing the volumes of some pay items such as reinforced concrete and excavation. For these
items it is much better to measure the dimensions of the construction and use conventional formulas to compute geometric shapes.
The Construction Mathematics training course provides a good background in the use of formulas for calculating volumes.
Let's take a quick look at some of the formulas we will be using. The simplest geometric shape of course, is the rectangular solid with
opposite sides parallel.
In both cases, V =LWH (volume equals length times width times height)
When you studied areas you learned that a triangle is really half of a rectangle or parallelogram. The same concept applies to volumes.
Example: Calculate the volume of the triangle seen below to the nearest cubic foot.
Now how about trapezoidal solids?
Do these formulas look familiar? When you stop to think about it, we are really computing an end area and then multiplying by a third
dimension to find the volume.
Example: Calculate the volume of the trapezoid seen below to the nearest cubic foot.
First we must make sure all measurements have the
same components (inches need to be converted to feet).
Why do we divide by 3 instead of 2 in the cone formula? The tip of the cone obviously has a zero area, and if we average the end areas
the formula should be:
V=AxH
2
But this is wrong. Remember, when we talked about cross sections we said that the average-end-area method was close enough for
earthwork volumes but not accurate enough for items like concrete. So we need to use the cone formula or "prismoidal formula." The
prismoidal formula is:
Where:
A1 and A2 are the two end areas and Am (m = mean) is the area at a point halfway between the two ends.
V = πR2 H
3
Note: the answer is to the nearest cubic foot
H = 30 in We will first convert the inches to feet.
30 ÷ 12 = 2.5 Ft.
10 ÷ 12 = 0.83 Ft.
Example 2
How about an example with a cylinder?
V = πR2 X H
H= 8'
R = (D ÷ 2) = 3 ÷ 2 = 1.5'
V = 3.1416 X (1.5)2 X 8
Prismoidal shape: A solid with parallel end areas and sloping sides, but whose mid-area (mean area) is not necessarily
the average of the two end areas.
How and when we apply the prismoidal formula to our work is straightforward.
Since we usually calculate from vertical plane to vertical plane (i.e., cross sectional areas) the "end areas" in the above definition are
self-explanatory. All that is left then is to visualize the sides, and how they slope in relationship to one another.
It is when the side planes taper in or out in relationship to one another that the average-end-area method is not accurate enough for the
more critical pay items.
Take the figure below. Both end areas are zero, and yet the figure does have volume. By using the prismoidal formula, the figure's
volume can be computed accurately:
You will see many applications of prismoidal formulas in your work, especially in retaining wall, truck body and concrete structure
calculations.
As you saw earlier, the average-end-area method does not apply accurately to computing the volumes of cones. So then, how are the
cone formula and the prismoidal formula related? This is explained next.
The prismoidal formula comes up with the correct answer for the volume of cones -- and it should always be used for concrete volume
computations when the average of the end areas is not the same as the mean area.
Note: In this course, please use the cone formula volume for the cone examples;
2
V = πR xH
3
And for the odd shape forms that have an average mean use the prismoidal formula:
Let’s solve an example of an odd shaped concrete block with an average area:
See example below:
Calculate the volume for the above odd shape of concrete using the prismoidal formula. Make the answer to the nearest cubic yard.
V = (A1 + A2 + 4 Am) H
6
A1 = 0, A2 = 0
The middle area = 4 (area of the square), and 4' 9" = 4.75'; the Height (H) = 21' 3" = 21.25'
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Use the volume formulas we’ve been discussing to compute the volumes of the
shape to the nearest cubic Yard.
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Use the volume formula we’ve been discussing to compute the volumes of the
shape to the nearest tenth of a cubic yard.
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Use the volume formulas we’ve been discussing to compute the volumes of the shape to the
nearest cubic yard.
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
The prismodal formula is
True
False
SUBSOIL EXCAVATION
Where muck, rock, clay or other material within the limits of the roadway is unsuitable it must be excavated. The area must then be
backfilled with suitable material.
The volume of subsoil excavation is measured and computed with cross sections. But you must be aware of a few points that make
these measurements different from those for regular excavation.
On the basis of preliminary soil investigations, the plans normally show the limits of proposed subsoil excavation. Measurement and
payment are limited to these lines unless otherwise authorized by the engineer.
The authorized limits, as staked in the field, must be recorded in the earthwork notes for each pocket of muck excavation. If during the
excavation the muck is found to be deeper than plan depth, the notes shall be corrected by striking through the original limits and
writing the new authorized limits. The corrected notes shall also be dated and initialed. Figure 4-3*
and Figure 4-4* shows an example of these field book entries.
• To see Figure 4-3 and 4-4, please click on their links respectively.
Using these notes, the volume is computed in the same manner as for regular excavation except for the following special
considerations:
Figure 4-5 and Figure 4-6 (below) illustrate these special situations. Separate computations and payment must be made for volume on
each of the three layers of subsoil excavation:
The end areas of each layer can be computed by the latitude and departure method, using survey cross sections. The volume of each
layer is then computed by the average-end-area method the same as for any other earthwork computation.
Figure 4-5
CASE I:
In every case, the point of reference for determining extra depth subsoil excavation should be the lowest elevation that muck is shown
on the plan cross section and this elevation projected horizontally across the entire cross section in making this determination. Each
cross section shall be considered separately.
Figure 4-6
CASE II:
When subsoil excavation is encountered, where none was shown on the plans, in separate areas, or as an extension to areas that were
shown the point of reference shall be the lowest elevation on the original ground line or the lowest elevation of the plan excavation
whichever is lower.
4 VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Determine the volume of the figure below to the nearest cubic foot.