REPORT 113

'-.­

'­

Control of groundwater for temporary works

S. H. SOMERVILLE CEng FICE FGS

Price £35 (£10 to CIRIA members after free allocation)

ISBN: 0 86017 261 9 ISSN:0305-40BX

©CIRIA 1986

c.,

CIRIA

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ASSOCIATION

6 STOAEY·S GATE. LONDON $Wl P 3AU Telephone 01·22Z 8891
Tele~ 2~224, ~on aer. G (pre!" 20631
 Contents How to use this report
'-­
The: repor! i~ divrdcd into six Parts. Pan 1 pro\'ide~ flJid;JllCr
Page on the ...clccuon of an appropriate dewatering svstcm. Part 2
l.is! of Tallies 4 deals wilh the various gr oundwatc r lowc rinp proccs-cv. Pans
.~
~ and 4 provide gener,,1 information. and the Appendices in
PART 1 Identifying the problem Part 5 gives specific information 011 design aspects. The li~1 of
references and :I comprehensive index make up PUI 6.
1. lntroouction 6
2. Sources of surface and groundwater 6 Safety Regulations
3. Problems of unstable ground due to groundwater
The reader is directed to the various !>arety regulations SCI au!
ti~ 6
-- In Appendices 12 and 13.
4. Methods available lor comrotllnq groundwaler
inflow 7
5. Information required for selection of a dewatering
system 12
r 6 Id"l1lilying the ground 13
4 1, Final design checks 50
7. Temporary safe slopes 14
42. Final planning checks 50
8. Permeability 15
/' 43, Daily checks during construction 50
9, Relative costs of temporary and permanent
metnccs 01 groundwflter exclusion 17 PART 4 Data sheets
10. Radius 01 influence 18 '·Ieader pipes: capacities and lriction losses
11. Eslimale of settlement due 10 drawdown 19 2 Fnclion losses In valves and Iiltings 52
12. Effects of drawdown on local water supplies 19 3 Friction losses in srnooth-bc'e rubber hose 53
13. Eslifnaling the quantity 01 water 10 be pumped lor 4 Maximum yield 01 wellpoinls 54
the required drawdown 20
5 Maximum yield 01 wells 54
14. Discharge 01 groundwaler trom site 24
6 Typical eductor performance 55
PART 2 Surface and groundwater control PART 5 Appendices
methods
.. 15. Surface drainage 26
Appendix 1 Assessment 01 permeability Irom lull
scale pumping tests 58
16 Gravity drainage 26 AppendiX 2 Assessment of pefmeabilHy from simple
17. Sump pumping 26 pumping tests in boreholes 60
" 1B. Pumping from wells or wellpoints outside an Appendix 3 Assessmenl of permeabilily from inflow
excavation 30 tests in boreholes 64
- 19. Excavated wells or sumps with independenl pumps 30 Appendix 4 Assessment of p- rneabiluy trom soak­
away tests 65
( 20. Vertical wellpoint systems
21. Vacuum well pointing
30
38
Appendix 5 Assessment 01 permeability Irom packer
tests in rock strata 66
22. Horizontal wetlpotnts 38 AppendiX 6 Inslanalion ot pielometers and measure­

I ,
23. Deep well systems
24 Shallow well systems
39
40 Appendix 7
men! of water levels
DeSign ollillers
69
70

1, 25 Well developmenl
26 Eductor system
40
41
Apcendrx 8
AppendiX 9
Measurement of discharge
Calculation or
(IWSH)
n(·~ positive suction head
71

74
27. Artilicial recharge 42
Aopendix 10 Oesiqn example of prugressive wel1polnl

1 28. Sand drains

29. Bleeder wells
30. Horizontal drains
44
45
evstern
AI'nend" 11 Design example 01 mullip ewell 'T;lem
75
77
45 AppendiX 12 Salely-sele,. led legal ,equi,elll"Is ~9

1- 31. Electro-osmosis
32. Collector wells
45
46
Appendix 13 Suppression 01 noise regula lions
Appendix 14 Preliminary checklist for a dewalering
80

scheme 81

1 PART 3 General information

38. Delerminalion at friction losses in
systems
dewalering
48
PART 6
Rele'ences 84

1 -
39, Types ot pumps used lor dewalering
40. Salely aspects 01 groundwaler lowering
48
49
Bibliography
Index
65
86

1,
CIRIA Report 113
3
- List of Tables
Page

Table 1. Methods 01 groundwater control 8

Table 2. Depth and widlh restrictions lor excavauons 11

Table 3. Flow capacities 01 temporary methods of groundwater lowering and 12

exclusion
Table 4. Flow restrictions on permanent methods 01 groundwater exclusion 12

---- Table 5. Identification 01 ground types 13

Table 6. Temporary slopes in different types of ground 14

- Table 7. Permeability ranges of 50,15

Table 8. Approximate costs 01 methods lor the lemporary exclusion 01 groundwater

15

by groundwater lowering 17

- Table 9. Approximate costs 01 permanent methods of excluding groundwater

Table 10. Approximate costs 01 geotechnicat processes for excluding groundwater
17

17

Table 11. Radius 01 influence lor given drawdown in various soils 18

Table 12. Theoretical maximum capacity of sand drains 44

Table 13. Typical capacities of submersible pumps 48

.. r"ble 14. Typical capacities of non-vecuo.n-assisteo pumps

Table 15. Typical capacities of vacuurn-assisted pumps
48

48

Table 16. Typical capacities of rotary displacement pumps 49

.~

.~

.~

.0

-
r

- 4

 Foreword
The prpjn'! 1L':lding 1(1 llli:'i Report W;l~ (illTicd (lUI under contract [0 CIRIA by WIlIlI'\.·Y
l.itblll'atnrll·~ ltd where ;\Ir S II Somcrvrl!c was a convulrnm.
This Report Wil~ prepared wuh IhL' IIL'II' and guntnncc (If the Project Skning ('fllUp. In
addition ['I Mr Soltll'rvilk Ihl' Gwuj' l'UlHiHi~l'J:

• o. S. Luec USl:Tl'ch CEI1g. \IIC[ (Clwimllllll Nortu Wl'~1 Water Alilhorily

r M. C",lIman [IS, DIC C[n~ \11("[ F\lfmt.'rly \Vimp\:y Lnbonuoncs Ltd
t. (on nor ~'Sc l.ning Design ...\: Development Centre
J. Fox. B B Kirk (Construcuonsj lid
R, F. Jennion T Kilroe ~v.. Sons Ltd
E. B. l'>lack"y DIC CEng MICE T':Hm.:Jc Construction Ltd
A. D. Robinshuw BSl'Tech (Eng MICE FGS Foundation Engineering Ltd
A. R. McAvoy BSc CEng MICE was CIRIA's Research Manager for the project.
Particular acknowledgement is due' 10 Mr Cashman for assistance and advice.

Thi, project HaS tillaricii.ll1.~ sUl'pll!l.:d by CIRIA. Department of [he En"'I'-ll101~lH and the

North west water Authority.

This is a guide to the selection and design of methods for the

control of groundwater during construction works. r~ is
intended for the use of designers. esumators and planning
engineers (or both tcrtlporury and pcrmaucm work", and for
the use of field enzlneers durilllZ the construction >;,t'J!2C'S. The
guide covers the v-arious mctho-ds of dewatering control
available. identification of the around. methods of t1s<;l.'s"ing
permeability. devign of well sy~tem" and approximmc l'O~l.­
etc, and draws nucnuon :0 the venous legal t1'peLts and
statutory regulations ill force. Saietv :ISP('C[S and particular
dangers nrc highlighted.

CIRIA Rf!pcl1 113

l. _ •
CIRIA IlI'1'Ol\r 113 Control of grotndwatcJ:" fOJ:" tarpornry ~ri<s

..
I. ~
Cor~,ctlons

Page no. Location Correction (shown in bold)

6 Figure 1 Surface water, ie run-ot't' to be shown

• 8 Table 1
13/14 Refrigeration

Soils sui table

... rock, particularly mixed strata

" for treatment

problell1s.

Disadvantages Ground may heave.

'. last sentence(s)

10 Figure 6 Freezing limit'; not restri cted to a J:"AI1,ge

" of par-tf.cl.e sizes (see Ta1.>le 1).

11 Table 2
13 & 14 Freezing
"
Depth limits: Liquid ni trogen advantageous fOJ:" mall
I..'1St sentance; and emergency projects.

\oIidth limi ts: I • • • • • • • usually fOJ:" narI'CM deep

Last sentence; excavations. '
"
Other limits: Time of installation and freezing; with
~.
Last sentence; liquid ni troge:n is quicker.
" 12 Table 3 Onl.y unsuitable -.here groundwater flows
13, 14 Freezing are high.
~
Flow capacity
"
17 Table 8 Installation only: approxlnatcly £20 to
Deep bored wells £25 per linear metre •••••
"
17 Table 10 Extremely expensive for shillOW'
Freezing excavations, when usually regarded as a
last resort: eecoontc at depth.
"
39 Section 23 • . • • •• of the purnps used. I f a generator
4 th sen tence is used, noise must be taken .••••
,
rJ3 J ":>' 'on I p.st .. .a Wil.tCl" -ccep tnnce of Pile Lt t.rc pc (.
L
L~8 t f;' -ni.ence mrtre per ITIII arte , . . • . ·--i

'- ARM
1.5.87

"
,­
•
 • • • • . , • • •
r- _I r-- -­
r
Summary "
I Summary
I
SOMERVILLE, S. H. I
I SOMERVILLE, S. H.

Control of groundwater for temporary works

r
I Control of groundwater for temporary works
I
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 113, I Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 113.
1986
I 1986

I
I
A guide to the selection and design of methods for the control of ground­
I
I A guide to the selection and design 'of methods for the control of ground­
water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers, I water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers.
estimators and planning engineers for Doth temporary and permanent I estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent
works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages. I works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages.
The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available. ! The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available.
identification of the ground, methods of assessing permeability, design of I identification of the ground. methods of assessing permeability, design of
well systems and approximate cos's. etc, and draws attention to the I well systems and approximate costs. etc. and draws attention to the
various legal aspects and statu tory regulations in force. Safety aspects and I various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and
particular dangers are highlighted. I particular dangers are highiighred,
I
I
I
----------------------------------------~----------------------------------------
I
I
I
Summary I Summary
I
I
SOMERVILLE, S. H.
I SOMERVILLE. S. H.

I
Control of groundwater for temporary works I Control of groundwater for temporary works
I
Construction Industry Resrarch and Information Association Report 113. I Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 113.
I
1986
1986

I
I
I
A guide to the selection and design of methods for the control of grounu
water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers.
estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent
works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages.
The guide Covers [he va nouv methods of dewatering control available.
identification of [he ground. methods of assessing permeability, design of
well systems and approximate costs. etc. and draws attention to Hie
various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and
particular dangers are hignlighted.
I A guide to the selectjon and design of methods for the control of ground­
I water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers.
I estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent
I works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages.
I The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control av-ailable .
\ identification of the ground. methods of assessing pe rmeabiliry. design of
I
well systems and approximate costs. etc. and draws attention to the
I
I various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and
I particular dangers are highlighted.
I
I
I
I
 PART 1 Identifying the problem

t lntroducuon 6

2. sources of surface and groundwater 6

3 Problems of unstabte ground due to groundwaler Ilow 6

4. Melhods available lor conirolling groundwater in(low 7

5 mlorrnatlon required lor selection of a dewalering syslem 12

6. Identifying Ihe ground 13

7. Temporary sale slopes 14

8. Permeability 15

9. Relative costs of temporary and permanent methods of groundwater exclusion 17

10. Radius or in/luance 18

11. Eslimale 01 selllcmeni due to drawdown 19

12. Ellecls 01 drawdown on local water supplies 19

13. Estimating the quantity of water to be pumped lor the required drawdown 20

, 4. Discharge of groundwater from site 24

CIAIA Report "3 5

.,i PART 1 Identifying the
i.; problem
1. Introduction
The presence or absence of groundwater on site will have
consideruhle effect on the design of a structure. on the
work of construction, and so on the overall cost. Where
groundwater is present specific measures will have to be
token to ensure the stability of excavation and the works
during construction.
This report describes the various ways of controlling
groundwater. and gives guidance on selection and design
of methods appropriate to particular ground' conditions.
Some more specialised methods. and methods which form
part of the permanent works are no! covered in cit-tail.
2. Sources of surface and groundwater
Groundwater results from precipitation-rain. sleet. snow.
etc.i--and it moves gradually to rivers. lakes nnd seas from
whence it evaporates eventually to form clouds and reo
precipitate. Thus it is part of a body of water moving in a
conunous cycle-s-the hydrologic cycle (Figure 1). Vari­
ations in soil anti rock conditions, their elevations. gradi­
• ents and permeabilities. and in surface vegetation. cause
local changes in the rate of water flow both on and below
the surface and consequently affect the amount of water
likely to ftow into an open excavation.
•
3. Problems of unstable ground due to
groundwater flow
Instability of an excavation can result from:
Surface water now (Figure 2)
Groundwater now (Figure J)
Base uplift (Figure 4)
A common measure adopted !O counteract instability is to
install a pumped dewatering system to lower the water
pressure and so create SLIfe conditions for excavation. Gen­
erally the water abstraction points ore positioned outside
an excavation to lower the water table (Figure J) to below
Iormation level prior to excavation but if the system is to
reduce pressure (Figure 4) the water abstraction points may
be sited either within or outside the area to be excavated.
Where excavations are to be made in low perrneability soils
such as clayey and silty fine sands and sandy silts, pumping
from a correctly designed and installed system may lower
the hydraulic pressure head in the ground. increase the
effective stress in the soil and thereby increase the in-situ
strength of the soil. This might be undertaken to minimise
the extent of. say, sheet piling around an excavation.

Precipitation

r
Groundwater
l

Subsurface

flow 10 sea

Figure 1 The hydrologic cycle

6 CIRIA Report 113

 efflciel1cy and progress of the works with associated cost
hcucfus by:
tl
i·• __
Lowering the water table and allowing excavation in the
dry

,. , °i
Increasing the stability of the side slope!'! 10 the cxca­
vation, thus allowing increased slope angles and a
reduction in the amount or excavation
Reducing the hydrostatic pressure on sheeting or
Figure 2 Instability due 10 surface water flow diaphragm walls and possibly allowing lighter sections
• to be used
Preventing base uplift or rupture of the bottom of the
excavation
1'1'1" l,ble
• , ...:
Firming up the soil in the excavation and thereby
improving working conditions
------
----
----
----
- Avoiding the possible loss of fines and consequent settle­
ment of nearby structures associated with pumping
I­ Assisting drainage for ground stabilisation processes.

,.- Figure 3 Instability due to groundwater flow 4. Methods available lor controlling

groundwater Inflow

.. Soil " "

A number of methods are available for controlling the
inflow of water into an excavation; the choice of method
, will depend on:

.. :::::-C'.f.I!1-:::-=-:-- ;_-------l. Pressure he,d:-':::

=-=-=-:-:=-.
The nature and permeability of the ground

The extent of the area to be dewatercd

._------- in SClnd The depth of the water table below ground level and

-S,nd
.. ~------------------------
=
-=-:=-=--'~-:::.-:::.---:::::::-::::- -=-:...-:...=-:-:::.- ­
:'--:::'-C9-Y::.-:-:
----------------------
the amount by which it has to be lowered

The type of plant which is readily available

Figure 4' Instability due to base uplift The proposed methods of excavation and ground

.. support

The integration of the dewatering process into the con­

struction sequence

..
. - The effective stress is the difference between the applied

(total) stress in the ground and the induced pressure in the

The proximity of existing structures
The proximity of water courses (e.g. river or sea)

pores of the soil. Soil has a skeletal structure of solid
i . material with an interconnecting system of pores which are
• either whollyor partly filled with water: As a soil is loaded.
the (total) stress is carried by both the soil skeleton and
1 the pore water. The pore pressure acts with equal intensity
. in all directions and the stresses carried by the soil skeleton
alone is thus the difference between the total applied stress
(0) and the pressure set up in the pores (u). This is termed
The proximity of water abstraction schemes (e.g. wells).
In some instances. a single method of groundwatercontrol
will not suffice and it may be necessary to combine two or
more methods. This problem may arise where there is a
succession of several soils and/or rock types within the
excavation depth. or Where it may be necessary to use
Some form of groundwater lowering technique in order to
reduce the hydrostatic pressure on the back of an exclusion

. the effective stress (o ') and is written (u- u). Also. as

water has no strength, the soil skeleton deforms while the
pore water is displaced. This action continues until the
membrane.

The available methods of groundwater control shown in

resistance of the soil structure is in equilibrium with the
external forces. the rate of dissipation of the pore water
being dependent on the permeability of Ihe soil mass and
the physical drainage conditions. The shear strength (r,)
of the soil is dependent on thi" effective stress and at failure
is equal to:
Tf = c' + a' Ian '1/
where c' is eqU"'IO the apparent cohesion of the soil and
... 1>' is equal 10 its angle of shearing resistance.
. Thus as the groundwater pressure is reduced the effective
pressure i~ increased with a corresponding increase in the .
J strength of the soil. This in turn increases {i.e. improves)
the stability of the ground.
A correctly designed dewatering system can increase the
Table 1 fall into four basic groups:
1. Those that stop surface water fro 111 entcting the cxcu­
vation, c.g. CUi-off ditches. low height walls and
ernbankrncuts
2. Those that allow water to now into the excavation and
subsequently require it to be pumped out from sumps
and ditches
3. Those where the soil is predrained by lowering the
groundwater level ahead of the excavation, e.g. by the
use of wellpoints
4. Those that stop the groundwater from entering the
excavation by some form of cut-off wall. e.g. sheet
piling.
The dewatering of cofferdams is not dealt with in this
report.
 List of Tables
Page
Table 1. Melhods 01 groundwater control 8
Table 2. Depth and width restrlcuons for excavations '1
. '- Tabla 3. Flow capaclues of temporary methods 01 groundwater lowenng and '2
exclusion
Table 4. Flow restrictions on permanent methods of groundwater exclusion
12
~- Table 5. Identificalion 01 ground types
13
Table 6. Temporary slopes in dilferentlypes 01 ground '4
Table 7. Permeabilily ranges 01 soils '5
Table B. Approximate costs of methods lor the temporary exclusion of groundwater
by groundwater lowering '7
Table 9. Approximate costs 01 permanent methods of excluding groundwater 17
Table 10, Approximate costs of geotechnical processes for excluding groundwaler '7
Table 11. Radius of inlluence for given drawdown in various soils 18
~- Table 12, Theoretical maximum capacity 01 sand drains
44
Table 13, Typical capacities of submersible pumps
48
Table 14. Typical capacities of non-vacuum-assisted pumps
48
Table 15. Typical capacities of vacuurn-assisteo pumps
48
Table 16. Typical capacities of rotary displacement pumps
49

4 CIAIA Report 111

 Foreword
The project ll'ilr..Iing to Ihis R~P\lr1 W;I" carried nul under cuutruct 10 erRI" hy Wimpcv
l.ahm;ltoriL"S Ltd where Mr S II Sumcrvrllc Wil;-. a consulrnnt.
This Rl!pllrl wua prepared with the Ih:lr ami gutduncc of the Project Steering Group. In
addition III Mr Somerville the Group curuprocd:
D. S. Lmgc BS..:TL'l.'h CEn!! ~II(E tC/raimw!/) North West water Authority
P. M, Cushman OSc· ole CEl1~ ~ffCE Formerly Wimp c y Laboratories Ltd
I. Connor MS..: Laing Design & D c vclopmcnt Centre
- J. Fox B B Kirk (Constructions] Ltd
R. F. Jennion T Kilroe & Sons ltd
E. B. Mackay OIC CEng MICE Tarmac Construction ltd
A. D. Robinshaw B5cTech CEng MICE FGS Foundation Engineering Ltd
A. R. McAvoy BSc CEng MICE was CIRIA's Research Manager for the project.
Particular acknowledgement is due to Mr Cashman for assistance and advice.

This project '~:IS nllarician~ supported by CIRIA, Department of the Environment and the

NOllh West Water Authority.

~lImm,!IY

This is a guide to the selection and desizn of methods for the

control of groundwater during construction works. It is
intended for the use of designers. estimators and pl"nning
engineers for both temporary and permanent works. ant! for
the use of field enzineers durinz the construction staacs. The
guide covers the various methods of dewatering: COI~troJ
available, identifrcation of the ground. methods of assessing
permeability, design of well systems and approximate cost.
etc, and draws attention to the various legal aspects and
statutory regulauons in force. Safety aspects and particular
dangers are highlighted.

2 CrAIA aeocrt 1 ! 3
CIJUA HEI'OIlT 113 Control of grcu1dwatcr for tcn{>orary Io<Jrks

Corn 'ctions

Page no. Location Correction (shown in bold)

6 Figure 1 Surface water, 113 ron-orr to be shown

8 Table 1
13/14 Refrigeration
Soils sui table ••. rock, particularly mixed strata

for treatment probl.ons •

Ground may heave.

Freezing limits rot; restr:i.cted to a range

of parl-tcle sizes (see TaLle 1).

Liquid ni trogen advantagecm; for snail

and emergency projects.

, •.••.•. usually fo r narrow deep

.
excavations. '

T1Ire of :I.nstallation and freezing; with

liquid nitrogen is quicker.
..
CAlly unsuitable where groundwater flows
are high.

Installation only: approxlrnately £20 to

£25 per linear metre •••••

Extremely expensive for sh.illow

excavat;ions, when usually regarded as a
last resort: ecooontc at depth•

• .•••• of the pumps used, If a generator

is used, noise ITnlS t be taken •••••

••. a w<1.tcr »ccep tsnce of one litre [Y('

metre per rntnute. . • • • ._-'-, ,.
I r I
I­
I
r - !

SUIIIII,ary I Summary
I
SOMERVILLE. S. H. I
I SOMERVILLE. S. H.

~
Control of groundwater for temporary works I Control of groundwater for temporary works
I
Construction Industry Research and Information Association Report 113. I Construction Industry Research and Information Associarion Report 113.
1986
I 1986

I
I
A guide to the selection and design of methods for the control of ground­
I
I A guide to the selection and design-of methods for the control of ground­
water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers, I water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers.
estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent I estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent
works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages. I works, and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages.
The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available. ! The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available.
identification of the ground, methods of assessing permeability. design of I identification of the ground. methods of assessing permeability, design of
well systems and approximate costs, etc, and draws attention to the I well systems and approximate costs, etc, and draws attention to the
various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and I various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and
particular dangers are highlighted. I particular dangers are highaghted.
I
I
I
--------- J
_
I
I
I
Summary I Summary
I
I
SOMERVILLE. S. II.
I SOMERVILLE. S. H.

I
Control of groundwater for temporary works I Control of groundwater for temporary works
I
Construction industry Research and Information Associar;oll Report 113, I Construction industry Research and information Anocialion Report 113.
1986
I
1986

I
I
I
A guide to the selection and design of methods for the control of ground. I A guide to the selection and design of methods for the control of ground.
Water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers. I water during construction works. It is intended for the use of designers.
estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent I estimators and planning engineers for both temporary and permanent
works, and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages. I works. and for the use of field engineers during the construction stages.
The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available. I The guide covers the various methods of dewatering control available.
I
identification of the greene. methods of assessing permeability, design of identification of the ground. methods of assessing permeability. design of
I
well systems and approximate costs, etc. and draws attention 10 tile I well systems and approximate COSts, etc. and draws attention to rhe
various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and I various legal aspects and statutory regulations in force. Safety aspects and
particular dangers are hignlighted. I particular dangers are highlighted.
I
I
I
I
 PART 1 Identifying the problem

1. Introduction 6

2. Sources of surlace and grOundwater 6

3. Problems of unstable ground due 10 groundwater flow 6

4. Methods available lor conlrolling groundwater inflow 7

5. Information required for seleclion of a dewalering syslem 12

6. Jdenlilying the ground 13

7. Temporary sale slopes 14

8. Permeability 15

g. Relative costs of temporary and permanent methods of groundwater exclusion 17

10. Radius of influence 18

11. Eslimate of selilemeni due 10 drawdown 19

12 ENecls 01 drawdown on local water supplies 19

13 Eslimating the quantity of water to be pumped lor the required crawdown 20

14. Discharge of groundwater from site 24

CI.RJA Report 113 5

 PART 1 Identifying the

problem

3. Problems of unstable ground due to

1. Introduction
The presence or absence of groundwarcr or, ~jtc will have
consldcrahle effect on the design of a structure. on the
work of construction, and '0 on the overall cost. Where
groundwater is present specific measures will have to be
taken to ensure the stability of excavation and the works
during construction.
-~ This report describes the various ways of controlling
groundwater. and gives guidance on selection and design
of methods appropriate to particular ground' conditions.
Some more specialised methods, and methods which form
part of the permanent works are not co- ered in detail.
2. Sources of surface and groundwater
Groundwater results from precipitation-rain. sleet. snow.
t'lc.-and it moves gradually to rivers, lakes and seas from
- \\ hence it evaporntes eventually to form clouds and re­
precipitate. Thus it is part of a body of water moving in a
_continous cycle-the hydrologic cycle (Figure 1). Vari­
ations in soil and rock conditions. their elevations. gradi­
~ ents and permeabilities. and in surface vegetation. cause
10c~1 changes in the rate of water flow both on and below
i - the surface and consequently affect the amount of water
groundwater flow
Instability of an excavation can result from:
Surface water flow (Figure 2)
Groundwater flow (Figure 3)
Base uplift (Figure 4)
A common measure adopted 10 counteract instability is to
install a pumped dewatering system to lower the water
pressure andso create safe conditions for excavation, Gen­
erally the water abstraction points are positioned outside
an excavation 10 lower the water table (Figure 3) to below
(ormation level prior to excavation but if the system is to
reduce pressu re (Figure 4) the 1'0 ter abstraction pain Is may
be sited either within or outside the area to be excavated.
Where excavations are to be made in low permeability soils
such as clayey and silty fine sands and sandy silts. pumping
from a correctly designed and installed system may lower
the hydraulic pressure head in the ground, increase the
effective stress in the soil and thereby increase the in-situ
strength of the soil. This might be undertaken to minimise
the extent of. say. sheet piling around an excavation,

~ likely 10 ftow into an open excavation.

Groundwater
level

Subsurface
flow to sea
~ 'Igure 1 The hydrologic cycle mass

6 CIAIA aeoo« 113


_ _ _...... 'L _-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-...:
--------------------
-- - -- --- -----------------------------_-:....-.
~~~~~~~-::-~--------------
Figure 2 Instability due to surface waler flow
Waler table
....:
------------
------------
:-=-:-=-=-:-=-=-----_-:-------=-----~----=-------:----=
C _ Figure 3 Instability due /0 groundwater flow
Walerlabl.
Pressure head:---=
in sand =-=-=-:-_-_
Figure 4 Instability due /0 base uplift
,
~The effective stress is the difference between the applied
(total) Stress in the ground and the induced pressure in the
pores of the soil. Soil has a skeletal structure of solid
material with an inlerconnecting system of pores which are
either wholly or pari I)' filled with water. As a soil is loaded.
the (total) stress is carried by both the soil skeleton and
the pore water. The pore pressure acts with equal intensity
- in all directions and the stresses carried by the soil skeleton
alone is thus the difference between the 100ai applied stress
(0) and the pressure set up in the pores (u). This is termed
the effective stress (a') and is written (a - u). Also. as
"water has no strength. the soil skeleton deforms while the
pore water is displaced. This action continues until the
, resistance of the soil structure is in equilibrium with the
_.external forces. the rate of dissipation of the pore water
being dependent on the permeability of the soil mass and
the physical drninage conditions. The shear strength (r,)
of thc soil is dependent on the effective stress nlld at Iailure
~is equal to:
t f = C' + 0' tan tp'
c •• where c' is equal to the apparent cohesion of the soil and
<Ii is equal to its angle of Shearing resistance.
rhus as the groundwater pressure is reduced the effective
.,.pressure i~ increased with a corresponding increase in the
strength of the soil. This in turn increases (i.e: improves)
rhe stability of the ground,
,-_A correctly designed dewatering. system can increase the
efficiency and rrogres~ of the works with usvociatcd cost
bcucfits hy:
Lowering the water tahle and Ill/owing, excavation in the
dry
Increasing the stability of the side slopes to the c xcn­
vation, thus allowing increased slope angles and a
reduction in the amount of excavation
Reducing the hydrostatic pressure on sheeting or
diaphragm walls and possibly allowing lighter sections
to be used
Preventing base uplift or rupture of the bottom of the
excavation
Firming up the soil in the excavation and thereby
improving working conditions
Avoiding the possible Jossof fines and consequent settle­
ment of nearby structures associated with pumping
Assisting drainage for ground stabilisation processes
4. Methods available for controlling
groundwater Inflow
A number of methods are available for controlling the
inflow of water into an excavation: the choice of method
will depend on:
The nature and permeability of the ground
The extent of the area to be dewatered
The depth of Ihe water table below ground level and
the amount by' which it has 10 be lowered
The type of plant which is readily available
The proposed methods of excavation and ground
support
The integration of the dewatering process into the con­
struction sequence
The proximity of existing structures
The proximity of water courses (e.g. river or sea)
The proximity of water abstraction scheme' (e.g. wells)
In some instances. a single method of groundwater control
will not suffice and it may be necessary to combine two or
more methods. This problem may arise where there is a
succession of several soils and/or rock type' within the
excavation depth. or where it may be necessary to use
some form of groundwater lowering technique in order 10
reduce the hydrostatic pressure on the back of an exclusion
membrane.
The available methods of groundwater control shown in
Table 1 fall into four basic groups:
1. Those rha: stop surface water from entering the exca­
vation, c.g. cut-off ditches. low height walls nnd
ernbanlmcuts
2. Those that allow water to flow into (he excavation and
subsequently require it to be pumped out from sumps
and ditches
3. Those where the soil is predrained by lowering the
groundwater level ahead of the excavation. e.g by the
use of wellpoints
4, Those that stop the groundwater from entering the
excavation by some form of CUI-off wall. e.g. sheet
piling.
The dcwarcring uf cofferdams is not dealt with in this
report.
 I

.4",~'
T.bIG 1. Mothods 01 groundwalar control

-', Mtlhlld Sun, , u hable for DLsn d\anlil~('~

I' treatment
• (;rnllp I: SltrrllC'C water control
I. Dil('hn All ,ojl~ if used in Oren excavations Simple methods of diverting M,IV he art obstruction III
2. Trainill~
walls conjunction with surface water construction ttulfic
J. Emhuukments potythenc sheeting

Group 1: Tempornr y grnundwater ('nnlrol

--, InrrflUlI ptmlpillg
4, Sump pumping Clean gravels and C03rSC Open. shallow excav.uions Simple pumping equipment Fines enxily removed froIII
• sands ground. Encourages
insti.lhility of fcrrnntion.
S. Gravity drainage Impermeable soils Open excavation especially on Simple pumping equipment

,.­ ,

Groundwater towering
6. weltpotnt Sandy gravels down to
sloping sues

Open excavation including Quick and easy to install in Drfficulr to install in open
systems with line sands (with proper progressive trench excavations. suitable soils. Economical for gravels or ground containing

· -
suction pumps
(including the
machine-laid
horizontal
control can also be used
in silty sands)
Horizontal drain system
particularly perunem for pipe
french excavations outside
urban areas
short pumping periods of a
Iew weeks
cobbles and boulders.
Pumping must be continuous
and noise o( pump may he a
problem in a built-up area.
system) Suction lift is limited to
about 4.0-5.5 m. depending
on soils. If greater lowering
is needed. rnulti-stnac
installation is ner;:s;ar.'

. --
7. Eductor system
using high­
pressure water
Si'ty sands and sandy
silts
Deep excavations in space so
confined that multi-stage
wellpointing cannot be used,
No limitation on amount of Initial install.nio is fnulv
drawdown. Raking holes are costly. Risk of flooding ,

possible excavation i( high-pressure

to create More appropriate 10 low watetmain is ruptured.

vacuum as well permeability soils

as 10 lift the

water

8. Shallow bored Sandy gravels 10 silty More appropriate for Generally costs less to run Initial installa tion is fairly

. wells with
suction pumps
fine .sands and water
bearing rocks but
particularly suitable for
high permeability soils
installations to be pumped for
several months or for use in
silly soils where correct filtering
is important
than a comparable wellpoint COSily. Pumping must he
installation, 50 if pumping is continuous and noise of
required (or several months pump mJy be a problem in a
costs should be compared. built-up area. Suction is
Correct filtering can be limited to about 4.0-5.5 m.
controlled better than with depending on soils. If greater
•• wellpoinu to prevent
removal of fines from silly
lowering needed. multi-stage
installation is necessary
soils
9. Deep-bored Gravels 10 silty fine sand Deep excavations in. through No limitation on amount of High instatlaticn cost
•• filler wells, i.e .
those with
and water-bearing rocks or above water-bearing
formations
drawdown as there is for
suction pumping,
submersible A well can be constructed to
pumps (line­ draw water from several
shaft pumps layers throughout its depth.
• with motor Vacuum can be applied to

mounted at well assist drainage of fine soils.

head used in Wells can be sired clear of

some countries} working area.

• No noise problem If mains

electricity supply is available
10. Electro-osmosis Silts, silty clays and Open excavations in In appropriate soils can be lnstallarion and running Cl)';IS

. some peats appropriate soils or 10 speed

dissipation of water during
construction
used when no other water-
lo....'ering method is

applicable

are usually high

11. Drainage Any water-bearing strata Removal of large quantities of Very large quantities of Very expensi.. e. g;Jl[erics
galleries underlain by 10\1,' water for dam abutment, cut­ water can be drained into mav need to be COI'LrL~l:d
permeability strata offs, etc, gallery and disposed of by and grouted later
• suitable for tunnelling conventionallarge-scale
pumps
Clean sands and gravel Dewatering deep confined Minimises number of Only suitable for 1;11 ge
aquifers pumping points excavations
Group J: Excluslcn methods (not covered in detail in this Report)
Tempomry methods
-_13. Ammonium/ All types of saturated Formation of ice in the voids Imparts temporary Treatment takes time to
brine soils and rock ?J... t\t.r.t.~ stops water Ifow mechanical strength to soils. develop. rnirial installation
• refrigeration "'l'-Of ~rf""ll,~ pr"bbla, ........ Treatment effective from com are high and
working surface outwards. refrigeration plant is
Better (or large applications expensive. Requires 'i(rict
of long duration site control. Some ground '""\<1:1
• heave
14. liquid nitrogen As for IJ As for 13 As for 13, but better for Liquid nitrogen is expensive.
refrigeration small applications of short Requires strict site control.
duration or where quick som~rou~he ave
• freezing is required
"''''~
 " Table 1.--eonlinued
, .
Melhod Solh sultahlc Ior Ad\'AIlIR~es Dlsndvantngcs
treatment

Group 3: Eartnslon methods (continued)

'-15. Comprcv-cd air All types of S<lIUraICd Confined chambers such as Gives stnbilitv 10 sides of Iligh set-up com; possible
soils and rock tunnels. shafts and caissons chamber by limiting ingress health hazards
of water. Reduces pumping
I 10 a minimum
--16. Slurry trench Sitts. sands, gravels and Practically unrestricted. A rapidly Installed. cheaper MUS1 be adequately
cut-off with cobbles Extensive curtain walls round form of diaphragm wall. supported. Cost increases
bentonite or open excavation Can be keyed into greatly with depth. Costly to
native clay impermeable strata such as attempt to key into hard or
clays or soft shales irregular bedrock surfaces.
Upper limit in soils of
permeability 5 x 10-' m/s.
17. Impervious soil Silts, sands gravels and As for 16 Relatively cheap. Local Must be placed some
barrier cobbles materials may be used distance from excav arion.
Restricted depth of
installation
Sheet piling (can All types of soil (except Practically unrestricted Well understood method Difficult to drive and
be permanent) boulder beds and where using readily available plant. maintain seal in boulders.
natural or unnatural Rapid installation. Vibration and noise of
obstructions exisl­ Steel can be incorporated in driving may not be
particularly limber permanent works or acceptable.
baulks] recovered Capital investment in piles
can be high if re-usagc is
restricted.
Seal may not be perfect
"ermantnt methods-Diaphragms
19. Diaphragm walls All soil types including Deep basements. Underground Can be designed 10 form Hiah cost mav make it
[structural those containing car parks. Underground pari of a permanent uneconomicai unless it can
concrete) boulders (rotary pumping stations. Shafts. Dryfoundation. Particularly be incorporated into
percussion drilling docks. etc. efficient for circular permanent structure.
suitable for penetrating excavations. Can be keyed There is an upper limit 10
rocks and boulders hv into rock. Minimum the densitv of steel
reverse circulation using vibration and noise. reinforcement that can be
bentonite slurry) Treatment is permanent. accepted
Can be used in restricted
space. Can be pUI down very
close to existing foundation
?O. Secant All soil types, but As for 19. Underpasses in still Can be used on small and Ensuring complete contact of
(interlocking) penetration through clay soils confined sues. Can be put all piles over their full length
and contiguous boulders may be difficult down very close to existing may be difficult in practice.
bored piles and COSily foundations. Minimum noise Joints may be sealed by
and vibtaticn. Treatment is grouting externally.
permanent Efficiency of reinforcing steel
not as high as for 19
'-Permanent methods-e-Grouted cut-offs
21. Thin, grouted Silts and sands As for 16 As for 16 The dri . . . ing and extracting of
membrane the sheet pile element used
10 form the membrane limits
the depth achic vable and the
type of soil. Also as for 16
2. Jet grouting All types of soil and Practically unrestricted As for 16 Expensive
weak rocks
-23. Cementiticus Fissured and jointed Filling fissures to stop water Equipment is simple and can Treatment needs 10 be
grouts rocks flow (filler added for major be used in confined spaces, c xtensivc to be effective
voids) Treatment is permanent
( Clay/ Sands and gravels Filling voids 10 exclude water. Equipment is simple and can A comparatively thick
cementitious To form relatively impermeable be used in confined spaces. barrier is needed to ensure
grouts barriers (vertical or horizontal). Treatment is permanent. continuitv. At least ~ m of
Suitable for conditions where Grout is introduced bv natural cover nccdc.l (or
long-term flexibility is means of A sleeved grout equivalent)
desirable. e.g. cores of dams pipe which limits its spread,
Can be sealed 10 an irregular
or hard stratum
Silicates, Medium and coarse As for 24, but non-flexible Comparatively high Comparatively high cost of
Joosten, sands and gravels mechanical strength. High chemicals. Requires at least
Gunmen and degree of control of grout 2 m of natural cover or
other processes spread. Simple means of equivalent. Treatment can be
injection by lances. incomplete in silty material
Indefinite life. Favoured for or in presence of silt or clay
underpinning works below lenses
water level
, r, Resin grouts Silty fine sands As for 24, but only some Can be used in conjuction High cost so usually
flexibility with clay/cernentirious grouts economical only on larger
for treating finer strata ch'il engineering works.
Requires strict sire control
'Tmanent melhoc!.f-Soi! .ftrr:rlgt"~";"g
J:1.....'rn.. tt...rni.. 1I1 ,nt, ...10...1"
 ,
• I

<I., !
Tentative rilnges of soil conditiuns ill whit.:h the methods
given in Table I may be used. arc shown ill Figures 5 and
0.

Orainage

impractical

~ 20
'"
~ 10
~
~ °-+rrrr-,-,-,-r"TT'1rr...r-rrT""T"TTTT'1-ro-,-r"Trrr'"'T........-rnrrrr-,-r-ro-rrnrrr-r-,

i I j l!
00006 0·002 0006 002 006 02 06 2 6 10 60 200
Particle size (mm}
Clay I fine I Medium I Coarse I fine IMedium I Coarse Fina I Medium I Coarse 1
. 8oulders
I~ I S,lt tracucn I Sand Iractrnn Gra,ellracl'on 1 _
Figure 5 Tentative ranges lor groundwater lowering methods

Nctes:
l. wetlpotms in fine sands require good vacuum,
Z, Zone may be extended to finer soils by using. large sumps with

grave] filters.

3. To reduce the high WOller pressure on sheet piling it may be

preferable to control pumping as excavation proceeds and to install

the support system as the water level is lowered.

100 Compressed air Compressed air SUllable-; If compressed air is used

used lor / ~ heavy air losses
90
80
suppnr t only_ .......,'"-_____
" I
---,
l
, ,, may occur
..
_

70 Electroc hemical , I
hardening I I

60 C
ement " I I

50 grouting I I
In ,tiff I freezing -;#J-Silicales and-ft-_ _ Cemenl -;~

clay / , L
lissured' (I,,,,·.r,",,, >4;1na,o,+..
,'
,>,,,..,,
""'-1;1- -I P""'"t1t~
emulSIOns,
,,
grout

;. 20 " -.-r-li{') , ,
. . " ,/,l
~'" 10
/ '
"
~
~ a T11----'-'-'"
00006 0002
Particle sia Imm I
0006 002
I i
"
I ,,"T'ni ,,---,-,-,-r.,-i'TTrr'"'T.-..-rT"TTTT'1c-ro-r-r1rni
006
I j iii I
02
I i I r I'
2
IrTlTIrl-r'"'T'"'T-'-TTTTTr-TO'
6 20
iii iii
60 2tfu

Clay fine , Medium [foars.e 'Fine I Medium I Coarse fine I Medium I-C-;-;;se B ~
Iraclion . - - oulders
'~
Silliraciion Sand fraction Gra,ellractlon __ ._

Figure 6 Tentative ranges lor groundwater exclusion me/hods

The size and depth of an excavation can influence the
choice of a dewatering system. and may determine whether
a groundwater lowering or a cut-off system is more
appropiiure.
Cut-offs using a geotechnical process may be required in
excavations of moderate depth where flows are high as well
as for deep excavations. Table 2 provides an outline of the
dimensional restrictions placed on the various methods of
groundwater control. and also provides a meansof arriving
at the more probable method to be adopted,
When water must be excluded from an excavation and the
flow is very high. a specialist process will gcneralty be
needed. Where a geotechnical process i' used. there will
invariably be some residual flow. particularly in the case

10 CIRIA Reporl 113

 Teble 2. Deplh end width rastrlctions for excavauons
, . Depth lhnlts wtdth IImlls Other IIml15

a. Ground", nler cuntrul h) pumplnp:

4.· Sump pumping
i used
L_
ee. Single system ..... ellpoinu
6b, Multi-stage ..... eltpotnts
6c. Horizontal wellpointing
7. Eductor
• 8. Shallow wells
• depression (R o)
Limits of excavation:
Up 108m below pump installation sump and ditch capacity
level
Greater if a submersible pump is
Maximum limit of drawdown:
3--4 m in silly fine sands
5-6 m generally
Unlimited
Limits in installation below ground
level:
4 m normally
6m maximum
Unlimited but for wellpoint type
drawdown usually restricted to
25 m
Limit of drawdown:
6-8 m below pump installation
level
Increasing width increases required
Limited by soil cone of depression
(R o)
Limited by soil cone of depression
(R,)
As for 620
As for 9
NOI usually critical but the wider
the excavation the more wells are
required
Limited then by soil cone of
Flutter slopes may he required
for unsupported excavations in
silts and fine sands
Space required for unsupported
side slopes
Requires increasingly larger land­
lake for side slopes
Segmental installation lengths
usually 100 m long
Space required for a machine
13 m by 3 m
As for 9

.
9. Deep bored wells Unrestricted using submersible
pumps
Not usuallv critical but the wider
the excavation the mare wells are
required
Extremely large excavation may
require ancillary wells within the
excavation
10. EleCIro-osmosis Limits of excavation: Not critical Available power supply
8 m below pump installation level
II. Drainage galleries Can be installed 201 any depth Unlimited May require large working space
where access is available at installation level
• 12. Collector well As for 9 As for 9 As for 9
b. Ground ...-ater control hy exclusion
13 and 14. Freezing Unlimited (cases recorded to Not critical. excavation base can Circular construction highly
• >900 m below ground level). be frozen. However. because of desirable for stability. Long time
Depends on depth 10 which economics usually confined to required for installation and
receiving holes can be drilled. naHOW ercaveuons • freezing ; 4".)'.~ r\11,....~~
Liquid nitrogen rt!Etwin~ fer ' '-e1..A<.p i .. ,.\..\\ c..le.A.l" •
(ijee;:,.eY rreiemQ../""'IQ~
,. ...11 .._
Oc::Iv...."""':P-tJ"V +D­
~'t!......s
• IS. Compressed air 10 m below water level witfiout Depends on depth below ground
Must be used in an enclosed
medical lock. level environment, as in tunnels and
35 m with medical lock shafts
16. Slurry" trenching 25 m below ground level or as None As for 17. Space required for
• restricted by reach of digging plant trench width which may be ) m
employed thick or more depending on
depth
17. Impervious soil barrier Usually 5 m or less None. since cut-off achieved Must be placed some distance
• from excavation. Space is
required for construction
lB. Sheet piling Recommended maximum below None. providing adequate Overhead space for driving
ground level 26 m. Have been used penetration achieved. Wide required. When used as
• fa >30 m but piles may not then excavation may require ancillary cofferdam. ratio of width to
be recoverable central dewatering retained height >O.R. Noise
problem
- 19. Diaphragm wall lnstnllatlon below ground level to None. but minimum diameter of a Space required for ;1 stabili~inf
40 In normal. Up to 100m can be circular cut-off about 4.5 m bund if wall is not lied
achieved
20, Secant (interlocking) and Maximum depth of installation A~ for 18 Overhead SPitCC Io- boring
contiguous bored piles 30 m below ground level or 10 required
hard strata

21. Thin grouted membrane Limits of installation below ground

None A~ for 17
level:

15m if driven (usual)

25 m if vibrated

22. Jet grouting Canna! be used through hard rock

As for 18
_ 23-26. Grouting processes
Unlimited. but more efficient in
confined areas rather than as
• presence of strata which cannot be
curtains
As for 20
Determined by depth 10 which
2J-2-l: 4 m of overburden
receiving hole can be drilled and
required for proper injections of
cia) or clay/cement grouts.
penetrated by chosen grout.
25: 2 In of overburden required
12 m below ground level for driven
for proper injection of silicates
lance methods (e.g. Joosten)

>250 m for tube-a-rnancheue

• methods in soft deposits

27. Electrochemical consolidmion Not critical. hUI ruefernblv <R m

Not f'ril;f'~1
 J

1_ of grout curtains. as 'windows' of locully untreated ground

occur. In most cases sump pumping can cope with this
C:.III
rcsidual flow,
5. Information required for selection of a
dewatering system
The choice. design and planning of a dewatering system
Tables 3 mu] 4 compare the relative flow handling capacity requires certain items of information. Check through the
I of the various types of dewatering control.
• following list to see what is available and what needs to be
obtained. Some items may not be needed in particular
Table 3. Flow capacities 01 temporary methods 01
cases.
1!
·.., -
groundwater lowering and exclusion

Capnctty
General:

Site address and site plan

4, Sump pumping Can cope with any flow bUI see Purpose of dewatering

Note J to Figure 5. Typical General arrangement drawing

,; ­
150 mm pump capacity: 60 I/s at Layout and detailed construction drawings

10 m head. See also Part J Construction programme

5, Gravity drainage Can cope with any now Dale by which dewatering is required

6, WeUpoinu A single wellpoint can handle up Climate; rainfall data, etc,

• to about II/s depending on soil

type
Ground Conditions:
6, Horizontal wellpoinn Determined by capacity of Site investigation report
piping-up to 100 mm dia. pipe
Experience of ground from previous or current work in
• can be used giving capacity up to

the area
301/5 at to m head

7. Eductors Used for low perrneabiliry soils­ Full description of ground to atleasl J! limes the depth
to-nee low Ilow 0.3 I/:'i of excavation and preferably to the full depth of the
• 8, Shallow bored wells Depends on diameter of
aquifer to be pumped
borehole and soil permeability
Shear strength of cohesive soils
{generally used in high
Relative density of granular soils
permeability soils)
Particle size analysis
• 9. Deep bored wells Depends on diameter of
Records of water levels (highest, lowest. etc.)
borehole and soil permeability

Evidence of artesian head

10. Electro-osmosis Restricted to low permeability Tidal influence
soils (less than about IO-~ m/s)
Results of permeability and/or pumping tests
• II. Drainage galleries Depends on length and diameter

Specificgravity and chemical nature of groundwater and

of galleries. ground permeability

and head of water

any likely temperature variations
- 12, Collector wells Depends on length and diameter Evidence of slope instability
• of collector drains. soil
Pattern of rock fractures/discontinuities
permeability. head of water. and
Rock strength,
pump capacity

13,14. Freezing Generally restricted to soil where Excavation Details:

• k is less than 2 x 1O-~ m/s unless
Type of work (progressive or static)
distortion of the ice wall can be
If excavation is progressive. what is the progranuned
t1CCeDleJ . 01'\1.0., l.&1\'o.l",1"."'-f ~J4.....
_~~'I\~ ~.v.:tl""oS .... ""Jj"", weekly rate of progression?
15. Compressed air No restriction, provided ground Type of excavation (vertical or battered side slopes)
• cover sufficient to retain pressure
Method of excavation (open cut, sheeted. etc.)
16,17. Slurry trenching; Generally none

Location of spoil tips,

impervious soil barrie r

Site Conditions:
• • Numbering in accordance with Table 1
Traffic diversions
Hard surfaces or obstructions to be broken out
Table 4. Flow restrictions on permanenI methods of Existing services adjacent to or crossing line of trench
groundwater exclusion
Limitations on plant (access, rights of way. headroom
• Method'" Flow or capnclty restrfctlons and overhead cables. bearing capacity of ground. noise
restrictions)
18.20. Sheet piling; secant None but requires adequate toe- Possibility of flooding by surface run-off water from
bored piles in. May require ancillary system
• to cope with residual flow
broken mains
lvtween olcrue nts Presence of q anding water
19. Diapbragrn ",dIs l.'urcstri. .J except groundwater Suitable means of draining discharged water and any
during tn nching must be at least requirement for treatment before discharge to (,<'y) a
• l! m below ground level river
21. Thin grouted membrane Unsuitable for high pertneability Restrictions on noise emission
soils with significant movement Condition and stability of adjacent structures
of groundwater
• Surcharge loads
22-26, Grouts Wide range of grouts used Vibrations
dependent on soil type and
permeability Working area and room for spoil and materials
27,
Availability of water supply for jetting. etc.
Electrochemical As for 10
• consolidation Availability and reliability of electrical power supply.
voltage. single or 3-phase. etc,
.. ~' Numbering in accordance with Table I Availability of compressed air line, pressure. capacity
• 12 CIAIA Report 113
J

Availability of plant: usc or main contractor's cranes. if wellpointing I, hcing considered, the boreholes should
dump truck:" water bowscrs, etc, he 10 at lea" the proposcd depth of the wellpoiut 1;1". 10
Elevation or site to sea level identify and classify the ground characteristics. Where
Distance of excavation from buildings, roadways. deep well, may bethought to be necessary, then borehole
buried ~l'r\'icc~. Willis. etc. information to at least their anticipated dcpth and pref­
· -
Distuncr of excavation from significant source of water.
sea. river. lake. canal, etc.
erably to the rull depth or the aquifer 10 be pumped should
be obtained. In addition the permeability or the ground
Distance water must he pumped. vertically and must he established from field tests or estimated (rom
horizontallv laboratory tests.
Arrangements to be made and permissions 10 be sought
Where only Shallowground information is necessary. trial
Ior discharge of water
pits have the advantage that the contractor can:
Distance 10 source or water for jetting

Availabilitv of well or filter material See the ground profile

Effect or g;ound movement due to dewatering on adjac­ Examine the soil and/or rock

ent structures Select samples for testing.

Evidence or hazardous contamination of ground

Whenever possible, specialist advice on the nature or the

Evidence of previous construction. excavation or
ground should be sought.
mining.
A guide to the field identification of soils and rocks is given
in Table 5. For further information see References 1and 2.
• 6. Identifying the ground
Having identified the ground and determined its pcr­
Before starting design the ground conditions should be
meability, reference can be made to Table 1 and Figures
assessed from whatever knowledge can be gleaned from
5 anrl 6 for consideration of a suitable dewatering system.
• previous or current work in the area. Ideally boreholes or
trial pits will have been excavated at the site to a reasonable Where excavations will have battered sides or benches, see
depth below the proposed excavation depth. For example, following Section.

.. Table 5. Identification of ground Iypes (from CIRIA Report 91 Trenching practice)

Ground Field Identification Soli/rock category
type
.. Granular i Particles visible Boulders (above 2(Xl mm1
f Sands feel g.riny Cobbles (60 10 1(X) mm I
iii Visually assess proportions of boulders/cobbles/gravel/sand Gravel (210 OOntm)
S.3nd (0.06 10 ~ mm)

.. Cohesive ; Particles not visible Silt (0.00210 OJI(1 mm)

ii When damp silt and fine sand are shaken in the hand water arrc;lr~ on the
surface

• i Solr clay is easily moulded h~ fingers Clay

ii Firm clay is moulded by strong finger pressure
iii Stiff clay is indented by strong finger pressure
iv ri~sured clay should be examined for its structure
. i Decomposing or organic matter Peat Sofl non-fibrous
ii Odour (black. erev Firm non-fibrous
iii Fibrous or non-fibrous or hrow~ . Firm libf(lu~
iv l Iigh. medium or low compressibility claye~ or Stiff nhwu~
• sandy)

n.\ idenufying the fine particles ( .mitting any boulders OJ cobbles! Char actcnscd hy the dominant
particle ~IZc.' and the percentage hy
weight of material liner than (l.06 mm
In general. more lhim 35'1 is a line
soil. less than 3517[ is a coarse soil.

Fill i All types of man-placed material A~ main soil type (c.g. clay. sand.
" ii Note constituents including unnatural inclusions gravel. etc.)

--Rock i In mass stronger than the above soil types As appropriate 10 the predominant
ii lmportant to note cement arion. structure nud orientation (fissures, join Is. constituents and charncteristics
bedding. layers. ctc.)
" iii Closely join led rock m.3Y act as granular material and weathered weak rock
as a cohesive soil
 7. Temporary safe slopes Table 6. Temporary slopes in dilferentlypes of ground
--.
The lingle In which the sides of all excavation can be cui Ground descrfptlun SUrf IClIlllurary ~Io,,~~ I
(degrecs (rom horizontal]
and remain stable depends on:
'Dry' site: 'wet' site]
Type and condition of soil or rock Ilouluc rs 15/~5 11l/~1I
Presence of surface or groundwater Cobbles 15/~1I .lO/15
Surcharge loading by adjacent buildings, spoil heaps or Gravel 11l/~0 101111
construction traffic Sand .lO/15 111/10
Depth of excavation Silt 20/~1l 5/21l
Angle of slopes or benching Depth of cur':' h,t

Time excavation is left open. Lj ro j m

..
Collapse of excavations: Firm clay:
)106m
1.11oJm
) 10 (, m
lO/45l
~O/lll
15/45 )
10/40
10/20

211/25
Can kill men working in or close to the excavation Stiff clay: 1.110 3 m ~0/45l
.1
.. Can result in loss of equipment
Can disrupt the contract programme with consequent
financial loss. Mixed soils
) to 6 m 15/45 25/15

Dependent {HI soil

calcgory as charnctcri-cd
Expert advice should be obtained on the design of the by finer constituents
.. slope angles for the excavation. particularly where clay soil
may be present within the depth of excavations and within Peat Soft non-fibrous
Firm non-fibrous
10/21l
15/25
5110
10115
a few metres of the base of the excavation. Firm fibrous 15/40 20/25

.. For excavations up to about 6 m deep, a guide to the

temporary safe slopes for various ground conditions, is Fill
Stiff fibrous 15/45 25/15
According to category
given in CIRIA Report 97 'Trenching Practice']. Further above

.. information may be obtained from References 2, 4, 5

and 6. Rock According to orientation
of planes
Battered trench sides or benches will generally be tern­ ~nles:

.
porarily stable if the slopes are as given in Table 6. I. These are guide figures based on and subject to:
a Temporary conditions (l.e. generally 1 to 14 days)
b Experience on site
c A safety limit of -t5 degrees (but see Note 7 below)
d No Woller seepage that could cause instebilitv or 'boiling'
.
2. 'Dry' site- minor or no seepage from excavated faces, Minoror no
surface run-off.
J. 'Wet' site: submerged or widespread seepage fromexcavated laces.
-! -t. Soft clay deposits are Frequently stronger within a few metres of

..'­ ground level due [0 drying-out. However. the clay crust is fissured
for [he same reason (note that fissures mav not bc visible) and ;s
seldom greater than -t metres deep. .
5. Fissuring will cause unstable face, although theory ma~' suggest
that some clays may stand vertically to 6 metres. Also failure can
.
I
J}VlwlAViNik
occur due 10 underlying soft clay. The slopes given are intended
to avoid hazard 10 workers and are offered as a guide only
6. Flatter or steeper slopes may be appropriate. Check for n~<uring
---< Battered
and structure of clay, particularly in clay and (nlling lumps vhrch
may endanger workers.
trench
7. fn practice benching, or side slopes flatter at the top nn.l Sleeper
at the foot may be used.
, Figure 7 Batlered trench
--I

..
Note:

Trench with
Surface water can affect stability or slopes and benches,

benches
endangering the trench.

Intercept surface water to prevent it cnterlng trench, For

some soils it will be necessary to protect slopes and horl­
Figure 8 Trench with benches Ion tal surfaces adjacent to the trench.

CIRIA Report , rJ
 J

f 8. Permeability
• Surface
MC1!Jod~ of groundwater control that can be uvcd suc­
cessfully ,II a particular site arc mainly dependent on the
pcrrucnlulitv of the ground and the head of water (pressure
head) cauving the now of water across the site. The general -~--~-------

relationship between the flow of water (0), the ground

permeability (k). and the head of water (h) is given by
D'Arcy as 0 = kAh/ L - : T~--'--~--'----'
:-0. ' . ,
.
.......:: .... ".
where 0 = quantity of water flow W.ter -
k = coefficient of permeability of the ground I. ble
h = head 1055 in distance L
A = cross-sectional area of section considered
and !t/L is termed the hydraulic gradient. (Figure 9)
Soil permeability depends essentially on the size and shape
• (angularity) of the soil panicle' and the total porosity of
rlgure 9
the soil. Approximate ranges(- for various soil types are
given in Table 7:
Simpler pumping-in or pumping-out tests cao be made in
site investigation boreholes. These tests can give a reason­
Table 7. Permeability ranges of soils able assessment of the conditions local to the borehole (see
._---------­ Appendices 2. 3. and 4). Of the two types. pumping-out
Degree or p. I -ncabllltj
tests are preferable.
>1000 high clean gravels
IO-IO()(J medium clean saud and gravel The flow of water through rock is normally concentrated
mixtures along joiots aod fissures rather thao uniformly through its
D,I-ilt . 101.1.' verv fine sands mass. The permeability of rock strata can be determined
D.cKII-D.i very low silt: and mixtures or sand b), special types of pumping-in tests which confine the now
and clay
practically impervious clays to specifiedlengths of the borehole by the use of water seals
<D.IXII
or 'packers (see Appendix 5). However. it is necessarv to
ensure that the permeability determioed in this wa;' is
Perrneabilitv can be estimated for individual samples by representative of the rock mass to be dewatered. ­
laboratory tests or empirically by grading tests. However.
soils in the field are generally non-homogeneous and strati­ Permeability estimated from soil grading
fied and a reasooable value of their mass perrneabilities
can only be determined by pumping from boreholes. Where it is oat possible to obtain permeability data from
field tests then a rough approximation can be estimated
The most accurate method is to pump from a well. increas­ from the soil grading.
• ing the'. rate of pumping io a series of steps until steady
First determioe the grading of the soil samples by particle
state conditions are established in ol-servational boreholes
size distribution tests in accordance with 13S 1377: 1Q751~'
suok along lines radiating out from the well. aod to measure
the drawdown in these boreholes (see Appendix 1). A typical grading curve is shown io Figure 10.
•

100
• 90
eo
70
• GO,+-_ ----------
;014- _ --_._---+-+-----­
~ ~O
c
::: 30
~
<>.
~ 10
~

~u 10+----------,~c_-_+-+_------------
.t 0-I-~-,~, ~~~~rrT,.r,;-~-:;..,.'rn_rr!_-r--h_,
00010006 001 006 01 Til ~I I f I~ "I I II I II I
10 60 Ijoo
00001 0001 001 01 1·0 10 100
Particle size I mm I
I I
--
fine IMediumlCo.rse fine IMediuml Co.rse fine Medium Co",.
•

Figure 10 Particle size distribution

C1.y
Sill S.nd Gravel
Cobbles
-
CIRIA Report 113 15
 Nex.t determine tile ullifoflllilY (ol..'fficicJl( of Ihe soil from 6000
Ihe grading curve. This is equal to the ratio between the
, .. sieve size through which 60rt of the material passes (Droll) ~OOO

and the sieve size through which 1fJ":'} passes (Din). In a. Dense sotts.
Figure III the Dr.u size of the sample is U.2 rnrn. the Din 1000
,i size is 0.02 min and the uniformity coefficient is
0,2
1000
002=10,
800
600
Next determine the 0,,, size of the rnnterinl (0,10 in the 400
above example) and obtain the permeability from one of
the three graphs of Figure 11. interpolating as necessary, 200
A very rough idea of the soil permeability may be obtained
from Hazen's formula which was developed for single-size 100
filter sands: 80
60
C ,
k = 10' (0 10) ' m s
I 40

where Oro is in rnillirnetres and C is a constant. 20 +---r---.--,--\-'--'-..l,-:L.\...,---------,

C can vary from about 70 to 170 but is usually taken as
equal 10 100 for single-sized material and generally for. 6000
first approximation of permeability, In this case 4000
k ~ (0 10) ' mls b, Medium dense soils,
100 ' 2000
~

:= 1000
M 800
- ~
600

E
400
.Q
~ 200
~

E
;;;
~
100
80
60
40
20

6000
~ooo

c, Loose soils
1000

1000
800
600
400

200

100
80
60
~o

20 +--.--r---,r--~-++,J--\,L---_,
05 025 01 005 001

Figure 11 Permeability 01 soils,

Sill
cl ar
andl
16 CIRIA RepiJft 11:J
 9. Relative costs of temporary and
- permanent methods of groundwater
exclusion
___ Arter 'm i1~."('.'i."mcnl (If .111 the rclc va nt lnfonuation. the Table 9. Approximate costs of permanent methods of
selection or iI dewatering \y~tclll will depend on n com­ excluding groundwaler
hin<lrion of r,lclor~ including overall cost. time and
Method Rclatlve cost
COI1\'C "knee.
- A guide to comparative costs for different techniques is Impervious soil Inexpensive form of cut-off for shallow
barrier depths. May use local materials
given in Tables 8-10. Although these are typical values.
Sheet piling (he apest form or cut-or! in most soils
there are many factors which can influence price such as
particularly granular provided piles can be
~ location and size of job. keenness of contractors. etc., and extracted, May be more expensive than
considerable variations in these rates may apply. diaphragms or contiguous piles in clay
Slurry trenching May be competitive at moderate depth or
where no space restriction exists. Costs
- Tabla 8. Approximate costs of rnetnoos lor the temporary increase quickly with increasing depth
exctusion of groundwaler by groundwater low.,;ng Thir' "','uted Cheaper rh-n diaphragm walls as no
--_._----~------ mcrnbrune bentonite l~ wasted
Method Relative cost apprcxlmatlon 1I98$ price.H Diaphragm war! Very expensive. but may be cheaper than
- - - - - -Cheapest.
Sump
- - - -of-
r\lrnrin~
------
excavating sumps and
COSI
grouting, More cost effective if part of
permanent structure
pump hire. Principal costs can be fuel Conuguouvsccam Very expensive. but cheaper (han diaphragrn
consumed: for ISO rum (fi in) rump. fuel bored pile~ walls for depths to about 10In in sliff clays
cost!' approximately CJ pcr 2J hours: pump only. cost reduced if part or permanent
hire: £100 per week structure. Secant riles even more expensive
Wellpoinling Very cornpc.luve for reasonable length
excavations to moderate depth over short
period. Approximate Costs {or 100 m nominal
length or wellpoint equipment with
wellpoinn at J.5 m centres: MotJilisatian,
installation and dcmobilisation-!2000-£2500
(sum). Hire of equirimcnr inrJuding 1 No.
J50mm pumr~-£~cn-f~.:iO per week. COSI Table 10. Approximate cos IS of geotechnical processes lor
of oneratmg and mamtaining svstern and fuel excluding groundwaler
c05ol5-£500-£550 rer week
Disposable wellpoints cheaper for long term Method Retatlve cost (1985 prices)
projects
Shallow wells More expensive than wetlpoinu for same Grouting: (Payment is normally by quantity of

depth: but competitive on confined sites with materials injected)

medium to high permeability Cia\"

Cheapest}
Expensive but can be rhe beu engineering Cemern/flvash Cheap less than £20/m"
solution Cement ­ Cheap

Cemem/bc-nonite !20/m~ or stabilised soil

Jeep bored wells Relatively e0511~' depending on number Bentonite gel !:!:!./m 1 of stabilised soil

• installed. depth and strata. Uvuallv only Silicates Joosten L15/m' (in 1976):

economic far large projects, Installation only aluminates £~O/m!:

com !20b, to £25\\ per linear metre of well + esters £45/m'

operaurtg costs extra. Resins £200-£JOOjm' of stabilised coil

'Iorizcntal Expensive mobilisation but can be Chemicals Up 10 £300-JSO;m' of statJili~ed soil

''-v.ellpoints competitive {or the right job. e.g, pipe lines. Note: Installation methods and limes for different grouting systems
Installation only: approximately £8 to £10 differ. therefore the above figures do nOI offer a 5lricl comparison
rer linear metre insf.dled .... hire of pump Compressed air Very expensive. Ilic:h initial 'sci-Up costs
! Electro-osmosis Very high energy com :!v S" n...........,~-."""

freeZing Extremely cxpeml"Q. .usuoll~ rrr.<Hdcd as a

'-----Electrochclnical Very high energ.y costs
last resort. More expensive than electro­
consolidation
osmosis. OnJ~' economic at ~ depth

!RIA Report 11J 17

 •
10. Radius 01 Influence
i ,
• •
DraWUllWI1 of the water tuhle at a point produces a
of depression, (Figure 11)
l'OI1~

...
The ruduts of influence (Rul is a function of the druwdown
llr) and the permeability (k),
• ..
R" '" Cir Vk (sec Table II) where R" and Ir arc in metres
1, k is in mls
C is a factor equal to 3000 for rudial Ilow to pumped wells
and between 1500 and !OOO for line Ilow [0 trenches Or to
a line of wellpoints.
The percentage drawdown of the water table at any dis­
!~"f II
tance from the centre of the cone can be obtained from ~19rIllIO"
Figure 13.
"~
Table 11. Radius of influence for given drawdown in
various solis Figure 12 Cone 01 depression resulting Irom dr.wdown

Soil Type

Very fine Clean sands and gravel Clean gravels

sands rnlxrures

Draw- Perrneablltty (m/sl

• down
In 10-' Sx IO~! 10- 4 5 x 1O-~ 10-J_ 5 x 10·J
metres
thl Radius or Inlluence (Rft) In metres Within the cone of depression drawdown will result in an
• I 9 :1 30 67 95 212
increase in the effective pressure of the ground at the
\.5 14 3: 45 101 142 3t8 lowered groundwater level and cause consolidation of
2 19 42 60 134 190 ../24 cohesive and granular materials. This may be important
2.5 24 53 75 168 ~37 530 where existing structures are situated within the radius of
3 28 l>l 90 201 ~85 636 influence.
3.5 J3 74 105 235 3J2 742
4 38 85 120 268 379 849 In the case of cohesive soils consolidation may be small if
4,5 43 95 \)5 302 427 955 the water table is only depressed for a relatively short
5 47 106 t50 335 474 1061
5,5 52 117 165 369 522 1167 period. However, consolidation and drying out of such
6 57 127 t80 402 569 1273 soils may pose a problem where the water table isdepressed
6.5 62 119 195 436 617 1379 for a long period,
7 66 148 210 470 664 1485
7,5 71 159 225 503 712 1591 With granular soils. settlement of structures resulting. from
8 76 170 2-10 537 759 1697 the increase in effective stress On dewatering takes place
85 II 180 255 570 806 1803 more or less coincident with drawdown and the effect
9 85 191 270 604 854 1909
9,5 90 202 285 637. 901 2015 (particularly differential settlement) on structures must be
10 95 m 300 671 949 2121 considered.
12 114 255 360 805 1138 2546
IS 142 318 450 1006 1423 3182 Where ground settlement due to dewatering is likely to
occur advice should be sought from an experienced
Based on R, = 3000h vii
geotechnical engineer.
0

-
20
i--·e- R,
----·-T

,­! ho

Figure 1] Relarion 01 100 , ,

• i
drawdown 10 distance Irom o 10 20 30 ,0 SO 60 70 eo 90 100
centre 01cone 01 depression Percent,ge distance from well to Iimil of cone I RIR, '1./
18 CIRIA Report 113
 11. Estimate of settlement due to prediction i!l difficult. An approximate idea call be obtained
drawdown as follows:

Where there is a possibility of damage 10 buildings from 5,c!' I Calculate II" (from II" = ,oon" \I/;)or from Table
settlement caused by drawdown, the buildings should be 11)
surveyed and photographed before construction stuns as S,c!' 2 Calculate II/II" and then obtain percentage draw
evidence for possible litlgation. (Figure 14). Whcre the down from Figure 13 to determine h.;
risk is substantial. consideration should be given to limiling S,,'!' 3 Estimate allowable bearing capucitv (".) in kN/
or avoiding drawdown under the buildings by providing a m~ from in situ standard penetration test value
suitable cut-of! diaphragm and/or recharge wells. Such (N) assuming 50 mm allowable settlement of
measures. although expensive. may well be justified, foundation!".
Step 4 Calculate settlement (mm) under footing due 10
Structures underlain by cohesive soils lowering of water table as:
Where structures are underlain by cohesive soils (i.e. silts giro x 50 9.81r o x 50 490lr o
and clays). settlement may occur due to consolidation of =
the strata if the drawdown increases the effective stress in q.
the ground. Such movement is time dependent and is
directly affected by the thickness and permeability of the Nole: Calculation of dillerent drawdown values across
soils. In addition. settlement may occur due to shrinkage the site of a structure will give some idea of the
of the soils if they are allowed to dry out. Where such likely differential movement to be expected. Note
movements may be significant. specialist advice should be thai it is excessive dillerential settlement that
sought. causes damage to buildings although uniform
settlement may still cause problems where services
Structures underlain by granular soils (e.g. sewer pipes) enter the structures,
Because of the relatively high permeability of granular soils If settlement appears critical from estimate, check by other
(i.e, sands and gravels). settlement takes place more or methods of calculation'!',
less simultaneously with drawdown, Many factors affect
the amount of settlement thai can lake place and precise

footing

r7£ii~=""""'=~;7
. .....'.'
' ;'; '."
.~ .

"'"

. '
.
.. ';"
...... ......
' ......"''';.
.
h
"
.,'
,';..
.­.- .
: ". ". ,~
\,~
, . ,.
,"1/'
\\.
"
.. . '"
. \ . Figure 14 Estimation ot setuemetv
caused by arewdown in
.... ':. t-~"~;- ... Radius 0 :,1ft,en" IR ,
o
granular soils

'

12. Effects of drawdown on local water

supplies
Where the drawdown will be in an extensive aquifer which
may be a source of water supply, local/regional water
supply departments or local/government offices should be
consulted on the location and yield of potable/irrigation
wells. It will be necessary 10 conduct large scale pumping
tests if it is thought that the construction dewatering will
influence the yield of such wells. particularly where there
is any chance of the aquifer becoming polluted.

I 'RIA Report 113 19

 , I

.0'
13. Estimating the quantity of water to Types of well conliguration and waler source
" , , be pumped for the required drawdown
The main coufigurauon of wells and wcllpoints in dewa­
.'--- The l\U:JlItity of water thai has 10 be pumped to obtain the
rcquirl'll druwdown or pressure drop depends on various
tering systems and the sources of water influencing thell\
nrc shown in Figure l6.
including muss permeability (sec Section R), the
l':Il:lOro..
t>·pc 01 aquifer. the source of water (i.e: whether the now
is [roru a radial or line source), whether the wells fully
or only partinlly penetrate the aquifer; the shape of the

-- excavation and the consequent configuration of the wells.

Types of aquifers

--
1
I! By definition. an aquifer is a soil or rock layer containing
sufficient water to allow the yield of significant quantities
to wells and springs (Figure 15).
a, Circular supply to single well. Well remote from a river,
: i
lake or sea etc,
- Ground level

..1 --
.~.~._---_. ~·~._ ..--._Slanding
, ,
_~_----:----:_~ _ _
'
w,ler level
San d
0 -- Watrr
suurce

--
Wpll

::.--.::-:::.-=:::::-:=-::::-=-:::-=.::.-:::.-=--.::-::::-::::-=-=-:::--.:. .-: : (I"

a. Unconfined eouuer: wafer table acts at surface of zone of
saturation.

Ground level
b, Line source to single well, Well direclly inlluenced by
nearby river, lake or sea etc,
~~:~~~-~~~: ~~ea,:melriC
----------------- -­_.
.----------------.
~ .~"" . : ,+
:-------..::--=-----:..-=-= ---------:..--: :..-~.:::
~
(la,
-0­
-0-
W~UI

]
. Artesian .
-pressure
=-_-_-=--_-_-=--_-::-_-_-_-_--:..-_-:...-_-.:. -5-:
------------------_.
. Sand
(I" -0-
-0-
]~
b. Confined aquifer: groundwater is confined under pressure
of overiying relatively impermeable strata
Figure 15 Types of aqUifer. _0­
~O~--

-0­
Ideal aquller c. Line of wells. Wells inlluenced by either circular or line
sources.
]- In order to allow mathematical determination of pumping
rates and drawdown, an 'ideal aquifer is assumed. with
the following simplifying conditions:

1 I~
1. It extends horizontally with uniform thickness in all
directions without encountering recharge or barrier
boundaries. -0000000­
l~llll~

I 2. It is isotropic. that is the permeability is the same in all

directions
3. It releases water from storage instantly when the head
-0
-0
0­
0­

1·wi"·'­
is reduced, .,,--... 0 ',Velll
4, The pumping well is frictionless, very small in diameter -0 0­
",' and fully penetrates the aquifer. ~o O~

In reality none or the above assumptions are likely to be -0000000­

1·
'1';;" rully satlsfled, Soils are generally stratified with horizontal
, .~;,.. ' ~ permeabilities greatly in excess of those in a vertical direc­
, ",'.' lion. often by as much as several orders of magnitude.
!II , MalhemaUeal soluUons can Ihererore at best give only very
ttttttt

d. Group of wells, Wells influenced by either circular or line

I
~,i' Ipproxlmate values or drawdown and yield and should be sources
, "~" tempered with judgement based. if possible, on empirical
F experience of the area in which the site is located. Figure 16 Well configurations.
' ,,',f 20
). ' ,41):';'
~A'::'
 Methods of calculation for wells and wellpoinl
systems
The following arc some of the more common well COil­
figuralioll\ met in practice. The analyllc.d methods given
for C'slillli11illg discharge and drawdov..n arc based on those
given in Mansur and Kaufman'".

Dewatering for long narrow trench

Case I Partialpenetration by a single roll' of wellpoints of
all unconfined aquifer (gra"it." fioll'l fed from a
single line sourer (Figure 17). R,

Q= [(073 + 0.27 (H ~h,,») ;;0 (H' - hill 'I

J 1.48
ho = ho [ - (H - h o) + 1]
R"
where Q = total discharge from wellpoints (m'/s)
.1
H
x = length of trench (m)
H = height of static water table (m)
/'0 = height of water table in wells (m)

.1
h; = difference in head between outside and inside
of well. This is small and approximately equal
Note: width of 510(, b, a..umed ,0 line source
. to O.OOIH
liD = height of water table downstream of slot Figure 17
.1 (drawndown head)
k = permeability of soil (m/s)
Ro = distance 10 line source. taken as equal to
radius of influence.
Case 2 Partial penetration by a single roll' of wellpoints of
a confined aquijer tartesion conduionsv fed from a

.r
single line source (Figure 18).
Q = kDx(H - h,) 01

Ro + EA
-,. :
OLf-----;---'-+f--t+---;~
h0 = _E,:;A(,--H---;-:-h",,)
+ h, W/D
• Ro + EA
., , where EA is obtained from Figure 18
"
h, = head of water at well above base of aquifer

• D = thickness of aquifer
t
_0,· :l,nt t
"
RD. k and x as for Case I. -'-lL '-": IOV'tt 'I

DI 10 \0

"
I
i Figure 1B

1
Case 3 Partial penetration by a single row of wellpoints
• of an unconfined aquifer (gra"iry fiow) midway
between fwO equidistant and parallel line sources
(Figure 19).

T
I
Line
•

Figure 19
• , CtRIA Report''3 21
Case 4 l'urri"l penetration by a single row of wellpoints of
a confined aquifer [artesian conditions) ""d . . 'ay
betwew two equidistant and parallel line .rources
(Figure 20).
2Wx(H - h,)
Q = - --;:--'---;-;::--"'.
R" +).D
h = h, + (H ­ h,) (:,,++).:0)
where)' = a factor which depends upon ratio of slope 'With" this distance 11·101 the piezomelric surlace i.
penetration W/ D and obtained from above nonlinear due 10 converging flow
graph a
W = depth to base of well below upper horizon of
aquifer -'-=-_.t. 1·10'
~=

02

04
WiD
os

O!

,° I?, I?,
°
0\
,
" II 10
Figure 20 Hoi.: widlh of sl.l,b,assum.d ,0
Dewatering for wide trench or narrow rectangular
excavation
11 1\

Case 5 Partial penetration by a double row of wellpoints

-o] an unconfined aquifer (gravity flow) midway '·0

between two parallel and equidistant line sources

01 10

(Figure 21). C, C,
os

Q = [(0.73 + 0.27 (H ~ h )) ~ (H' -

o
hi)] 04 01

C,C, ] 0'

hD = ho [ Ii; (H - ho) + I ,
°, ,
'T
,, ,
10 0
'" GI' 0"
{/IJ, O/H

I?,

.=

Figure 21
H

"
O!
Note
a. Q is total combined flow from both slots and twice that 0'
for single line source (see Case I). ~
H
b. For large rectangular or square excavations, wellpoints
will be needed all around the perimeters. The pumping "

requirements can be estimated conservatively by cal­

02
culating separately the drawdown/purnping relation­
ship for each pair of opposite sides of the excavation.
The relationship between h D and ho can be obtained
from Figure 22. Figure 22 " " "Ii os 0' 10
 J
-~

I Cu:. . C tl l'urtiu! prnrtration hy (I doubic mh' of wrtlpoints

I. of n crmfiflrd aqlll!cr t artcsion trmdinons] midway
IJCfll"('('" tlfn I'arallrl and equidistant line sourUJ
, (Fifllrc 23).
; - ~_ 2'D.,(II- h,)
Q=---­
R II + £1>.

lint
sence
H
I
,I
,, ..
,.

1'01.: Figure 23
Q is total combined flow from both slots and twice that for
~single line sources; b» is same as for single line source (see
.r Case 2)
R,
Wril systems
Case 7 Fullpenetration by single wellof unconfined aquifer
(g~avity flow) fed by circular source (Figure 24).

(H:-h~)
Q =:rk . o
(R )
log, (r•.)
,- Drawdown (H ­ h) al distance r from well can be obtained
'II from:
. , •Q (R 0) Figure 24
~H' - h· = ­ log,-­
xk (r) o
•
Case 8 Full penetration by single well of confined aquifer
v
(artesian conditions) fed by circular SOl/rce (Figure ,;;~~1

• 25).
I 2,~kD(H - h.)
~Q = (R o)
log,-­
• . (r.)
Drawdown (H ­ h) at distance r from well can be cal­
~culated from: --­ f ~
• Q (R o ) Figure 25
H ­ h = - ­ log, - ­
2,~k D (r)
r
• Case 9 Fullpenetration by single wellof unconfined aquijcr Lme source
i (gravity flow) fed by single line sOllrce (Figure 26). r'
A Imagf I'l,H r Rul1ll'tll
~Calculalion of yield and drawdown are based on the / A
•
method of image wells whereby the line source of water is
replaced by a continuation of the pervious strata and an
L.I... '.'
'-.1
i.----,,-­
R,
imaginary recharge well. o: 'image well', supplying the
"<pervious stratum with the ~iolne quantity of water as that
being pumped from lhe real well. -0
•
f R,
, :rk(H' - h~)
....... ~~......... ' - - ­
'1;.-'-
~Q '" log, (2Ro/ r. ) ..... I·: . . . . ._-.. . .-....
• The head he at any point P can be calculated from:
---'I'~~
I.J
(r')
ill
Q log,TrJ I',I:! H

• H'-hi'" nk. ,II';'

:'!
Figure 26
-..---Jit-.--....------ .-.-..-~:;",
!
• ; ;IRIA Report '13 23
 ClI'iC 10 lul! pcurtnuion hy Ji",~h- 11'1'1/ or ((lII/i"cd fll/fli/a
(arre,\iall conditions) [nl hy si/lgh- 1r'1I(' source t,nf lourcf
(Figure 17).
Calcutntion of yield and drawdowu are based on the
mctho.l of image wells LIS for C<I~e tJ. above.
1 Tk{)(H -tr.)
Q= IllS, (1R,,/r.)
Drawdown (H - h} al any point I' can be calculated from:
Q (f)
H - tr = 2.Tk D log, (,)

Figure 27

Multiplc well.

,-
The majority of dewatering systems comprise. number of
wells or wcllpoints arranged around the perimeter of a rom,. rt

proposed excavation in straight lines or other con­ e ~ e -$-0­

figurations. Methods of calculating the total yield and
drawdown at any point for such systems are given by
Mansur and Kaufman'?' and by Powers!'?'.
~

e jj}
.:': I,
For such systems, a simplifying assumption is to consider " W~ll
that the wells act as a single large well of radius r, which '0 Q
.......$: .

then replaces the term r; in the above equations for deter­ Well 4 .. _ _ .~

a
mination of "ow. Methods of calculating r, for the more
cornrnop well configurations are given in Figure 28. a. Circular system, b. Rectangular system,

'1 ~dltlanct te line at 'lI'ells from centte of Irer'lch

Figure 28 ,fl~radlus af rnllurnce

c. Long narrow system (e,g trench)

14. Discharge of groundwater from site

Under Section 105 of The Control of Pollution Act 1974
Part HI"1 the discharge from site dewatering equipment
would .ppear 10 fall within the definition of 'trade effluent',
Under Section 32 of the Act, it is an offence to discharge
trade effluent into a stre am or watercourse or onto land
unless the local water authority has given consent to dis-
I, charge under Section 24.
~ Although such discharges are usually both temporary and
harmless, the necessary permission to discharge should be
I sought, either directly or through the main contractor,
before dewatering works are commenced,
L_

24 CIRIA Report ',1J

 PART 2 Surface and groundwater control

methods

15. Surface drainage 26

16. Gravity drainage 26

17. Sump pumping 26

1B. Pumping from wells or wellpoints outside an excavation 30

19. Excavated wells or sumps with independent pumps 30

20. Vertical wellpoint systems 30

21. Vacuum well pointing 38

22. Horizontal wellpoints 38

23. Deep well systems 39

24. Shallow well systems 40

25. Well development 40

26. Eductor systems 41

27. Artificial recharge 42

2B. Sand drains 44

29. Bleeder wells 45

30. Horizontal drains 45

31. Electro-osmosis 45

32. Couector wells 46

I ;IFHA Report' 1J 25

PART 2 Surface and

• groundwater control methods

• 15. Surface dralnag.e 17. Sump pumping

Rain water or water from other construction activities may Sump pumping ;s the simples: method of de..... atcring cxca­
be prevented [rom entering an cxcavation [particularly on vations. II is most effective in clean gravels and coarse
.. a sloping site) by Ihe simple expedient of digging open

ditches (and. if necessary, lining them with polythene

sunds and is generally unsuitable in materials containing a

101 of tines because of the danger of soil erosion.
sheering) and leading the water away to discharge points

In low permeability soils (e.g. clays). sump pumping may

. lower down the slope (Figure 19).

Surface
be the only practical and economical method of removing
the surface water (see 'Gravity drainage' above).
waler
Conslruclion ~ .­ Sumps are usually sited at the corners of excavations below
;_~:\:~~;~_n ,-ITl"',k--,{r the general excavation level. and made big enough to hold
• sufficient water for pumping and keep the excavation floor
relatively dry. A pump is provided for each sump and
connected to a discharge pipe.
.. The drains leading to the sump must be so arranged as 10
Flgur. 29 Open ditches allow drainage of the whole excavation and given sufficient
fall to prevent silting up. or steps taken to keep them
.. This method can only be used when the presence of open
ditches does not seriously inhibit other construction work.
cleaned out from time 10 time. Ditches should be suj­
ficiently wide to allow a water velocity low enough to
As an alternative. agricultural type drains can be used. but prevent erosion. This can be achieved by constructing
it will be necessary to attend to the surface frequently to check weirs made from scaffold boards or similar. at inter­
. combat clogging (Figure 30).

--
vals along the ditch. Additionally. the ditches can be
Surface water improved by laying rough blinding or paving material,
or laying porous open-jointed pipes surrounded by filter
.. male rials (see Appendix 7) .
To prevent ground losses around the sumps it is best 10
install a cage at the base of the sump and fill between the
i cage and the shaft with graded filter material. Pumping can
,; then proceed from within the cage (Figure 32).
Generally the effective depth to which a well-maintained
Porous open-jointed pipe surface pump will operate is 5 10 6 01 below the pump. For
.i Flgur. 30 Agricultural drains excavations of greater depths it is necessary to re-install
the pumps at a lower level or to use a suspended sub­
16. GraVity drainage mersible pump which can be lowered down a timbered

. I
In low permeability soils (e.g. clays) water Can be drained
by gravity to sumps. On sloping sites. a gravity drain can
shaft or perforated steel tube.
In most excavations surface water and groundwater can be
be installed to a discharge point further down the slope. intercepted by garland drains without affecting the stability
of the face (Figu re 33).
.. .- When the impervious soil is underlain by a dry permeable
stratum. it may be possible 10 drain the water off the
Drainage of slopes
excavation through vertical drains to the underlying
material (Figure 31). In open cuts slopes must be designed so that instability due
I -­
to seepage does not occur. Where the slope is too sleep or
• Either open ditches or agricultural type drains can be used
the hydraulic head too large. seepage can 'daylight' on the
to lower the water table if it is close to the surface (i.e.
slope and cause slope failure (Figure 34).
within about Ito 2m). The amount of lowering will depend
on the soil permeability and the size and spacing of the The solution is usually to have a more shallow slope
• drains. together with a toe drain backfilled with filler media \I)

Verl:cal drain or sump

• ~N?NJ~~._ \\ Run-off bygralflty
Relalively drainage 10 sumps
Impermeable
stralum
•
•
Or y
.....
permeable
• stralum
Figure 31 Gravity drainage to sumps
 Inltlal wat!f tabl. Cag.

' .
•..2...
.~' , .---- .~.~.----.----.-

• •e, Orawdown surface

. f..,.",._--J
Filter material

.. ,
Figure 32 Pumping Irom sumps Permeable soil :
',.
/ ". -:.:~.

Corrugat.d sheeling ...............J

", . -- -,.;: =:.:?

'­
'j
I ~/.
"A't"') __ .' . =:1 1

.-¥ '.' I "

1 -
-",
"i~'
r-:."".. - ....

1
, . ~
-"- , ,-.
,
......
r-.. ·
l­
i . ,.~-,." .. - -.
I c.....:--.~.

r-'=:"""_ .. -e :
",1.. Clay ,_.-- .

1 .....
-::: .. '

,'-
Timbered

channel '"

to sump " ".

clay/:''=':'~:~
C. In rock excavation
Puddled
j

\
b. In fully timbered excavation.
..
\'"\ , .,
~
.
\
'.
t»: / . / , .

/~ .}" .' ,,'"

.~ : '"

.,-"~.':.­
(;i....
,,
Clay

~:~~ojuO~~;~d :;~::"l "~"I' ()

a. At toe 01 excavation with sloping lace. Figure 33 Garland drains,
CIRIA fleDOr'! 113 27
...

Oriqin.1 w.ter
... 1",1 belm

Figure 34 Cotlepse of excevetion caused by seepage from

-', steep slopes

:~"""-- Sum p
"'•.....
............ ­ . Oriqin.l w.ter level
-. :.'
',"'.\ \....- before ercavatinn
".' ,/-\
,,;" '\.
"

_filter I.yerf
permeable
synthellC fabric
• membrane
Iqeot"lile I
.J'~\>-,---_ _ Drain.qe ditch.piped
• and backfilled with
qraded qra'el

Figure 35 Stable excavated slopes resulting from flat gradienl

and provision of drainage trench

• prevent emerging water causing damage. It isadvantageous
to return the filter material back up the slope a short way
(Figure 35).
• to avoid loss of ground
Method of sl<lbilising slopes
A less perfect solution is to adopt an intermediate slope
angle in conjunction with sand-bagging the slope or weight­
ing with graded filter material and with a proper backfilled
drainage trench. Alternatively, the nil can be weighted
with loose-laid timbers and sacking. straw or hay padded
behind them. Sand-bagging may be needcd where (local)
perched water tables are revealed.
Sumps outside main construction area
i It may be more convenient to construct sumps outside the
~ main excavation area. This will reduce the risk of damage
by erosion of the soil at formation level (Figure 36).
• i The sumps should be dug to a greater depth than the main
l-.­ excavation before the excavation enters water-bearing
ground, and should be maintained in their original form
throughout the construction period, This mcthod will:
allow placement of filter media that may be necessary
keep groundwater below excavation level at all stages
of the work
enable assessment of difficulties likely to arise due to
sailor groundwater
allow changes in the construction scheme for the main
excavation.
The need for sufficient pumping capacity ill each sump
cannot be stressed too highly. Often a greater pumping
capacity is needed to dewater an excavation than is
required to maintain the water level at a steady state in its
finally lowered position. The pumping plant should be
installed in multiple units so that the additional units
required to give the increased capacity for pumping down
the excavation can be shut down as soon as the required
levels are reached, but should be left in position to act

- 28 CIAIA Hepctl 11:)

 Figure 36 Sumps oosiae main construction area

as standbys in case of breakdown or other emergency.

Intermediate pumping may also be required in a sub­
sequent backfilling state.

Jetted sumps
Jelled sumps are installed by jet!ing a metal lube into
the ground. Prior to withdrawal of the lube a disposable
wellpoint connected to a flexible suction pipe is lowered
inside il and filler media placed between the flexible pipe
and tbe tube. The tube is then withdrawn and the suction .....

pipe connected to a pump (Figure 37). .'

Maximum

Sump pumping in trench excavations

head lill .'
.. ··f"
~
·"'~I ..,."
..
about 7m
,..-::.:
Sump pumping may be used safely in highly permeable .....,--; . "'., ...
soils. such as gravels. and moderately permeable soils.such rt:"'> , ;',' I

as sand and gravel mixtures. It is simple and cheap to install

, "
.
, n·
and may be used with watertight trench sheeting to limit :--
the volume of flow (Figure 38).
To prevent boiling in the bottom of the trench:
a. Drive sheering deeper to lengthen drainage path (see
Reference 5). Ilisposable inlak'
b. Use an open pipe surrounded by gravel as a sump. (II strainer
may be necessary to grout this up later.)
All pumping machinery can fail, and the trench support
must be designedfor such occasionsunless adequate standby Figure 37 Jelled sumps
pumping is ....ilable.

To prevent removal of fines from soil causing loss of

strength in the soil and undermining of the trench bottom Original ground level
and the side support:
a. Surround suction inlet wilh protected graded filter.
Wt;~~:~:'~'Y
_________
. .L GTDU~rl::I: [evel
Il=~, '7-,---­
b. Reduce flow rate through the soil by using open pipe
..-{~_.- Reduced
surrounded in gravel (see (b) above). Inverl 1F=i/l=:til' , ,/'" water level
The delivery side of the pump should be monitored by le"l
I
laking samples of water and checking the proportion of I
\
fines being removed. If excessive fines are being can­ \
,
tlnuously withdrawn or there are signs of trench inslabllil)", •,-,
sump pumping should be slopped and other methods used.
II may be necessary to flood the excavation to maintain "­
stability. Figure 38 Sump pumping in trencn
CIRIA Report 113 29
1
,

••
1 . . _._._._. . . . . -.- -.'-r-'_.----_. ---_ . _.--­
Inllill "ll" l'bl.
"

I Orr
• loll L01O'flftQ

.--- _. -O-'-~--.;:
";7-~-"-'- -~- L;;;;;-~-"'lII·liiii­ ~.. "

, \~:,.;;­
I
• VG~und
wlltt
lfltl

Figure 39 Cones 01 depression

I

18. Pumping from wells or wellpoints
outside an excavation
The object of an external groundwater lowering system is
to lower the water table below the level of the works 10
be carried out, or to reduce the pressures in underlying
• pervious layers so that the stability of the excavation is
ensured-at all times. In addition it affords 'workable con­
ditions' for the operative.
19. Excavated wells or sumps with
Independent pumps
One or more sumps outside the main excavation may be
adequate to lower the water table to the required level in
suitable soils. l.e. soils without 'fines' (Figure 40),

• This is generally achieved by installing a groundwater

lowering.system to:
Cause the water to flow out of and away from' the
excavation thus stabilising the sides, rather than allow­
• ing it to flow into the excavation with risks of instability
of the sides and bottom.
Lower the water level below the level at which the
• work is to be carried out before the main excavation is
commenced.
The methods used for lowering the groundwater level
outside an excavation can be classified as follows:
• Wellpointing systems are nmong the most common
I. Excavated wells or sumps with independent pumps,
2, A number of small diameter wellpoints (the wellpoint
system).
• 3. Multiple bored filter wells with independent or common
pumps at the surface (the shallow well system).
4. Multiple bored filter wells with independent sub­
• mersible pumps in each well (the deep well system).
5. Multi-stage installations of (2) and (3) above,
6. Vacuum well systems.
In all methods fillers should be used to keep loss or dis­
• turbance of the ground 10 acceptable levels.
When water is pumped from a well the quantity pumped
depends on the level to which the water immediately out­
side the well screens is lowered, on the radius of the well
and on the permeability of the ground. Pumping causes
the water table around the well to take til,' form of an
inverted cone called the cone of depression (Figure 39).
When water is pumped simultaneously from a number of
wells the cones of depression intersect. The reduction in
level of the enclosed water table (see below) depends upon
the spacing and size of the wells as well as the reduction
in the water table immediately adjacent to the wells, The
(act that the cones of depression of the wells intersect
means that the yield of water pumped Irom anyone of the
wells is considerably less than that from a single isolated
well for the same reduction in water level.
Figure 40 Pumping Irom two wells or sumps
20. Vertical wellpoint systems
methods of dewatering excavations. They are quick to
install. versatile and can remove large quantities of water
in relarivelv short times. However. wellpoints form
obstructions to other construction work and the effective
depth of drawdown is limited to 5 m to 6 m depending on
permeability and soil structure, (Figure 41). Multistage
systems are necessary for greater drawdown depths.
Wellpoints are essentially shallow wells comprising smn!l
wellscreens of about 50 mm diameter by about 0,5 to 1.0 In
long connected into a common header pipe from which the
water can be pumped by a vacuum assisted centrifugal
pump to a convenient discharge point. Well pointing is
normally carried out by specialists,
Wellpoinrs are normally installed by jetting them into the
ground (Figure ~2), The wellpoint and ri.cr pipe are
assembled on a flexible jetting pipe attached to the top 01
the riser pipe. The jetting pump normally supplies water
to the jetting tip at a rate of about 20 I/s at a pressure of
about8 bar. In loose sands.jetting down to5 morsoshould
take only a few minutes. Difficulty can be experienced in
compact sand and gravels. compact clean gravel. open
gravel, heavy clay and boulder clay. Jetting in the first two
conditions leads to a high loss of water with very little
penetration: in boulder clay the presence of boulders rnav
make jetting to the required depth, in the correct place. a
tedious business or even impossible,
 May be pnss.bl e with
Inc{cas~d vacuum
100 a Figure 41 Approximate grading
limits suitable for weltpoint
Increasingly dewatering. Note system must
80 10
heavy yield be hydraulically and pneu­
Oilln.ge , Grading ~ matically efficient

--
and svbaquftllJS
60 Impraclical .~. suilable '~' excavations LO
-4-----­ ~-
.,';' may be
=
c
::: La ,,
'.
~~ pre!Nable
:~
~
a. ..'
~ ~.
:;' 20
~u
~

.:::

t
A hole puncher incorporating a drophammer. consisting
of heavy duty casing in conjunction with a jelling pipe is
often used to aid penetration of difficult soils (Figure 43). -- . -~_. ­
'"':"- . : ~:
When equipped with a sanding caSl".~:. rhe holepuncher has
been used to jet holes up to 600 mm in diameter and 36 m ,.­
deep. The casing assures a clean. continuous filter pack in
fine-grained soils.
-.
Where).l will be difficult to instal) welipoinlS by jetting. a .• "-'.
bored hole installation using disposable wellpoints may be Sond
more appropriate. In this case a borehole is drilled to the I.J.~--fitler
required depth and temporary casing placed if necessary.
Figure 43 note
The wellpoint and riser pipe are then installed and the hole
puncher and casIng
backfilled with coarse sand to form a filter as the casing is
withdrawn. .­
In line sandy and silty soils. a sand filter pack of suitable
grading is placed around the point ('sanding-in'). This is
,--- -. ­
~

.::-~
Well point

"
done by rotating the riser pipe to create a gap around the
wellpoint and riser pipe during jelling and shovelling sand """.'>-,..J'::'" FIgure 44 Sanding·in
into the gap until it has been filled (Figure 44).
Jetting wat!T 10 pump

!
1
;;:'t ·j·1 'j'. k
.. "

~; 1 It '
, ' *.:~

Inflow
"'~":i'
; . ...,! I " ,-,
pipe

Upward

;\'\\1 JW{;,i

swirling
flow 01
jelllng waler
,:,,~I l'~ .", lind dislodged
soil pulides
'!::
I.
Ball valve held
tn open [unsealedI
'/"t'--posilion by
li \.. 1\ Jetting w<ller

\\'::;/j\~'
pressure

Tip of wellpoinl
with high pressure
jf!t sfreilm

Jelling action of wei/point.

Figure 42 Welfpoinl jelling and dewatemg. Dewatering action of wettpoin:

CIAIA Report 113 31

 Tuning weltpoints
A~ tile water table is lowered, SOI11l: wctlpoinrs in the
, . system may heg.in 10 draw air causing lo."i.'\ or vacuum. Tluv.
if cxccssivc , C,1I1 prevent the required druwdown being
nbtninc.L
Figure 45 Stenosro
In ordc: 10 halnucc the water now (rom each wcllpoint so wettpoi»:
that cadi prouuccs its maximum potcnriul water yield
without allowing excessive amounts or air to enter the
i \,
system, the xtop valve on each pouu is adjusted by throt­ 1
tliug back the valve until the now is smooth and then reo ~tlalnlng
1
tOI\:lIf
opening il slightly, This procedure is termed 'luning' or
'I rimming' the wcllpoints.

Wellpoinl components
~m [ [lmner

Standard wellpo int (recoverable) (Figure 45)

These usually consist of SO mm (2 in) diameter steel pipe

1m ~
with a perforated length at the lower end. An orifice at the

base allows water 10 be forced down the wcllpoint into the

ground when jelling the point into the ground, When the

well is in use, water is sucked in through the perforated

length, the orifice being sealed by a ball valve,

The wellpoint is extracted by jetting out. This may be

difficult if the wetlpoin! has hcen in place for a long lime,

lr\hnq thOf

Disposable wellpoim (Figure 46)

For some types of work, as where wellpointing is required

for several weeks or where chemically aggressive ground­

water would cause rapid corrosion or clogging of the point.

disposable wellpoints are advantageous.

TIle swing [oint pipe (Figure 47)

Consists of a shari length of flexible pipe with a gate valve,
and connects the lap of the riser pipe to the header pipe.

'~ :;,."
... ~~.. Htadtr
:>;\". piP!
; .
. ,.~",

..... ,..
'
,~ .

/' .
.,--'("
........:;-:1' '.. _
'. :"
... ­
., ,.. '"
. ," , ,"
.;:. . , . , II _
i/>
I.
,';. < ~ " . m:'
~'
r~

........

I
'. . I~
,~,,; . W.
IL
.\ --­
, .' .,\
-
-
1/
....- r-~~-r -Sloll,d
lube
..... :-1 I
I'
I
I~
I;

Figure 46 Disposable Figure 47 Arrangement of swing joml pipe

~llpOint connection 10 header

CIRIA Report \ 13
J­

1. Figure 48 Header pipe fillings

l..
1 Wrllplllni
hh.oH

pOInt

,,

Vertical wellpolnt systems lor trench excavations

Wellpoints are installed at regular intervals on one or both
sides of the trench and linked in parallel 10 a header main
connected \0 a pump (Figure 50).
The header pipe (Figure 48)
Wellpointing has the advantage of drawing water "way
Normally of high impact plastic in 6 m lengths which are

from the trench and in suitable conditions is effcctiv c in

light-weight (handled by one man) and non-corrodible.
lowering the water by 4 to 6 m. It will also reduce the
• Sizes are-generally 0.15 m (6 in) but for high flow may be
hydrostatic head on the trench support system. ns greatest
0.2 m or:0.3 m. These have take off points for connection
use is in sands; the heavy flows in very permeable ground.
10 the swing joints of the risers. and are connected together
such as gravels. mean that the wellpoints have to be so
by couplings that allow a certain freedom of skew.
close together that the method becomes impractical. In
Steel pipe is used where the risk of damage is great. e.g. clavs the rate of seepage is 100 small for the system 10
at points where construction traffic crosses the system. be properly effective. Silts can be stabilised in certain
conditions by using special procedures (see chart. Figure
• The pump (Figure 49)
5). Note: The horlzontatand vertical permeabilities of soils
·., The header pipe is connected to the pump. This is generally
rna}' diller due to the presence of silty or clayey layers
a vacuum assisted self-priming centrifugal type which are often not picked up in the site investigation. This
driven by dieselor electric motor. A range ofpump capacit­ mal' cause difficulty in drawdown, particularly in granular
ies is available. glacial deposits.

r
Flr.iM'!
connection I Ii, I..'

I:~
! . t
/i' . . ~.
!
~e adcr
pipe
:oypllng

Well porn I
/

Figure 49 Wellpoint dewaCering system components

i IAIA Repon '13 11

 Wellpol~t pump
W~lIpoil11S are usuully installed at the required ~pacing by
jelling. them in. In ground with dense lay~rs or cobbles and
boulders it muy be necessary to pre-bore the holes. The
efficiency or the wellpoints is increased hy 'sanding in' the
wcllpouu und riser using a column of sharp sand.

Slngle-stded wellpolm
Adt l(,"tllge:
Allow, on" 'ille of trench 10 he kepi free of wellpoints and
header pipes thus providing. better access.
)

... --:
Disadvantages: I ,.
I. Usefulness limited as trench depth or width increases.
2. Requires permeable soil to an adequate depth below
formation.
3. Requires a wide angle cone of depression. This can only
be obtained in Ihe lower range of perrneabiliries for
which wellpointing techniques are suitable.
·i R!duced
-walel le~d
Variations; _--+Ht~
a, Used in uniformly graded sand (Figure 51).
b. Used where there is a clay layer above formation level
with granular aquifers above and below. Used with sand
drains and wellpoints sanded in (Figure 52), Alterna­
lively, it could be cheaper to use a double-sided well­
pointing system, again with Ihe wellpoints sanded in, Figure 50 Vertical weI/point system tor trench excavation
Header Variations:
main a. Used in soils of medium permeability (e.g. clean sand
and clean sand and gravel mixtures) (Figure 53).
Effective drawdown under the centre-line of the main
is limited to approximately 5.5 m.
b. Used in sand overlying clay where the clay is above
Drawdown
Formalion formation level (Figure 54).
_~ '. at trenchU level Provides a practical scheme without the need to use
-......... .. ... ~- .........
. . ..
.
c:«: watertight interlocking sheets but seepage must be con­
'­ trolled by stan king with sand bags, or sump pumping.
. ,

'" ,
c. Used in fine grained soils with low permeability-incor­
.
porates improved vacuum (Figure 55).
Reduced -:

/
waler level ~Wellpojnts
Standing waler level

Figure 51 Single-sided weI/point system: variation a Ground level Header main

Standing water Ie «I

-=~
Ground level
Sand drain

~~~TIt'-.J---·_---
About 1m

-D~~::~l-
at trench
---- ­ I
Reduced
-----,-,- ~I
waler le,el ~-

---
Sand
~-."' ........
'<,
," .
Reduced
//~ water (.,el

~~~~-.t'-..::::-.:.=-.:=:::

,~
~~~
...--­
W,llpoint -------
-'-
I
/~-r---
Sanding in­
optional
,
....... "', ­

, ... , ...... System should allow for this

/'
distance to be about D·5m
Reduced . / - - -"-'-_ Figure 53 Double-sided wettpoin: system: variation a
_Sand
waler le,el Formation (Standing water level
column
Iml

~iS::d ~~~ C~.~/::·:~~

Figure 52 Single-sided weI/point system: va;'Ation b
Iml
Double-sided wellpolnl
Sand' i~9 ;["
'1.1 . .
.4duanlages:
- 1. Gives the most effective drawdown and reduces the risk
--------- I ~I~ "1 . ..-'---- ­
of blowing in the bottom of the trench. II. ..-..
,
I

.. I'.. ,. .
I ,.
I.,,~
,,­
. .

1. Allows a wider trench width than the single-sided :_:_:_.::-==-:--:_:_:._:.:..._ ~ __ ' --:=: I:. "'-~_=-_~._~- i,"'-"'._"",_=~-:i.=-_~-.co.-,
system, -
--Cla~-c-w;IT-p~i~ls7--~-·-': -=.-.-O:--':-':-R~~~;~ -=::-::-:-­
Disadoantage: Open sheetin; Sandbags waler Iml
<educes access available on both sides of the trench. Figure 54 Double-sided w91/point system: variation b
-,j4 CIAIA Report 11.1
 Top 1m baclillied Dnuhll'AStch'd wellpolnt-e-multl-stage !i~'sll'lII (Fi~lirC Sfl)
"Standing waler wllh lamped clay Used in: sands. and 'and and gravel mixtures
~ ._~ ­ level
10 form seal
--Ground level

~[!rj~~t]~~
,~/»N
'
"""._ Ad/1aIlfQge:
Increases effective depth of drnwdown.

Disadvantages:
1. Requires careful planning.

--.---­
2, Increases difficult ies of access on both sides of trench,

.............Ileduced

"
........ -- ........... .."" water (eve{
3. Bauers must be checked for slope stability including
effect of seepage forces.
4, Other alternatives could be considered, e.g. deep wells,
Sand
watertight trench sheeting. etc.
Iiller Well point
Figure 55 Douale·sided weI/point system: variation c Progressive "'ellpoint system
For lengths of trench less than ahout 120 m, a static wellpo­
int system is appropriate. i.e. wellpoinrs are installed and
Improved vacuum has the following: connected to the pumping main for the whole length. For
~_Ad"antages:
lengths greater than 120m, it mal' be cheaper 10 use a
1. Fine grained soil can be drained. progressive system, 'leapfrogging' wellpoints forward as a
, 2. Improves the effectiveness of the wellpoint system, section of trench is completed. A progressive wcllpoint
! 3. Reduces drawdown time. system is illustrated in Figures 57 and 58.
- 4. Can increase depth of drawdown to as much as 7.5 rn. The stage lengths are equal and contain a fixed number of
headers,
, Disad"a~lages:
I 1. The ~Jficiency of the system depends on the quality of The stage length selected is a balance between the desired
'..- workmanship and the pumps. rate of progress and the times required for the first three
2. Pumping time for full effect may take several weeks, stages.
I 3. The efficiency of this system is limited by the tendency
, to draw air into the system.

flrllllagt had,r
St~~~d Itlgl ~bU\ Ind :
~uder
~:II;tI •. :~~- =:X~,~' ~-:.~:~ -;!" .i?
I WrU POI~' . . . . , • ~ • • , • ~ , " • • • • • • • • ./ :'.... Wldl~
Ullu ." ~ , •• ~' • • • ' • • ~ i .' , •• I ~ • • • •-' ./,/ 01lrtMh

:~~lt: ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ "_. -: ~~==2~ ~_·w-'-;_~~~t~~_O_~~~~1.~~9~_-:

Well POlntl 8Idlllfl"~ Il!nch open Pump In; 'It'tl! palnll
bel"~ Ind 9tl~ull Dr btln; ~D .. n In "Uln Ind
,llrlClrd Itduchon UChll~d pr~O!Hl pump, btln;
Ind ft!llcnd In plJlIIIllnQ lnshlltd
11IIlIrird
51JO'S ShOt 1 SlIOf J StJO! 1 Shgr 1

Figure 57 Progressive weI/point system: sequence 01

:_ 'Igure 56 Douale·sided multi·stage weI/point system operations

llrov! Ihowmg
wellpOllll1 Wllh
flltf pip",
IWlng COMrtllOlll,
hndlt

Figure 58 Progressive weI/point system: generalleyout

AlA Rep0l'1113 35
 ••

, sc

Figure 59 Wellpoinr arrangement

lor open excavations

Vertical wellpoint systems for open excavations

(Figure 59)
Wellpoints are normally installed at regular intervals
around the perimeter or the excavation (ring system) with
a gap in one or more locations to allow access ramps for
men and machines.
Where the wells are placed dose together, the cones of
depression for individual wells overlap, and the drawdown
within an open excavation can approximate to the level of
the wellpoint tips (Figures 60 and 61).
Where a drawdown or more than about 5 t06 m is required,
a multi-stage system can be used (Figures 62 and 63).
Once drawdown is established, it is often possible in multi­
stage installations to maintain drawdown from the lower
stagers) and discontinue pumping from the upper stage(s).
This cartresult in savings in header pipe and pumps as they
are progressively moved down stage. But, where there is
a danger of the excavation filling rapidly with water if
pumpi~g stops for any reason, then sufficient standby
pumps must be kept at each stage to deal with this
eventuality.
Note:
The use of multistage wellpointing can lead LO very wide
excavations at ground level and can hinder the main exca­
vation works. Pipework is particularly vulnerable to
damage by construction plant and the systemsshould have
valves to allow shutdown of sections or the work and
permit by-passes around damaged pipework to be installed
rapidly.
Spacing of wellpoinls
The number of wellpoints required and their spacing
depends on the permeability of the soil and the time
available to effect drawdown. Typical spacings for various

Figure 60 Ellect on cone 01 depression achieved by close Figure 61 Effectofwelfpoinlsonbott:sides01 wideexcavanon

weI/pointing
51'1,1
":" '=="",
._.-._._._._.
Q'd~"«
D·'qr"11 wllfl ',.,1

~".J."",-_,.......

lQ.. ,'t4 ~'1l\l"4

_lltf 1,,,1

Figure 62 Three-stage weI/point Installation Figure 63 Multi-stage wellpoinl inslal/aMn

36 CIRIA Report 11:)
, Figure 64 Nomogram for weI/point Ground
_- spacing (m) in clean. w.ler Sp>c,ng of wellpolOls 1m!
uniform sand and gravel lowering Im\
____ P"ol
150
110 °75 o l?J."(o~. poinls
100 ".0501 gr"'l
100 "" Co"s.
80 .'
70 050 •••••• 050 gl",1 ~
60 /., 0 50 •••••••.
50 '.50 "",,"'0.75 1·00' ••, fine g_,,_,_.I_­
•••• • •••,.... • ••••• _••••• - •• 0-0
'·0
.e:::·2 0'0: .::::••••• .1- 00 _•• 100' 2.00 Com. sand

lO t t••:
l ' :••••••••••-•••_••
" . _••• """" fine

1·5 '~"" • 150 2.00 'gr"el"""""'~----I

20 2·,0 '" M.dium sand
lOO ······.100••• lOO
2·50 ••••••
'·5 lOO '·00 ••••••••••
)·0
'·00 Co"s. M.dium """"'c.--­
5·00
sand sand fine sand

600

)·00
05
fine
sand
soil types and the approximate time required 10 obtain A better approximation can be obtained [rom the nomo­
I effective drawdown are given below. grams (Figures 64 and 65). These are given for continuous
uniform clean sands and gravels. and for stratified clean
sands and gravels.
son Typlcal spacing Time (days)
~Silry sand 1.5-2.0 m 7-21 (could be Noles:
longer) I. Design should be based on the most permeable of the
Clean fine to coarse sand 1.0-1.5 m 3-10 strata.
and sandy gravel 2. The lower the permeability of the ground. the Sleeper
-Pine 10 coarse gravel 0.5-1.0 m 1-2 the drawdown curve becomes.
Sp>cing of w.llpoinls [ml
Ground ,
waler 03
low."nglml
0) Coarse
o)
oo53~
17 5
150 05 05 g",,1
~---
115 o5 1 0 .' ••••••
100
10· .'
....,fa3 Q_""···fln.
.,~-
75 o3 •••••• ..,·'·'C~ars. gravel
05 10 ..»:"'.0: .~~.···10· gravel
5·0 .' ._••,... 30 ••.• _._ •.·01 ­
'·0 ••••, .-- •••••--, 0 .•• -.,-- Coars.
3 ° ,:.::,:(0: .~::~ ...... ·_···--i~o f,ne sand

";:'-'::l~O '.~""··io ) O· .••.... ~:~::.I. ••.•.

Pivot
10 points
........ ,.. -".'­
30 <, '0 "'''--'0-0­
, .0 30 ••••••• CO"" M.d,um
~.nd s.nd
1· 0 fine ' ..
sand '·0
M.dium
sand ...........................
:; 05
i Igure 65 Nomogram for weI/point ~_...J

-..,lacing (m) in stratified 03 fin.

cteen send and gravel sand
,

! RIA Report 113 37

 Limilation or suction Iill in wallpointmc systems 21. Vacuum wellpolntlng
The V:'U':U\l111 that (an theoretically he developed is a rune­
Drawdown by normal gravity now wcllpointing is very slow
lion of the dC"Iign of fhe pumping equipment. the
in silts. silty sands tlIH.I soils with a D JIl grain size less

­-
,
'.
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure in the
system.
Standurd wcllpoint pumps cannot lower the absolute press­
than about 0.05 mrn (i.e. coarse silt to line sand grading).
Gravity wellpointing is insufficient ro overcome the fric­

tional forces retarding flow and pumping nnly empties Ihe

ure below ubout l.n m of wnter I 125mrn mercury) and thus wells and is ineffective in dewatering tile surrounding soil.

at sea level. the theoretical vacuum that can be developed

In these situations vacuum wcllpointing can be used to
!'
-,~
is about IIU III water - 1.6 m water = 8.7 m water. This
value would reduce hy ubout I m for every 3~8 m (1000 ft)
increase the stability of excavations and is particularly
effective in stratified soils (Figure 66).

- of elevation above sea level.

In practice. pumps tire frequently not in perfect condition.
In this method. the upper part of the riser pipe is sealed

- and the system may be overloaded with air entering

through leaks in the piping and through the wellpoint
screens. so the actual vacuum that can be achieved will be
with clay (bentonite) 10 maintain a high vacuum around
the well screen and sand filter and increase water flow
towards the wellpoint. The welipoints must be close spaced
and are effective to a depth of only about 4 m.

--. around 6 to 7 m. In addition to these losses. friction in the

System will further limit the available vacuum for lifting
water and in practice the maximum dl ;1\\ L10wn of the water
table will be between 5 m and 6 m.
Soils stabilised by the vacuum method remain full of water.
i.e. a cone of depression is not achieved. Therefore these
soils. particulnrly if loose. should be protected from sudden

- The suction intake of the pump should be set level with

the header pipe to maximise the suction performance.
disturbance or loading shocks which could cause llque­
faction. Pumping should be continuous.

Estimating quantity of water to be pumped by

wellpoint dewatering systems
The total quantity of water likely to be pumped from
an excavation during dewatering must be estimated as
- accurately as possible in order to determine the size and
number of pumping units. the size(s) of the header pipe and
the discharge pipe(s). Theoretical methods for estimating
total yield and drawdown for various well configurations
and for confined or unconfined aquifers are given by Man­
sur and Kaufman!", and by Powers'!",
Relationships between pumping rate and drawdown for
the most common configurations of wellpoint systems are
given on Page 21.
Cl,y~ ' -...
.:.....-_-:...z-'--
Bentonile~
to the surface and connected to a wellpoint pump.
22. Horizontal wellpoints
These are used mainly for pipeline work. They consist of
perforated pipes laid horizontally in a trench and connected
to a suitable pump.
The trenches may be dug by hand. suitable excavator
(e.g. dragline or backhoe) or purpose built trench cutting
machines (Figure 67). In some circumstances it may be
useful to lower the water table bv conventional vertical
wellpoinrs in order to allow the construction of a trench
below the water table. and then to place the horizontal
wellpoint pipe by hand with filter media around It.
Special machines are available that can excavate a trench
of 225 mm minimum width to a depth of between 1.8 m
and 6 rn.Iay a perforated plasricpipe and backfill the trench
in one continuous operation. The pipe is normally of80 mm
diameter but can be of 100 mm and 150mm diameter and
is wrapped in a filter of nylon mesh or similar material.
The pipe is generally supplied in 100 m long rolls and is
joined to a length of unperformed pipe which is brought
­

·.. ......."........".'
seal '•. ~ .'. )I ...... ll ..... .: ......

The design principles are similar to those for vertical

. . ..
"?' • II ":
';. ~
:~~ ~.;.
." Ii. ... :-. wellpoints.
':~
..... "....
"............
- .....
'. It .. " ,..
Fine ' Ii." .. "11 : Advantages
sands
'

. • . . . 'I
'.t III 'It ~'.
•
Provides clear working area above ground for other

-
·
and - 7 r.. -i •. ,: ....... ::. ... contractors.
silts •.•.
.... ....
-i.• \l. :':11 . . . . . . j:
Allows fast rate of advance across country (lip to
'.. ~'l( .'~
: '~ ~ • -i :.'~
1000m/day) and isparticularly suited to long pipe laying
:~
•.•

....... ~
.. ,
· ~

~.• , '.' :II: '.

· ~ i: :II. '~.
• ~ :II"
contracts.
, '. 'lCo • • • • 'l(
letting water or. ir is not rcq .ued fOI utvtnllatiou.
Filter ~ __ ;.; • • •:11 •

..
... 11; • • • •

sand ':
• • •
,:~
• • 1
,~,
•
. ~"")l l(.:
Simply dismantled by removing waste pipe,; and rumpc; .
:II.' .. II ' .

~~.
... '.
'.:. 01 • ,.
- : . : .11 II .'J! • .~ Disadoantages
-~.-
.. ~ , ,JI. . " . " ,.. Depth of drawdown limited \0 about 4 m.
·i • • • • . ~· •••..• :. The special machine weighs 32 tonnes and is too heavy
''ll. ,'.,. io. ,.' '. ' . . . . l(.
.. ~ • !' ,. "!l '., • ,•.; •• ~ to be used in some soils because of the danger of trench

- ...• .,.':"

'.' •• :~: .
'1'1I':~
~.
~ " ., ..~ ...... ; '10' ..
••••

r-.--r ..." •..•.

It .. ';,"
~
instability. It can be fitted with wider tracks to reduce
the ground pressure.
The range of suitable soils is more limited than for
Figure 66 Sealed vacuum weuook«
- 38
conventional wellpoints and progress ispoor where open

CIAIA Aep0r1113
 followrnQ Ifn9t~ '. ,.,',
rudy for[111n9 Mon pHfor1ttd
!ucllon
, plpt
Figure 67 Installalion 01 horizontal weI/point
by purpose·buill machine . Compltl!d llid len9th,
coupled to pump
Perforallon

gravel. cobbles and boulders exist. Also. iflayers of soft .l,rts heft-

10 very soh clay are present in the dig with a high water
table, the clay may slurry up and coat the pipe thereby
clogging it as it is being laid.
Mobilisation and demobilisation charges of special
trenchers are high, severelv restrirting the use of this
method on small contracts.
There is a danger of damage being caused to under­ Wells are constructed by boring a hole by rotary or per­
grouad pipes and cables in the path of the trencher. if cussion drilling using a temporary casing 10 support the
their locations are not known or are only approximately sides where necessary. When the required depth is reached
known. the borehole should be cleared of boring slurry and washed
free of any drilling mud used, An inner tube. having some
or all of its length perforated to allow the ingress of water.
23. Deep well systems is then inserted into the hole and filter media placed around
the inner tube as the temporary casing is withdrawn. The
Deep wells are of high initial cost and require a high
inner tube is referred 10 as the well screen. and the filter
standard of design and expertise in installation 10 achieve
material, which is generally 75 mm thick, as the filter pack
maximum economy. They should be constructed 10 the
or gravel pack (Figure 68).
standards of accepted good practice used for the instal­
lation of water wells. However. the very stringent health During the sinking of the wells. water is normally used as
requirements for personnel and materials used for the the ~ushing medium, since bentonite muds and foam can
latter are not appropriate. Energy costs are lower than for cause clogging of the bore bole walls with a consequent
wellpolnting because 0 the higher mec~anical efficiepcy reduction in well efficiency. However, proprietary brands
of the -pumps used• t<~ ,.
• of flushing medium. such as Johnson's 'Revert', which
must be taken into account for sites in built-up areas (see break down the viscosity of the mud within a sbort period
Appendix 13). of time, can be useful.

__ ~ Ii
~.
t: h'
u.. - -
I: .-_==_ 111,n,
111.1,"

-:--
- -It':
~ il --­
,,~i'=-_-_-

:-
-"-I:ir;.
- I
:~f"''::::
. --­
__
=~
--=- ".J • -=-::
--- 1· ,: ----­
,...
- - i' 1 .; - -­
;
,j.
,J
"
.-,,
(

Figure 66 Deep dewatering well

CIRIA Report 113 39

• Impermeable

~ ~
Figure 69 Use of deep wells

·. .:~.
., -,
. ..:...-._- Oeep
basement
~ f-l----J-I~
- ,
,

•
/'
Ground wilter
• under artes~an pressure

Deep wells are pumped using submersible pumps of appro­
priate size and power, installed inside the well screens and
connected to riser pipes.
Deep well systems are of use in gravel, to silty nne sands
and in water bearing rocks. They are primarily for use with
deep excavations and where artesian water is present below
In general. slot sizes in the screens vary from I mm to
3 mm wide giving between 5% and 15% open area,
The annulus around the well screen is filled with a filter
sand or gravel ,,"d is termed the niter pack or gravel pack
(see Appendix 7). The filter pack must:
Fill the annulus around the well screen to prevent col­

an impermeable stratum (Figure 69).

• lapse of the borehole walls,

The depths of the well(s) will depend on the ground per­ Retain sufficient of the natural soil and prevent the fines

meability, the extent of the area to be dewatered and the from being pumped continuously.

drawdown required. Where a large dr awdown is required During well development (see Section 25) allow a pro­

in highly permeable ground. heavy pumping will be portion of the natural fines to pass and. particularly.

involved. necessitating large pumps and therefore large any mud cake that has built up on the sides of the hair,

diameter wells, Transmit the water freely from the natural soil to the

screen during pumping,

Design requirements
If this type of installation is to be designed economically
the ground permeability must be assessed from full scale
pumping tests (see Appendix 1).
•
It will also be necessary to obtain complete information on
the grading of permeable soils forming the aquifer so that
• facility to ensure satisfactory filtering. However. the indi­
a correctly designed filter pack material can be used (see
Appendix 7),
Because of their depth and the usually longer pumping
• period these installations are more likely to cause settle­
ment of nearby structures. and the use of recharge methods
may have to be considered.
· ,
For the same reason. there may be a more severe effect
on local water supplies which are drawn from wells.
Well screens
The minimum diameter of well screen (and borehole
casing) is determined by the size of pump to be installed.
Corrosion and encrustation can occur, depending on
groundwater and other conditions. and influencethe choice
of material for the screens. For temporary works. encrus­
tation is unlikely to cause serious trouble.
Well screens commercially available include:
a. Stoned PVC screen which is reasonable in cost and is
resistant to corrosion.
b. Continuous slot well screen constructed from circular or
shaped wire using galvanised or slainless steel.
c. Louvred well screens formed by piercing and deforming
sheet metal,
d. Wire mesh well screens constructed from woven wire
mesh mounled on a perforated pipe body,
Other types used in dewatering include slotted fibreglass
and continuous slot designs in plastic construction.
.~ 40
24. Shallow well system
This system is a cross between the deep well and wellpoinl
methods discussed above, The installation of the wells is
essentially the same as for deep bored wells with equal
vidual riser pipes in each well can be connected either to
individual wellpoint pumps or to a common suction header
main (Figure 70).
The cost of installation of wells is significant and so the
system is more appropriate for an excavation thai has to
be pumped for several months. On a congested site the use
of a shallow well system may be preferred to a wellpoint
system because of the smaller number of risers that may
hinder the construction operations.
25. Well development
Once the c.sJOg, screen and filter or gravel (if any) have
been inserted in the drilled hole. the well should be devel­
oped so as to give maximum yield. Development involves
increasing the natural permeability of the aquifer around
the screen or gravel pack by rerno.. . ing lines from the soil.
Note: The design of the well screen and filter pack should
be such as to allow fines 10 be removed from the soil only
in the immediate vicinity of the well. It must nor allow
continuous removal of fines. In order to do this, water
must be made to flow both into and out of the well through
the screen and filter, This prevents any bridging action of
the soil and eventually will draw all the fines into the well
where they can be removed by pumping, bailing, etc.
There are numerous methods of developing wells (for
further information see reference 12),
CIRIA Report 113
 L

FIgure 70 Arrangement of a shallow well system

". Cammon IUUlon

ktJder plpr

[ -----~------
.-.......,::-- ------ r

-""'::::-'­
-­ --... :::::::::c-~
-----...~
.:
r " .

w:;-;~_=-----------
<, '­
'-- .-'_. ~lf
.\.1
1

'­
\1: . -: "'-.",
,A:.--.__.........._-­
'-'-'-
--~-

~
' • Orowd.wn "_
I lnel
I , - - - Fllttr mateml
I I
: -Perlotalr~ Hellon
- ' <;

26. Eductor system Eductor efficiency

This svsrern, also known as the Jet Eductor Svsiern or Efficiency of eductors is verj low (generally about 25(( [0
Ejector System. is similar to the wellp.-in: s~ ~tel11 (see J00C). and taking into account the efr1l'iellcy o( the pump

I section 20) except that the groundwater is sucked into the

eductor by a vacuum produced at depth by a nozzle and
venturi system fed by a high pressure ring main. the ground,
together with friction losses iu headers. risers and swine
joints. the efficiencv of the svstern as a whole rare I\'exceeds
ISo/<. In practice. an ol'erall efficiencv of around'lOse can
water being pumped away through a separate header pipe he expected as against about -lOt;( for; multistage wellpoint
r to discharge (Figure 71). system.
-'- ,
Eductors are not limited in suction as are wellpoints and Thus the cost of pumping with edurtor systems i~ ubou:
w are best suited 10 low permeability soils for dewatering four times that for a multistage wellpoinr system. However.
deep excavations such as shafts. tunnels and open cuts these costs can he offset bv savinas in installation costs and
1 suppohed hy sheeting. where the rate of pumping is rela­
tivelv small and the water level has 10 he lowered bv more
a reduction in the amoun'l of ex~a\'<ltion required.

than' about 10 m. '

L Both two-pipe and single-pipe eductor systems are used.

Ihe former normally being installed within a wellscreen
and casing.
L For further information see reference 10. Chapter 18.
Design of eductor system
An eductor system can be designed hy assuming the line
or ring of educ-or wells to he equivalent to a continuous
drainage slot (i.e. they are closely spaced) and 'computing

-'­
W~lI CU,n9
.lnd screen

Retum

L hider

~Omm return line

• /..... . /ra,.a,1
. J)mm supply line
I ,-la,1
• t 1
/ ' " Educlor body
Figure 71 A basic educior system

l2mm ruer
with turned
coup 1in9 1 . t Typical two pipe
/"
._Fool valve

educ(or InsUlleoll '-'--Screoen

In a 150mm well
Eduetor
body the IOta Iinduced now 10 the system 10 achieve the required
FOOl
Yaln-_M drawdown (see section 13). Then select a 'pacing thai will
require an acceptable induced flow from the eductor wells.
Having assessed the requ ired drive pressure at each cducror
SCmm wellpolnt well head 10 achieve the required drawdown for the pro­
Jrp1ul tingle posed depth of excavation. the rating of the pressure pump
pip' educlor
ll'lflitl1e~ in it can be selected, Generally an input flow of about Jj to 2!
SDmm times the induced now is required. This ratio depends on
lIIleltpoinl
CrRIA Report 113 • 41
 I
•
AIl""'¥>1",=~,=~~::.,,~~~:=q_t-A"~!)l­
Dewatering

system

l.. EHavalion
._.-,.,.L,Ft-T·~·-·-·-·-·-·­
/- '"" ---_.- .. --­
.. _.. _----.-­. ..-.., .......

/'\.._.-·-<;'::::~::e
•_. \ without
Orawdown curve recharqe
.. Figure 72 Recharge by trench with recharqe

nozzle size and design. drive pressure and the depth at
.. which the eductor is positioned.
An eductor system may be powered by individual small
high pressure centrifugal pumps. or by a large pump pump­
ing into a single pressure main supplying high pressure
.. water 10 each eductor poin: which in turn is connected to
a single return header. In a single pump set up, the water
is usuallycirculated through a stilling tank with an overflow
that is the total induced flow of the system.
•
The system design must take account of the static lift from
the eductors to the water level in the recirculation lank:
a reduction in pressure within a confined aquifer nnd to
prevent pollution. The latter effect can be harmful since it
can have a long term effect.
It is generally more difficult to recharge water to the ground
than to extract it, since a pumping well is self-cleaning and
foreign materials tend to be purged from it. On the orhe:
hand. a recharge well is extremely susceptible to clogging
by suspended solids in the recharge water or chemicals
which can precipitate out.
Maintaining water levels

.. head loss in the pressure main. the return riser and the
return header.
Recharge can be made by pumping the discharge water
back into trenches or wells either directly or via a header
tank if additional head is required.
Net input capacity of the pressure pump depends on:
drive pressure required Recharge using trenches (Figure 72)
• input flow
Recharging by returning groundwater to trenches will
diameter and design of the eductor [et nozzle. cause some of the water to flow back towards the
.. excavation. This can cause instability of the sides of the
excavation where the soils are highly permeable and some
27. Attlffclal recharge form of barrier (e.g. sheet piling) may be necessary (Figure

.. Artificial recharge is the process of causing water to ftow

into the ground.

This may be necessary during dewatering to prevent the
.. groundwater from being lowered below nearby buildings
which might otherwise cause them to settle: or to avoid a
73).
Note:
Algae may tend to build up on the bottom and side> of
trenches with time which will progressively decrease their
acceptance rate. Periodic inspection should be made
check for this occurrence and the trenches cleaned as
[Q

temporary decrease in the capacity of supply wells: to avoid necessary.

. Instability due
--------_.=---­
to flow 01
r echarqe waler
.. <;:
, r
, .. ,J
/ ... ~.,

.. ------ .-..... ...........

Barrrer
..

..

_ L

.
'-­
----.-. --..-.......
Figure 73 Possible instability in permeable soils, and the us.
of 8 barrier to counteract ft.

CIRIA Report 113

.
 Meter Control 'alve A" 'ent
Recharge using wells (Figure 74)
Filter backwash
Wells nrc far superior In t1'CllL'!lCS a:- water can be pumped / /tube
directly 10 the aquifer being depicted by the groundwater
lowcrinp opcrunon. Also. the use (If u concrete or grout ..

seal from ground level can allow an increased head of water

10 force the recharge water hack into the ground and avoid
".j'
" .
the problem of flow hack to the excavation and the resultant -'-".~", ~
instability associated with the usc of trenches. --
- ------ .
ClaY -.=-=--_-_-_:;
The wells should be dcsi~ncd in the same way as for - ----,.
=---------,.
dewatering wells except that the well screens Should have
an ample open area to give a reserve against clogging
(Figure 75). It may be necessary 10 pump from the wells
occasionally to unclog the screens. .. \ Downspout
Sand .:, '1
Care must be taken to ensure that water used for recharge aquifer............ : . .1

water is as dean as possible since any suspended matter . ,

will clog the screen. the filter and sometimes the aquifer · ;. :
itself. Also. solutes may precipitate out due to head losses I,,
causing pressure drops. I
:
Where a mains supply is used for recharge purposes (Figure
76). chemical precipitation can take place if the water is not
:.',.

....
..
. ,
',"/

",
~'.'

compatible with the groundwater and cause encrustation of

pipework and wells leading to a re.tuction in flow and
efficiency. . ';'.' .
Figure 74 De/ails of recharge well
,
. '.
di
"-
~<r
(l(J
...
~ Mains water

!/J
d' . 0
, ncompatibilil Ycan
:0 . \ 'i • .~
e .'~ '. e cause precipitatIOn of chemicals
°0 1111111 ~ ;'.
.

, :'t>:'• ::
• Filler
• •
'0
.
• 11111 1/ ': .

0.'
. --------- • ~~ •, ----- ­
,"
.I~ ,
-- Ground
water

and cause clogging

pack (; :'.~

a
1111111 6 tI.:
,
•

• •• .'
. "<1 •
~
1111111 ~ ..
a ":~'
.

~.
\". :

. , 0
e
if , '.P

•
• ·
c-
111111/ • :(j ~

'1
4",1..--_
~ '.'· ••
4'
•

•'. '<f 6 e , (]
. ':.'
"~
,
,

Sial size must have ample i.: .;

open ana to 9ive reserve 'f:
• Figure 76 ReCharge using mains weiet
againsl clogging ,. •
,
Figure 75 Deteils of f,Jler pack
j
::::~ ­ •
~ii. :-1 4 ,...
Treatment of recharge waler
,;;r'-. ··.r
~: '

The treatment of water to ensure its suitability for recharge

is complex and reference should be made to a specialist
familiar with both water treatment and dewatering require­
ments. Both the groundwater and the proposed recharge
water must be sampled and analysed and the necessary
consent obtained from the local water authority for the use
of the recharge water.
Among the various methods of treatment employed are
sedimentation for removing the larger suspended solids
and filtration for removing finer material. In addition.
polyphosphates can be added to prevent precipitation of
calcium salts or iron (known as sequestration): the addition
of surfuctants is effective in increasing the permeability of
the soil by reducing surface tension, and chlorination can
be used as a bactericide or algicide.
CrR1A Report 113
Recharge piping system
A standpipe allows the recharge header t(, be pr-ssuriscd.
Meters on the main recharge header and on each well allow
the efficiency of the system to be monitored.
Air vents on the lank and any high points in the system
should be provided. They may also be required at each
wellhead.
A valve should be provided at each well to enable the
svstern to be balanced. and 10 isolate individual wells for
periodic maintenance. On large set-lips, sufficient valves
should be provided to allow segregation of the header to
facilitate maintenance and repair.
43
j figure 17 Drau,age 0/ perc/Jed warsr a
~_~' __ " . __ ' _ " " " _ ' _ . _ ' __ 'R • • __ ' _ . " , 0 lyprcat sand
: : 0 o--_-.. dC.lIO pattern
, ' /
I :00 A /
!
A
La l r--···..·········') '0
! ~--J./
//

1 \ : \ 0 /
:, : ., ! :, 0 C>'
,/"
8 , , 0 8
i ;0 0 t
L /t. // ­ ,) o--.J
a. Plan. lop of, Bollom o--Oeep well
slope 01 excavation

Deep Shallow Original waler level, Perched water level, ISecfion HI

-,
prezometer piezometer

.-.
/
both aquifers upper !quif er, belore
und drains

~ .. --.-._--"-..
--"----_.- ::::::;::;:::----­
. ~"'"
--------

--.:..
-,
- ,,---_.-'-"-.- -- -'-' ..
Predrained water Clay layer
level lower aquiter

b. Section A-A (be/ore sand drain installation).

Original Predrained waler I"e\ ISeclion 0·8 I

water I"e\ upper aquifer
. _._ ........- \7, " ~-_ .
__.-1-.­
- -...-.....-..r..~1 ~~ '-:::.::.:::.:.:::':::'::... ~~ " _._1--­
-.... 11r"~.--,,--
i ~.....
--.. ......-:: ::
.....: ~
•...• Ih

S.lnd dr.lln--------< :: 1:
r--- Sand
II ,I I I
dr arn
Oeep well -eJ;
I
l
I
l ~.
I

I
I

I
~Oeep
, , I I
o. Section 8-8 (after sand drain installalion) l~
I I I
•.' ' well

28. Sand drains

and drains are holes formed by drilling, jetting or punch­ Table 12. Theoretical maximum capacity of sand drains
Tng. which are then filledwith material of high permeability Rille or flow Equivalent ClJP:"lcif~·
or sand dmlns" (l/d;}r)
"'ch as sand. gravel Or crushed rock. They allow perched per day permeablltty .. _.. ---_
ater to drain into a lower aquifer that is being dcwatered (I!da.v/m') Irn/s x 10"6) Nominal dlameter or drains (rum t
\.'igure 77). Their effectiveness depends as much on the
150 300 d50 600
construction method used as the material used to fill them.
5000 60 90 J50 795 1115
roundwater may often be prevented from draininf down IflOOD 115 175 710 159n ~,~J(l
~~ the aquifer being dewatered by intervening clay layers. 20000 230 350 1115 31S0 5000
The trapped water in the upper aquifer then threatens the 30lJ\JO 350 5.10 ~liO 1170 ~1~O
lbility of the excavation. 1DOOO J60 110 2830 o3,n J!lOO
50000 580 880 3510 1950 IdISO
·,.le maximum theoretical capacity of a sand drain is:
• Assumes saturated conditions and a gradient of unuy
Qm.. (m'/s) = kAi
\ iere k = permeability of filling material (ny's) Note: The theoretical maximum capacities given in Table
A = area of drain (m z) 12 are rarely achieved in practice. Actual capacities <He
i ~ hydraulic gradient es unity normally nearer one half these values.

CIAIA Report 113

 -------- --------
'r'Y1~
·.· · ·.· ·I·: ;~t~ le
", .'

. ','.
."
'
....•......·.. ·.·•• ·.· ••..• ·..•.1···•.. .•·•.•••...•••. 1·.····.·••

29. Bleeder wells Figure 78 Aquifer under artesian pressure

Where an aquifer subject 10 artesian pressure is separated
from the bouorn of an excavation bv a laver of relativelv
impermeable material. 'bleeder we'lIs c'-n be formed I~
connect the aquifer with the atmosphere 10 vent the excess
pressure and so avoid an~· tendency for the pressure to
build up and cause uplift of the excavmion floor (Figure
78).
The method is sometimes used as a permanent construction
solution instead of providing floor anchorages (e. g. tension
piles). Note that a graded filter material is required to infill
the well' if loss of fines from the aquifer is to he avoided.
Wells should he constructed initially from a working pial'
form level above the artesian head.
30. Horizontal drains
Horizontal drains drilled into sidelong ground can be used
for the temporary lowering of groundwater to facilitate
excavations or to provide permanent drainage for improv­
ing thehillside stability (Figure 79).
The method involves the use of fairly powerful drilling
machines 10 place perforated casing or to allow the place-
ment of 3 porous pipe. Borehole sizes are generally less
than about 150 111m and up to about 60 m long. br.t special
equipment is available to bore up to about 300 m.
The method is expensive and requires special expertise to
ensure satisfactory results.
31. Electro-osmosis
This method can be used for draining water-logged silts
and some soft clays and peats where pumping is considered
to he impracticable. (Figure 80).
Electro-osmosis works by passing a direct current (D.C.)
of electricirv through the soil which causes the water in the
pore structure to move from the positive electrode (anode)
towards the negative electrode (cathode).
In an electro-osmotic dewatering system. the cathodes
consist of wellpoints and the anodes any type of non­
corrodible metal stake. In practice. the rates of noll'
achieved at the wellpoints are ver)' small and only inter­
mittent pumping is usually necessary. Electrodes are nor­
mally placed in line 3 m to 5 m apart. with anodes and
cathodes placed alternately. Applied voltages are generally
Normal water table

bc"ation

.-" Boreholes drilled in Ian array with uphill

gradient 10 facildate drainage Waler table / lleader pipe
Figure 79 liorizonlal drains ~,
._.¥...-.;::::;""-'"
/ .
•
• ~OraWdown
..- .
.--....---.... CathodIC riser pipes
spaced at intervals 01
Supplementary ''''. about J-Sm With
inlermediate anodes
anodes if
Figure 80 Elecuc-ostnosis required
45
 ill the range: of JlJ V to 100 V, A r.uio uf applied vott.rge
to distance bCI\VCCI1 allude and cathode of 50 V 1m should
not he exceeded as Ihis otherwise ll!~u.ls to high hcnt
IOSSl!SI'J I, Current requirements arc of thc order of 15 to
30 amps Power requirements arc heavy und vary from
11.5 kW 'n 2.5 kW per well for gradients between 5 anu
lS Vim. Put annlhcr way. electrical energy requirements
vary fmlll about I kW/In I of excavated 'nil for very large
sites to uround lO kW(n,' lor small sites.
In practice, electro-osmotic dewatering is rarely used by
-­ itself: it is most often used in conjunction with electro­
chemical stabilisation. in which chemical stabilisers are
added at the anodes 10 permanently increase the strength
of the soil.
As the soil around the anodes reduces in moisture content.
the soil resistance increases Which requires an increase in
electric current to be applied. At the same time there is a
-­ continuous loss of metal from the anodes which decrease
in cross-sectional area. This loss is accelerated by the
required increase incurren ( toovercome thesoilresistance,

32. Collector wells

_ This method requires near horizontal drains or galleries to
be constructed radially into an aquifer from a central well
caisson. The wells are typically 4 m inside diameter and
25-50m deep (Figure 81).

illIIl Pump haUl!

W,ler t'ble
=
-
Flow

.:-, ," ...

<, .. Flow
.>: W,ter be,rin!
strala

···1
..... .. ·Horllonl'l
.: ...:....
Figure 81 Collector well screen pipes

4tr CIRIA Report 113

 PART 3 General information

38. Oelermination of friction losses in dewatenng systems 48

39. Types or pumps used for dewatering 48

40 Safety aspects 01 groundwater lowering 49

41. Final design checks 50

42. Final planning checks 50

43. Daily checks during construction 50

CIRIA Report 113 47

 PART 3 General information Table 13. Tvoical capacuies 01 subrnersib'e pumps
Dlamcter WnrklnR C~I'ln<:(ty
or outlet head l/s
38. Determlnallon of frlcllon losses In mOl m m
dewatering systems
Fril:!ioll Ins:-iCS in dewatering systems (f.e . those due to flow
JX 1.5 J
,s •
I
50 7
IhrOllg.h pip~.work ami I1lting~) depend on the pipework
diumctci . rate of flow, material used (e.g. steel or plastic 75 ,
t5
1h
,
PYC) <1I1U the wetted area or the pipe.
,
I;

,.25,
11K! J7
Friction 10""' for pipe work. rubber hose and standard 15
wcllpoint fitting~ are given in D,HJ Sheets 1 to 3. 150 III
JII
Notes
39. Types of pumps used for dewatering I. Capacity reduces .1S head increases,
2. The capacities anti working heads given are only approximate
The selection of pumps will depend on a number of factors and can varv considerably between different makes.
such a, rate of pumping. required vertical lift, amount and Manufacturer's advice should be'sought for specific information,
type of suspended solids and whether pumping will be from
Centrifugal
open excavations Of from enclosed wells.
Q, Non-uacuum-assisted
The following types are available; These types of pumps are the most adaptable and most
widely used throughout the world for simple sump-pump­
Air lill ing duties. Some of these pumps can only deal with fairly
A simple form of pump constructed from a length of tubing clean water whereas others have large solids-handling
(rising main or eductor pipe) into which air is fed to aerate capacities. However. persistent use with large quantities
the water. This lowers the density of the water in the pipe of detritus can cause excessive wear to the impellers and
relative 10 the surrounding water and forces it up [he pipe an efficient filter around the pump suction is therefore
taking any sediment with it. Efficiency depends on the desirable.
relationship between submergence. size and height of rising
main. and quantity and pressure of air supplied. A wide range of pumps and capacities is available and
typical characteristics are given in Table l~.
Hand lift diaphragm
Table 14. Typical capacities of non-vacuum-assisted
Suitable for intermittent sump pumping of relatively small pumps
capacities.
Size Workin~ head Capacity
Typical range: mm in m tiS
30 mm pump 0.331/s
100 mm pump 4.101/s 75 J 8 P

100 • t,
t1 J

2~
Motor dr-iven diaphragm
These have only moderate capacities and can deal with
limited quantities of silt and sand.
150 6 ,
17
J9

15

Typical range: b. Vacuum-Assisted

75 mm pump 5.81's These pumps are generally used for wellpoints and shallow
100 mm pump 10.0 lis wells. They rely on a low pressure being produced \\ ithin
the pump body and suction lines to facilitate priming. A
Submersible wide range of these pumps is .1,0 available and typical
These are usually centrifugal pumps which can be wholly characteristics are given in Table 15.
submerged in water and have no suction hose. Some types
can pump dirty water and are not damaged by dry opera­ Table 15. Typical capacities 01 vacuum-asslsted pumps
tion. These pumps are particularly suited 10 well dewater­
ing, and some can be fitted with an external control to 51,. Working Capachr Size or sotlds Po....-er t31ln2
mm head Ls handled
automatically start and stop pumping at predetermined m mm bhp· kW
levels. Examples of the range of capacities are given in --~---

Table 13. 75 10 15 50 6 •. 5
I, 8
For the removal (If<ilt from well installations, submersible I.
10 .7
•
:~ dredging pumps v ith hard iron impellers are used. 100 65 1;.7
20
15
)6
~~
"
Pneumatic
Used for sump pumping and can deal with limited quan­ t50 10 8, 75 J1 23.8
- lilies of silt and sand. Used for intermittent pumping On 10 53
JO :5
sites where compressed air is available.
100 10 III 75 .J 32_0
L Typical range (,11 working pressure of 7 bars); 10 69
Against 15 m head 7.5 I/s JO JO
Against 5 m head 15.01/s • At 30 rev/s

48 CIRIA Report 113

L
 Ro(or,' dlsplncerncnt or mono pumps Power requirements
These can deal with large quuntitics of silt and sand. Typical
The most efficient electric rn()t{lr~ an' J phase 41) Volt hut
characrcristics are given in Table )(1,
thcvc require !->recial armoured ~lIpply cahles , switch gear,
Table 18. Typical capacities 01 rotary displacement pumps etc, to meet the requirements of BS CPIOI7 f1 .1 1 and thi~
may make such rumrs UIll'C"CmOlllIC on ~l11a\l sites,
Oullrl \\'orkln~ Power ratlng
dlJlI1I(~trl hrad
mm In m bhr ~w
40. Safety aspects of groundwater
~o 1 ~n '.0 H lowering
1I~1
I~l\ It is important that all available data should be studied-s­
100 4 ~o ~ 20.0 10.0 particularly the site investigation report-before con­
100 ~ struction starts, so thai appropriate safety precautions can
I~O ~
be taken.
I~O 6 40 I~ 25,0 18.8
60 14 Remember that although a lower pumping capacity is
tOO II required to maintain the water level once the required
-------------- -- drawdown has been achieved. adequate standby rumr."
should be on line in case of breakdowns. Nole: In very
SInkIng pumps permeable soils, the groundwater level can rise in a mauer
These are robust pumps with a height to diameter ratio of of minutes if pumping stops (Figure 82).
about 10:I to facilitate working in confined spaces or shaft
bottoms. Check discharge pipes at regular intervals to ensure that
the pumping system is functioning properly,
These pumps are suitable when it is required to pro­
gressively lower the water table. They may be submersible Beware collapse or excavation due (0 overloading (Figure
or non-submersible. Non-submersible pumps have greater 83).
outpur'capacities. Typical capacities are:
5001m (2 in) 5.0lis Cheek that uplift of the excavation floor cannot occur due
150 mm (6 in) 66.7 lis to unbalanced artesian head in lower aquifer as excavation
proceeds (Figure 84).
Bf_lr! bf!Ji~U~
pi ~""'PI

hurr

t
......•......_- ..•...
"pld\
~ul
._IN''~~"Ilot

i .'
Figure 82
I'
Sur~hl'9' ho'" Ipo,1
~olllblr 11i~ l"flU,.
hU~ or 01h" IUd\~;_ .

I: ___
IIrn"ol
- ~ I bl r

[O~!ln
llrtlro~r

Figure 83

,/ Figure 85 Electric sounder for measuring

,./ Ihe depth 10 water in a piezometer tube
./
Where piezometers have been installed during the site
investigation or later for the rurroses of the works make
sure they are monitored regularly (Figure H5).
Figure 84 Checkon fuel and lubricating oil levelson pumps regularly.
CIRIA Repo<1113 49
'­
41. Final design checks
Make a lillal check 011 de-ign before pl:lllnil1g and'ilarling
construction.
Check for any new information on ground conditions. type
or groulI~h vatcr , etc,
- Check tc. hnical fcasil1ilily and relative costs of ground­
water ClUUWl.

Check lhat dt.:~ig.n allows for sufficient working room anti

'-- safe slopes for excavation.
Check effectsof druwdown on nearby structures and water
supplies, Emu," surveys/photographs have been taken,
~ Check that discharge. is in accordance with local
regulations,
Check that noise and general safely regulations have been
'- considered,

Check that all necessary plant will be available,

_ Check that instructions and sketches for Ihe works super­
intendent are clear and unambiguous.
, Check that well screens and filler packs have been designed
I and material sources located.

12. Final planning checks

Check that all plant and equipment are adequate for their
.urpose..
--:heck that cranes have adequate reach.
Check that storage areas required (or plant and materials
re available­
"Check orders for materials (e.g. gravel pack material) .
."heck that all necessary plant has been ordered (e.g.
urnps. generators. lighting. signs. huts).
Check that derails of buried services have been received
~ om statutory authorities.

'L..-heck that surveys of sensitive adjacent structures have

been completed.

: neck safely and noise regulations can be complied with.

61eck that notification of intent to start work has been

issued to local authority, police, statulory authorities. etc,

I
43. Daily checks during construction
~, eck that safety regulations are being followed (eg.
L;ure thai hard hats are being worn, equipment is
adequately fenced where necessary, noise regulations are
Ij 'ng observed).
,

<L_eck that experienced supervisor j, present.

Check fuel and lubricants for pumps. gcncratorv, etc.

d eck thai discharge rates are reasonably constant: no

n\nsances are being caused; no excessive fines are being

I~st by pumping.

q ick drawdown levels in standpipes/piezometers,

Check for weeping from excavation slopes or signs of

:cability.

CIAIA aepoet 113

 PART 4 Data sheets

Header pipes capacities and lncuon losses 52

2 Fncuon losses rn valves and fillings 52

3 Fncuon losses in srnootn-bors rubber hose 53

4 Maximum yield 01 well pomts

54

5 MaXimum Yields of wells

54

6 Typical ecuctor pertormance 55

CIAIA Report 113

51
 DIHA SHEET 1, Heacer pipes: capacities and lnctron losses
N\II~: r!l~tHln h~;HI hl"" m;l)' he C'lHI1;ltCU by a"uJl1l1l,~ thut the tot.u output from lhe wcllpoints now<j the fulllcIlglh of the header pipe.

M"n "laCily Imls I

100 l, J0 5,1
010
.~

50 - _. - 00\

20 0,02

10 001

5 0005

2-t-- o 002
a 001
a 0005 ~
~
~
~ ~

a 0002",""
~

~ 0·2
;; ~
~
~
:l ~

~ 0 1 +---,-AjL~'---.,...--8'r--rrjL"--r.Lf-....L..,~+r+-,c"rI"'----"t--"'f......LM-"F'fLr-rr+-rl-.-r-+--,,--n+ a 0001 ~
01 0,1 2 5 10 20 \0 100 200 \00 1000
R,le oillowll/,j
 DATA SHEET 3. F,ichon losses In smooth·bore rubber hose

Ho.. di,m,t"lmml 50 6' 75 100 125 150 175

II II I 77~
I II I I T
17 I I I r
I I
50
I
/ / I 7 200
7 / / / / 1
17 r . 1/
J
j 'j j
)

I I I

7 IT .7 I I

I I v I
/ II II I I I

I I / / I

'I I /
/ / /
7
/

/ 7

LI

I)

II
I I
II I

,
1·5 20 50 10 50 100 JOO

hie 01 flowil/.!

I CIAIA Report 11');

DATA SHEET 4. Maximum yield 01 weucomts

I 40

1·10

100

_ 080
~
Well placed in 100mm
diameter sand liller

"­

Self-jet
wellpoint
I
10'~

DATA SHEET 5. Maximum yield of wells

9
Oiam ter of well (0 I [rnm]
8

:.:.:;.5J..' .'. : .. ". '. . , . Water

7
··7:\..?~~7.-table
~60

~E~
Wetted
depth
305

0;
"o 1
~
0;

il~~~_

~
:E 0
10'\ !O'~ 10"1
Permeability of ground I m/, I
CIRIA Aepo(\ 113
I
L
DATA SHEET 6, TYPical eouctor performance
I
L.­

110

32\
,
'­
liD

L 10
190
L
L 170

1_' lID
2\

L 110

U
L- 110
,
I

10
L­ ,.
E
~

~
~ 190
~

~
~

L­ '0
~
~
~
~
,
1;
~

~
~
170

L-
~

'E
=
~

, ~
~
110
,~
0 15 ,
r--r---r-- 1 -r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r--,_---,--T""".~-.--,-__.__-,__.-r___.-_,
L I i i i I
o 005 0,10 0,15 020 025 010 o11 0\0 0\5
IndUCEd flow per ,duclor(II,'

L­
L­
L
I~
-
Ct~rA RepOrt 11:1 55
~.
PART 5 Appendices

Appendix 1 Assessrnent of oermeabrlily t-orn lull scale pumping tests 58

Appendix 2 Assessroerw of permeabihly hom SImple pumping tests in boreholes 60
Appendix 3 Assessment 01 permeabuity from inflow tests in boreholes 64
Appendix 4 Assessment of permeabilIty Irom soakaway tests 65
Appendix 5 Assessmenl of permeability from Packer tests in rock strata 66
Appendix 6 lnstaltation 01 piezometers and measurement 01 water levels 69
Appendix 7 Design of fillers 70
Appendix B Measurement 01 discharge 71
Appendix 9 Calculation 01 net posllivs suclion head INPSH) 74
Appendix 10 Design example of progressive wellpoinl system 75
Appendix 11 Design example of rnultiple well system /7
Appendix 12 Salety-selecled legal requirements 79
Appendix 13 Suppression of noise regulations 80
Appendix 14 Preliminary check list lor a dewalering scheme 81
,
r
1;

.- ,,;.

,\
"
f,
I
~
:".
.:

'~.

-'

CIRJA Rep0l1113 57
 ~
Appendix 1 Assessment of I.

given hv:
then till' csnm.ued dCplh 5 of the s.nur.ucd layer is

permeability from full-scale

pumping tests
These lest', gi VI: the most rcliuhlc CSI i 1l1;llcs of pc nncubilitv.
Th~y are conducted by pumpillS frorn a \..'ell and measuring
the drnwdov.. . n of the water {able ill observation holes
or standpipes sunk along a line radi:'fin~ from the well.
Pumping is continued until steady stare conditions an,'
An implicit assumption in nearly all pumping lest formulae
i:i thut the now of groundwater towards the well is hori­
zontal. Ttl ensure this is so the well must he screened over
the fun depth or the s'l\mat\!d layer. For practical purposes.
however. screen lengths of from lUCre to ~W'{- of the sutu­
rated layer thickness will provide reasonable orders of

- attained. Where the ground conditions are likely to vary

around the w~11 more than one rudiutinzline of observation
holes should be used so thai lh~ variation in drawdown can
be observed and changes in permeability calculated. The
tests can also be used for measuring the hydrological par­
ame ters of an aquifer. i.e . the coefficients of trans­
missibility and storage.
This test. as illusuared (Figure Al). is applicable in per­
vious layers overlying relatively impervious straw (e.g.
sand overlying clay), lr can also be used in boreholes which
only parrinlly penetrate (he smurntcd layer. The depth of
the saturated layer 5 must be known !O compute the
soil permeability, but it can be e.. timatcd provided the
following conditions are met:
-~- If three observation wells are placed on a radiating line
from the pumping well at distances from the well of fl' r:
rv f.
and fJ such that the ratio - =.....:. and the measured draw­
f~ f J
downs in the observations wells are denoted by: ZL'
accuracv. Where the well penetration is less than 70%.
vertical components of flow are introduced. This will
require corrections to the measured drnwdown over a
radius around the well roughly equa1 to the aquifer
thickness.
It is usually necessary to line [he borehole when bonne
below the wur.-r table. The well secuon should then con~js[
I
of a tube perforated over the required length. The tube
should he 150 mill dinmete ror larzer and should have flush­ '.
joints. It should be surrounded by n sand or gravel niter to
prevent the soil being eroded through the perforations.
For practical reasons the filler section should be <H lensI
75 rum thick, and preferably more. The construction pro­
cedure is 10 drill a norrnallv cased borehole down to the
base of (he pervious layer. The perforated lube wen is tnen
placed imide the casing and the borehole casing is slowly
withdrawn as the gravel filter material isplaced and tamped
around the tube well. The heigh' of 'he niter should be
kept 150mm or so above the cutting: edge of the borehole
t~ and casing to prevent the sides of the borehole falling into the

LHger dtarne ter

borehole IhtOugh Pumpiog
• clayey layer ~orehole
s s s
\ r/,+-I---'---~---'--------l-+-------------'-----1"I
'2 "2 "2
• Pum p ----....--__:_

discharge

-, through ~/,(\T/,(Vh:\f~ hN';;t J"/)'S'»)V. ~

" ••••ter cr ,
,--
1=-
~---
- -
-­ -
­ ~-----_-:
~----

""~"lffi::
I • i-=-=~--='-'1

, au, .... ,,,,.,",,,,,..., - . .u _£'.lL---------­

I • _
-
0 - '
t'
II
:: _ _ ... - - - = 1 ,
~J..----
!
=:--11
! I

:'! F. r'" ~J~ 11\ t1

.. ·r"
: -: ~t: / '/1
Standpipes
I
Water levels in slancprpcs
:'l fj' after drawdown
':l k.­ pumpingWaler 1",1 lowered by
• ",1 j,'
,',
and then kept cnru lanl
• I I I

s '.: r, .__ "Perroral~d cHinq below

"-,1 "(. ground water level
I •
.,j I'

-I I:
• I ~
'J I"
',, I.
, ~ I 1"
"
'.1
,.,
'"
I
I I',
" '
-' ·4, '.'
777/1)))))) )n» "7/77 0 ; ) ; ; N; 7)))/ ;77717 ))"777
'II
1-': Flgur. A 1
II - - - Submersible borehole pump
er suction Inlel of surface pump
Impermeable I,yer

58 ClRIA AllPort \ \3
i"'"
l flhcr zone. If the grading of the filler is such thaI seg­ nearest minute. Take measurements or pump discharge
and all water levels at intervals of about IS minutes during
l:

rqmtion muy occur if it were dropped down the borehole

il shouhl he placed hy trennc pipe. For filler design sec
Appendi' 7.
Throughout the work of boring and well construction, the
water level in the horcbote must be maintained about
500 mm above the groundwater level 1f it i~ necessary to
add water during boring. clean water should be used,
The perforations are usually slots cut on site, about 2 to
4 mm wide depending upon the particle size of the filter.
The bottom of the tube well should he capped. In some
circumstances a gaure niter is used around the perforated
lube, or special slotted tubes may be provided.
At least three standpipes are sunk for observation of the
drawdown at equal distances apart along a line from the
pumping well. The distance from the well to the nearest
standpipe should be the same as the spacing of Ihe stand­
pipes. If the depth from the groundwater table to the
bottom of the pervious stratum IS'S', the spacing of the
S
standpipes should be 2" or less in some conditions, and
S
they should penetrate at least 10 below the groundwater
table. The standpipes should consist of 30mm 1035 mm
diameter pipe. perforated in that portion below the water
table.
A lest nrn should be made to determine the most suitable
pump discharge, so that under steady conditions the water
in the borehole is not drawn down to the intake, and the
in
drawdown the nearest observation standpipe is not more
S
than 10' These preparations. should be mil de Rt least a day
before the test. so thai the boreholes and standpipes can
be left undisturbed to ensure tha: the groundwater level is
accurately established,
the drnwdown period. Alter the initial rapid drawdown
has occurred, take readings every i hour until steady con­
ditions are established and three sets of measurements of
discharge and wafer levels are the same.
The following information should be recorded:
Elevation of ground surface at the well and at each
standpipe
Elevation of reference datum for water levelsat the well
and each standpipe
Depth 10 Ihe base of the pervious layer in the pumping
well
Depth of the pumping well and standpipes
Distances from well to nearest standpipe and between
standpipes
Water levels in the well and standpipes before rest
Time of starting pump to nearest minute
Pump discharge and water levelsin welt and standpipes
stmultaneousty at intervals
Temperature of groundwater
Quantity of any sand of silt discharged by pump.
Measure the pump discharge by means of a gauge box
fitted with a V-notch or rectangular weir or by installing a
flow meter into the discharge pipeline, The outlet or the
discharge should be well away from the test area 10 avoid
the return seepage affecting the drewdown levels.
Calculation 01 resulls
For the case shown in Figures Al and A2 where the well
full}' penetrntes the pervious stratum and the flow takes
place entirely .....ithin the pervious stratum (gravity now),
the permeability (k) is given by:
._ Qlog,(rjr,) _ Qlog,lr,ir,J
k - "\0:-
...'.' - I1)-)
' :r(1l.1'
• -I l~-')

Immediately before starting the lest, record the wafer where h :::: ! - :
levels in the well and standpipes.
Note that a plot or Jog r against z (linear scale) should be
The time or starting the pump should be recorded to Ihe a straight line in this case.

11 1)

Gr~nd WAle
_0_0 __
._"r--if,-----'l !,­If
level I' .. ' (
=_ ---r---, ,L- ----,--, , , --L-+t
:I, "!,I I,
-- ii
~~, _ _ • . . . . . - , '
......,~ ,,
I"~
'I'

s
iii ./..-, 'I ll~
!~~'
i,1"
-i, r, hi I h1 I' h) 'I
!el,li"ly
':, I'~------+--r!
"
rl'
i /
impervious
Ii, , lal"

=Ig\.lro A2
CrRIA Report 113 59
- Appendix 2 Assessment of
permeability from simple
The whole test section rnu« he below the groundwutcr

level. If p(l~:;iblc. (he groundwater level should be

measured before m;tking the test.

pumping tests in boreholes Add clean water 10 the borehole to mise the water level as

high as possihle in the casing: no more water is added

during the lest.

Where the ground conditions are more '6r less uniform
across a 'II~. an approximate value of the permeability of
the ground may be- obtained hy pumping. water into or out
of a borehole and observing the rate of f>lll or rise of the
water ;:IS it returns to its equilibrium condition. Note: For
-. small Mow~. water may be poured in or baled out as
necessary.
Type 1 Pumping-In test (failing head)
resl procedure
The borehole is advanced to [he depth at
required. If casing is required (0 support the sides of the
hole, it must be taken down initially to the full depth. Fine
gravel backfill is placed in the borehole whitewithdrawing
the casing 10 expose the required length of unlined hole
(or the test; the gravel fill should be brought up with end
Take readings of the water level nt frequent time intervals.
making a note of the water level and time of each reading,
No time intervals can be specified as the frequency of
readings will depend on the rate of fall of water level. As
a guide. an attempt should be made to take the readings
so tha: each level differs from the previous reading by
about equal increments. H the initial head of water in the
borehole above groundwater level is say 2 m or more. take
readings so that the difference in successive readings is
about 100 mm: if the head is smaller, the difference in level
readings should be smaller, say 25 to 50 mm for initial head
of 0.510 I m. Rt'aclings shoulJ be continued until the head
I,l.. hich the test is of water in the borehole above groundwater level is not
more than 1/5 of the head of water at the beginning of the
test.
Record the following information:
Diameter (D) of unlined borehole at test section and

kept just above the bottom of the casing. In some soil diameter of casing.

conditions (e.g. water-bearing silt or fine sand), it may be Depth of borehole below datum,

necessary to use a liner grading backfill such as a medium Depth to bottom of casing from datum.

to coarse sand in order to prevent the soil eroding into the Depth to top of gravel nil. if used (see Figure AJl.

borehole. (Figure AJ). Dare and time thai water level readings are started.

Water level readings below datum a~d time of each

Where casing is not necessary (or supporting the borehole.

reading.

it musl nevertheless be inserted so tha: only the test section Height of datum above ground level.

at the bottom of the hole remains unlined: the casing must

Temperature of groundwater.

be righr against the side of the borehole otherwise the test Temperature of water added.

water will leak around the casing. This test is suitable for Depth to the (equilibrium) groundwater level below

... testing at various depths during progress of the boring.

where the test section will stand unsupported. It Can be
datum .

carried out at the stan of the dav's work. or at the end of

the duv if the water level in tile hole is at Or near to
.1
the equilibrium groundwater level. In many eases, where
casing is not required for boring. Type 2 tests (see Figure Calculation of results
,
AB) may be more suitable. The permeability (k) rnav be determined for a Type I test
using the following formula:
»>: ~:'~'::\d,~,r~r~:i~:::.::;r11~1~,~t~~:::r. A
I /~llum urllll rio_

-I 'r~v~' \,u,~1 _ _,.;jr'I",,-=r

k: = FT (m/')
~'" r·-<>oo-",..,."",.
• where A :::: cross-sectional urea at water level in borehole
I or standpipe (rn).
I F:::: shape factor depending on the geometry of the
I
Ir"III~1
test (m).
, ; ~rld.Ir'.

T;. basic lime Iil.g (5).

, II hld"ll tooll"vU un1'! .,1'1 ,"
bQlrl1llr bf'O" tk" l•• ,L
Determination of shape factor (F)
!----r //
, i_~ll.:,~_~
The gcnntetrv of the test should be compared wi\h the
ana!ytil'a{ solutions of I--{\'OT<;,le\" given in Figure A9 and the
-'
appropriate shape factor (F) calculated. The units of F tire
•
metres. .
~

r­
A1lr111H:
..--
..___f'M ~rl"\ or ~'ld,~
l,~ulr.j lor I(.~\\'II
»nu
0' Ild01
II
Delerminalion of basic lime lag (T)
1. "'JJer~ the groundwater level is accurately known
i
.:

L_ H
Plot values of H on a logarithmic scale against cor­
n
=
responding. values of time, t (r 0 at beginning of test t
H
FIgure A3 Type t. General arrangement when -
H"
~ I: H = measured head: Ho = initial head) t
60 CIFHA Repolt 113
I
I
 (figure A-'), Druw thc bcst fiuing struipht 1111" through the
cxpctirrentnl pnintv. lin some cases 'he cxpcrimCI1\;l!
'"

rOinl~ lilT values (I[ -

"
H lI
ncar 1,0 min follow a CUf\"C; these
•

should he ignored and the strtli!!lll line drawn through the

remaining points: then druw a parallel slraight line through
H
the orinin ( - = 1.0. , = ()), The value of r on this straight ! }
~ Hn
line corresponding to !!
HI'
= 0.37 is the required value of
the basic time lag. T.

..
2, ""flue rite grOlmdll'atcr I/!/lel is 0111)' approximately
known
Calculate values of H from assumed groundwater level.
PIal resulting values of :0 on a logarithmic scale against
Figure A4

corresponding values of , (see curve A. Figure A5). If

the slope of the line through these points decreases with
increasing t (as curve A). the assumed groundwater level
was \00 low. If the slope increases with increasing f. the n J7 , ••.. _••,
assumed groundwater level was too high. By trial and error

L a groundwater level can be determined from Which values

of ~ plot as a straight line against t, at least for the higher
H,

1: values of t.
Experimental points for small values of I may follow a short
curve. due 10 the flow settling down into equilibrium with
the soil (see curve B. Figure A5). As in (I) above. draw a
, I
--"---'­
H I I
parallel straight line through the origin (H, ~ 1.0. t ~ 0) if I :1
r u L--'-------'-;-:-c--~-----'-~-
h,u It I

necessary, and read T from this line corresponding to Figure AS

H
H ~ 0.37.
o "

Examples of Type 1 tests :i

Example 1. Figure A6. considers the test section pen­ ·1
etrating. below an impervious Stratum into a pervious one
From Figure A9. Solution 7 is the appropriate one to
calculate the shape factor. Figure A6prcsents the analytical
solution for different LjD ratios. Note that the special case
of LjD = 0 is the same as Hvorslevs Solution 3, (Figure
A9).
iii' . I Example 2. Figure A7, considers a previous layer overlying
U_l~ NII'OUI an impervious stratum at a depth 5 below the bottom of
I

,I
llr""," the borehole. The Hvorslev solutions 1 10 S of Figure }\O
--- 0-­ are based on the assumption that the pervious stratum has
10

"
" i
"
"

'0 "
r/D
H
r(D "
10
Anll,iltll
II"ll

1.- o
,
--r
,
o
l/D
~rlllllrl, 1
l'I1pt'''Q~1 II,rr • ., D~-
Is o
r -r-r--"- -r-----r-,--,
o ~ S 1 8
Figure A6 Example 1. Borehole lID
penetrating into B pervious Figure A7 Example 2. Borehole in pervious stratum overlying an
stratum below an impervious stratum impervious stratum

CIRIA Repon 11J 61

,,
in/inite depth: rhcy arc therefore inappropriate for this
L example. For the same geometry of the test section (L, D).
-l r~'~. l.btl

the nnw regime 10 or from it is constricted if the impervious

boundary is close 10 the hot 10m of the hole, and so the
~~-CIOII.nC\IG<ll( lira ~
shape '>letor should he modified. Figure A7 compares •

Hvorsh-v's solution H (the analytical curve) with the vari­

ution ill shape factor determined by an electrical analogue

L
for the t.:i1SC whcu the impervious boundary is close to the
test section. It mny be seen. however, that the difference
is less than 10% even when L/D is about 8, For most GIN•.,. tUdl~i' ~O~\'~Uf. "nlll ",ter
!ft ~or.~olr Ihu 1~lllnl[
purposes, therefore, Hvorslcv's solution may be used, In'hi I

L
Type 2 Pumping-out test (rising head) At Itul
~u(

", !II'III,t

"
lIthr ~ll'~
OYI to 10.'1 [,.,1
'~hlf~.I.,I~I~ _lIlt Itul
10O I'IlIe,t.O IUa,ud 111111 ~ndlr uturll no_

L
This test should be used only in lined boreholes or in
standpipes or piezometers, provided baling or pumping out
is practicable. The borehole must penetrate below the .
Alltlll
flU ~rl1tt or 1'ldr6 filtl( II
rtqYII.d lal tltbll,t, at 11dll

groundwater level. preferably hy nt least 10 times its

L
diameter.
This lest can be used for testing at various depths during
progress of the boring, where the test section will stand

L
unsupported. It can be carried out at the start of a day's
work, or at the end of the day if the water level in the hole
is at or near (0 the equilibrium groundwater level.
Figure AS Pumping out fest, general arrangement

I :­

I • ;

-- Preparation of the borehole and test section is similar to .

,

that for a Type I lest. Water is baled out of the borehole

to just above the bottom of the casing, and readings are
taken of the water level at various time intervals as the
water level is allowed to rise in the borehole. The readings
should be carried out as for Type I test and the same data
recorded. Again readings should be continued until the
difference between the water level in the borehole and , ':
groundwater level is not more than 1/5 of the initial dif­ . t ,,
.­
ference in these levels (Figure AS).

Calculation 01 results .~:

The calculation of coefficient of permeability is carried out r

in [he same manner as for a Type 1 test Values of shape
I ­ factor. F. are also the same. since the geometry of flow
will be similar but reversed (Figure A9).

Constant head tests

I ­
When the groundwater conditions are known. and a con­
slant head is maintained. the coefficient of permeability
can be estimated from the equation
I ­ '­
k = -q- (mls)
FH,
I ­ where q :::: rate of flow to Or from the test section (mJ/s)
He =- constant head of water
F = shape factor, as before (See Figure A9)

I ­

62 CIAIA A9~ort 113

I~
-
% 1 3
~
Casing or H H H
piezometer

%;
Casing Casing
j ~'

.'k'8
.... " .
R

Je

F=2nO F=nO F:20

I Spherical intake or wellpoint in uniform 2 Semi-spherical soil bottom at impervious '3 Soil Rush with bonorn at impervious
soil boundary. boundary.
..----.".-.".---,~
5 /~ 6
4
~
H H ... H
0 0

/
Casing
Casing
k
Casing~
Soil in
,
1 Soil in .- -~l
-~
1
casing casing ­
- Ik; ) k {k~1 k
.~
~: '
20 2750 :'\
- F=2-750
F= 1. B1k F= 1.~ I

rrO k; nOk;
4 Soil ft.ush with bouom in unilorm soil. 5" Soil in casing with bonorn at impervious 6 Soil in casing wuh bonorn in uniform soil.
boundarv.

7 Y~;Y;; 6 9

.
Caslng-·_· W
J ~
H /
/ //.-;~
%
~

~ Casing
H

.l.-.S.
~--~-
~ Plpe-- .~ , @
R'
H

~
~ %
, ;.;
~

MR-1~:"'f----
l I I
O:2R -1~~~r':-- I i.
•
0:2R-r-n
1 I ~-
II I II k
~'J...-....h
~ I I ,I I'
L~_J _ _ L_J . . ._
k ..
k /, ," I • / •

2nl 2rr 1 2rrl Wellpoinl

---
F=
log, [~.jJ.(~n F= 109,[~.!1'(in F=
log, [;,]

- 1 wellpoint or hole extended a\ 101pCrVIQus 8 Wcllpoint or hole extended

boundary. soil
In unlrorm l) WCllp0101 through permeable layer
between impervious strata
F= shape factor. If = head in rn. k = coefficient of permc:lbdity in

- Figure A9 InflDw and shape tectors (after Hvorslev f1 4l )

ln (I)
m/s. dimensions in m. 1.< = vertical permeability of soil
in cJ~ing.. R, = effective radius to source of 5\lPply
(0 (1'1) uniform permeability and infinite depth of pervious
stratum is assumed,

CIAIA Aepor1113 63
L App endi x 3 Asse ssm ent of
perm eabi lity from inflo w tests
in bore hole s
L

ll l l
III th~sl.: h:"ts water is. ullowcd to rise up the borehole
Inun a d~prl..:ssl.!d revet. These tests ~Irl:: ~cnl.:ril\ly 011':­
- suitnhlc in 1:lrgL' di.nuctc r horcbol es or where the iutlow
is relatively slow. Such conditions may pertain ill large
dinructc r :luger drilling (SiI)' 750 mill diamete r or more).
Tests may be carried out through rocks or nuucrkrls with
pnrticle sizes less Ih""n thai of line sand. In these tests
ensure that the inltow is from the natural water tnble. In
such circumstances reasonable values of permeability can
be obtaine d from the following ~l"lua\ion. irrespective of
conditions be ncurh the base of the borehole:
r :\11
k: =_.
sci ~t

where k = the coefficient of permeability (rn/s)

r = rho radius of the hole (m)
d = depth of hole below water table (m)
h == height of water le .... el above base of hole (rn)
6.h = is the rise in water level (rn) O ver time 6.r(5)

(which may be determined from a graphical

\
record)

5 = a geometric function. which can be deter­

I,
mined from Figure AIO.

\I
L,OOl
,,
8 r -_ _
d

-:~ 6
Ground water level
.~.
s
006
d
010

0·16

OlD

_I Soil I

o+---r --r--- r-.--- ---r-. ----,. --.,-- ,....:: :IIl

o 01 01 0·1 04 h 01 06 07 08 09 10

d Figure A10 Chart (or in-Ilow lesl

s CIAJA Report 113

•
 Appendix 4 Assessment of

permeability from soakaway

- tests

These Icsts l1f,·Pl may be carried out in boreholes or trial

pi Is 10 determine the pcrmcubiliry or ubsorruive capacity

of the ground and may he of use where water from an

excavation has 10 be disposed of back into the ground or

where recharge wells are to be installed. Either constant­

head or falling-head tests may be carried out (see Figure

All). In the constant-head test, the cumulative input is

plotted against lime which enables the overall or 'bulk'

permeability of the pit to he determined. In the falling­

head test, the cumulative fall is plotted against lime which

enables the permeability of individual strata revealed in

the snakaway \0 be calculated. Formulae for the tests are

given in Figure All. For the constant-head test, it is

necessary 10 know or to make a reasonable estimate of the

hydraulic gradient. Where this is not known, an arbitrary

value of 1.0 may be used for comparative purposes, In

regularly jointed rocks, an hydraulic !;f3dienl of 1.0 may

be a realistic approximation.

V, c.umulative Cumulative
input f,U in h"d

~~

• I
t1 Soil 1
-- ,.,-------­
" I
-- • •
••
• I,
Soil I

----'---­
.-.;
Figure A11 Deriving permeability from soakaway tests.
" 8. Constsn! head. b. Falling head
w dV ph(,2.
-2-! ki(l~ - log(~) -IOg(::~: :)
I

di"'" ki ~ Ah(l + fl) '"

1"
NO/QI;orr
h o "" constant head.
i .. hydraulic gradient.
A '" are-a of base of pit.
where
h]-h:
0= U
= rail in head from hi 10 h:.
I~-T, = lime re-quired rOT f.JJJ in head.
P ". mean pertmeter of pit.

L"
I •
dV
Jf = input with time required to maintain constant head.
Ii permeability; in rililing head test values
;0,

obtained for individual Strata.

ma~ he

L"

L" CtAtA Report 113 65

 Conslant deliver I

Appendix 5 Assessment of pressure gauge ------,.0....

permeability from packer tests

in rock strata 11-+--- Oeli,erl pipe

Packer h'sts arc primarily used in unlined boreholes in rock. Bcrehula

During normal drilling operations tines tend to gel washed diameter.O-~~
into open fissures anti joints in the rock. For the per­
rucnbility lest to he valid it is essential for the hole to be -----':'O~~
llushcd and wnshcd with clean water to remove such fines.
This must he done with discretion if the joints and fissures
are naturally tilled with clay or similar material.
At leasl
A section of the borehole, preferably with a length more
\0
than five rimes its diameter, is isolated by expanding pack­ Expandin g, •
ers at each end, The packers are fixed to the pump delivery packers
pipe, which is perforated between the packers and plugged ,
or capped at its base. If the rest is made at the bottom of
a borehole. the lower packer is omitted and the pump Perfur,led II
:1
delivery pipe is left open-ended inside the test section. pip, lest sectien, Alternative
:1 at lmt \0 ground Wolter
The usual procedure is 10 drill the hole to the first test "u
II level.
section and test: the hole is then deepened and tested in ,I'
successive stages. However. if the hole stands without
casing. the hole em be drilled 10 its final depth and tests
can t~hen be made at different sections of the hole by I Bottom packer
omitted and bottom I
isolating them with a pair of packers-usually starting from At le"t t
01 delivery pipe \0 I
the bottom and working upwards.
The perforations in the delivery pipe should be sufficiently
telt open if test is
m'de al the boltom I
large so- that the total area of the perforations is at least of' borehole I "'-JI-,L \
-~-- twice the cross-sectional area of the pipe (a 50 mm diameter C,p

. pipe perforated with 6 mm diameter holes requires sixteen

holes per 100mm length: for a 25 mm diameter pipe. eight
6 mm or twenty-four 3 mm holes per 100mm length would
be adequate)
. When a packer is expanded, it should have a contact length
with the rock of at least five limes the diameter of the
Figure A12 General arrangement of packer rests
borehole. Trouble is sometimes encountered in seating The following information should be recorded:
packers. The error due [Q a leaky packer cannot be evalu­
Description of rock in test section
• ated and it may give completely misleading results. Thus,
Total depth of borehole
the test sections should be carefully related (0 the drilling
Diameter of borehole at test section
experience in the particular hole, so as to reduce the
Depth to top and bottom of test section
possibility of a poor seal around each packer.
Size of delivery pipe in borehole
A caliper survey may sometimes be carried out to measure Applied pump pressure in kN/m' or metres of head at
-' any variation in cross-section of the borehole with depth. top of borehole
This information combined with the drilling experience Height of pump swivel above ground level
• will help in the identification of areas where poor sealing
of the packers is likely. but the cost of the caliper survey
Level of water in borehole abo ve packer before and
after each test
is not normally justified. Quantity of water pumped into borehole (several read­
Water is pumped into the rest section under constant ings at about 5 minute inter vals)
• pressure and the pressure and quantity noted after running Temperature of pumped water
the lest for at least 15 to 20 minutes, or until measurements Groundwater level (this may have to be determined by

, - at 5 minute intervals show . . ariations of not more than

about O.II/s (l x 10-' m'/s) at a constant pressure. The
pressure must be limited, dependent on depth of test
section and/or competence of rock. to ensure that
further boring after compielion of the lest).
Date and lime of test.
The quantity of water pumped into the borehole in m"h
should not exceed 0.03 times [he total area of the test
hydraulic fracturing of the rock cannot occur. The test
section in m~. If this condition is not satisfied. a lower
should be performed with a pump giving steady pressure
delivery pressure should be tried.
readings, e.g. a centrifugal pump, otherwise considerable

,
!
- errors can arise in trying 10 determine the average of a
Ructuating cylinder pressure. Where no previous data is
available for estimating a suitable pump size, a pump of
20 10 251/5 (0.02 to 0.025 m'/s) capacity against a IotaI
When the intake of the test section exceeds 2-31/s. the
pressure loss in the water feed pipe must be considered
when determining the effective head in the test section. It
is advisable to use 30 mm or larger diameter ripe in such
head of 400 10 500 kN/m' will generally furnish adequate tests rather than standard drill rods. particularly when the
i .- water at sufficient pressure for most tests. intake exceeds II/s.

66 CIAIA Report 113

L
 Calculation of results
The following formulae for the culculuuon of permeability

- (~) an.' nivcu for variou .. conditions of tests. Four cases are
C(lll~itlll ed dependent on the relationship between the test

section. the position of the water table and ' vhethcr the

test section i~ between packers or at the base of the drill

hole. (See Figure, AI3 and AI4).

"

The method of calculation is Ihat given by the US Depart­

ment of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation Earth Grot/nd

Ma11fw/!I~1 Field permeability tests in boreholes Desig­ I ~Iler ltvel

nation E-18.
I',
The formulae (or these tests are;
Q L
For L '" lOr: k =,wJTLH log, -r (m/s)
_.­ For lOr '" L '" r: k = 2 Q
,~ L H
sinh-'.£ (rn/s)
2r
where:

k = permeability (m/s)

Q = rate of flow into the lest section (111 3/S)

L = length of the test section (m)

H = hi + h, - hi = differential head of water (m)

hi = gravity head (m)

h2 = pressure head at swivel (m)

hi = head loss in delivery pipes (rn)
r = radius of hole tested (rn) SJlurated rod

Figure A13 Packer tests made during drilling

These formulae have best validity when the thickness of

the stratum tested is at least SL. They are also more

accurate lor tests below ground water level than above it.

L" For convenience the formulae can be written;

k = Cr~' in which Cr has units of m" Qfm!HI

S.... I~el ......

4F~
Values of Cp lor various diameters and lengths of lest

section are given in Figure AIS.

I 00 Ground
, ", ater 1eve l
.ry-­
oeo
<,

SOmm
[J.2r~ i-­

o 60 ,\+-~- 'OOmm

.I
'SOmm I' I
200mm L til
L
:%:
, /210mm
I rJOOmm

o 20
""'~ L
l.,or~- __. . I .
·-~2,""'- -1,-­
0'+--,_"~.--.----,__-r---,c_-,-_,- Ground . . . a!u level
o 1 , 10
2
·t,nolh oflui section t tm!

Saluraled rod Unsalurated rock

Figure A15 Permeability coefficient (Cp) lor pumping-in test

(constant head)
Figure A14 Packer tests made alter hole is completed
CIAIA Aepor1 113
67
 Lugeon test
I This t~51 is a special cnsc of those described above in that
1­ the qUillltity of water acccptnucc is measured al II pressure
.l...-. {l( 10kg/cnl' (10 atuuephcrcs ~IlJO m Wafer head) over a
period of III minutes, The test is usually made in a BX
(60.3Itllll di.rmetcr) borehole ant,1J1 r~!\ is dt.. tined us
being a water ucceptuncc of one li'tr"t.,AP'C?'i)'iTnlltc obtained
<It u pressure of lfl kg/em: over .1 period of 10 minutes.

I .
.L.=

CIAIA Report 113

-
Appendix 6 Installation of

- piezometers and measurement

of water levels
~-'''~~I'
For simple hydrnxtutir groundwater conditions where clean '~Cap Of plll!IC Iftl_ pluQ
coarse-grained soils exist (i.e. sands and gravels] the Ccncr'l' ~n"t~,"g 0'
response to any change in groundwater movement is rapid /pu~dl'6 ,II,
and can he measured hy sounding the water level in a
simple perforated tube (open standpipe) (Figure AI6). For
!<
;:;. <

accuracy. measurements should be taken with an electrical sa-,'Puddl'~

" C(I,
diprneter (Figure AI7). In the absence of such equipment er btnlonlh
...1.-.. reasonably accurate measurement can be obtained by the
use of a 'whistle' plumb bob which should be attached to
I
a heavy nylon fishing line-no! string. which contracts
J_­ when wet,
Bmm oull'dt
The fundamental disadvantage of the standpipe is that the ~dllll'l'I"
11'lndp!~,
response zone extends over its full length, In complex

groundwater regimes such as. for example. perched, mul­

tiple or artesian water tables, the standpipe is capable of

measuring. only the highest head of water thai exists within

possibly a number of regimes. In order to determine (he

true hydraulic profile. water level is best measured by

means of a piezometer. With such an instrument, the length

of the response zone can be limited in the vertical plane

by sealing with plugs of bentonite or puddle clay at the top

and the base of the layer being considered. The piezometer

will then respond only to the hydraulic head in existence

over this limited length.

Where the soil is of low perrneahility. flow through the

soil is slow and it can take a considerable time (or the
groundwater to reach its true hydrostatic level in a stand­
rr
pipe or piezometer tube. In such conditions. when a rapid

L measurement of head is required the groundwater press­ Figure A16 Stand pipe

ures' are best measured by either pneumatic, hydraulic or

r .• electric piezometers. These types of piezometer react to

small movements of a diaphragm and require considerably

L less groundwater flow than traditional types in order to

.. respond (see reference 19 for further details) .

Generally, for site investigation work and for measuring

_ _ 'It ~cl.

CIP ~, W ,. ,1~Q
'­ groundwater levels during dewatering or permeability
tests. a Casagrande type of piezometer is used (Figure
Cantr,ll ~Iunc~'ftg
/crpu~dl'd tIl'

• AlB). This has a permeable point or tip of cylindrical form

which is confined in the borehole bv a filter zone of sand

Or gravel. The filler zone is isolated by sealing with ben­

.
..
h"!~"1!1 Itll
tonite or a proprietary compound.
r I
1. '' ,, It r'~Ulr,d

1
Y(r
COlllol,1I6cia,
htHIU
~!ldUIUd I1PII 01P"lo""ler I'D
'.
- ....-'-:4-- B'Il ,,"l
hp~
, ';.ll
~1
1;(
•
, ' - "'~,-DeplhIIQ II J

I -
511~dp'p,--·_-J

• ' . ~,.dull ed
T B,nlonllt
Sh.l~lnq

. , .
,
- ' - ; - - Upe

-,
hIll up
"I\h plchpr ,.
Hllot
DUUl••
rll,

I - " I

, ,
, -,­
PH I,p, - -
"
BIIU probl- 1 SInd
~IQ'd
p.t P'PI
1
",IDII _-
.;-­ i", _,(on
ncoTllll

T
P"Um,I,f
lip uee drhll)
Bln!onll, III!
It trquit'd

, ,. '"lUlllor •
""al,r- -:;----....
Inutllor

Brill
Compachd Cll,
heHill

Figure A17 Etectric plumb bob. Sheathed Qroh

probe for use in mete! pipe Figure A18 Casagrande piezometers

CIRIA Repon 113 69

-- Appendix 7 Design of filters

Filters used to surround (he inner luhes of shallow or deer Ill. Where pipes arc embedded in filters and drains. the
well pUlIlping installations. or [0 surround pumping. sumps filter marcriul in contact with Ihe ripe is not 10 be so
or piped dmins, or as blankets 10 control .sccp.rgc, should fine thai it enters the joints or perforations in the pipes,
be dc sigm-d !O conform to the ~rar.litlg: of soil surrounding A commonly used criterion is thai the HY"~ size of
the filters. Design rules'!' commonly used are listed below: the niter should be not less than twice the maximum
opening in [he pipe or joint (point D in Figure A (9).
I. The 15170 size of the filter should not be greater than
four times the 85% size of the: natural soil surrounding II. In line grain soils multi-stage fillers arc sometimes
nurussury 10 ensure stability of the filter against ingress
the filler (the 'protected material'). as shown by [he
of such soils and also to prevent loss of line filler
point A in Figure A19.
material through slots in the well screen. The above
2. The 15% size of the filter should not be less than four
rules should be used for the filter's design.
limes the l5% size of the protected material (point 8
in Figure A 19), In practice the engineer may use his judgement to adopt
3. Filters should not contain more than 5% material filters of a grading somewhat coarser than that given by
"
passing the 7S I,m BS sieve (point C in Figure A 19) [he rules. The use of coarser graded filters results in some
nnd such material should be cohesionless. Where the loss of soil through them during the early stages of draining
size given by rule (2) is tess than that given by rule (3). until the packing of the soil particles adjusts itself to act as
the latter should apply (as in Figure A19), a combined nIter. Whilst [he filter has to be effective it
4. The gruding curve of the filter material should roughly should not be so fine as to prevent the ingress of water into
follow the same shape as the grading curve of the the well.
protected material.
5. Where the protected material contnins a large pre­
! ' portion of gravel or coarser material. the filter should
be designed on the basis of the grading of that pro­
L..:..,­
portion of the protected material finer than the 19 mm
sieve.
6. Where the soil to be protected is gap graded (e.g. a
silty fine sand with some gravel) the coarser particles
cannot prevent the fine particles from migrating
through the large pore spaces in the filler if the latter
is designed on the complete grading curve of the soil.
'-­ Therefore the coarse soil particles should be ignored
and the grading limits for the filter should be selected
on the grading curve of the finer soils.
7. Where a filter is placed against a variable soil the filter
has to be designed to protect the finest soil. Generally,
rule (1) should be applied to the finest soil and rule (2)
I ­ to the coarsest.
L B. Filter material should be well graded 10 avoid seg­ ,
regation when placing. i
9. The maximum size of the filter material should be not I
I :­
I
more than about 7S mm. I!
w
.-8 S sieves J..!m~ ,- 8S"',., mm ~

75 150 300 500 1·16 236 175 950 190 375 75 0

1 ­ 100 I ! , L-J'--!_---.l~,...L--"--J
t
, 0 I
w i Size 01 pipe perterations A " /

, ­ 60 .. 65 'f.·-- - ----. ---­ c -­ -----­ ------. --.. • -@-.------ .. I­

/2,0 "
..

w / '
60
,rading of
materi,lto be I
;
II
,
,
,'

protected I ,
/~ . ., I
'­ ;~ Gradrngllmlls I
I~ol suitable--/
1 ­ ,../ filter "
~ 20 8 ,'malerial I
;l
c
~
--1 S1/,_. _.• - - - - - .•- ~_. {!)-. _. i --- ---- - -;;;....."'!~ _.- - _.--- - _.-- -- - - ­ _.- --
1,8 ,e , ..,
i:--_.._.­ --------
,I,A
"\ .­ ~
~
O+
·-5 '/.,. --- --------_.--- ---- -.-. -. f-.....
~---_--'-~-----~-----~-----___,
,
L 0001 001 01 10 100
Figure A19 lIIus/ration of
[E§] Silt Sand ,ra,,1 I

'I - filler rute« Particle ,i" Imml

L ,
70 ClArA Ai;lPOI1 113
 Appendix 8 Measurement of

discharge

The simplest method of tlccuralcly determining discharge

is 10 mcusure the time it takes to fill a tank of known

capacity. Where such a method is not convenient or

possible, various meier s arc corruucrcinlly available that

can be incorporated into the discharge lines.

Metering methods
Two basic types are available:

Propeller type meIer

This is installed in line and cnn include <I totalising device

to indicate the total quantity of water pumped. The rate

of flow can be calculated from two readings at a known Flgur. A20 Pilot lube meier

time interval. Also. periodic readings will allow variations

in pumping rate to be measured.

1. California Pipe method

Pilot tube type

This is the simplest method of estimating now. The air

This type allows measurement of flow rate but is not space LlI) in the pipe is measured and the estimated flow
totalising (Figure A20). read off the table for the relevant pipe diameter (Figure
A2!).
Estimation methods Note: A minimum length of pipe equal to eight pipe dia­
meters should exist after the last elbow, IcC' or valve. Also.
Alternatively. the flow can be estimated with reasonable after a downhill run, the minimum length of pipe after the
accuracy f~om One of the following methods. last pipe fitting should be increased.

,-

Nomrnal PiP! dlam!l!f ! mml 100 150 100 150 lOa ISO 500 750 900
I I,
Ii !! II ! I 11)/
t/:
I
-.­
I
',1'1/ 'W
-
I

!-(i lit.. . . ..... /' i~ III· I ,I,

.- ·rnr
I I
100
i" I , i' ..... I
./ I
Flgur. A21 Ceutomie pipe method.
I I ,I L_ , I' II
Discharge CLJrves
I
..... I i , I
r
"

I I 1'1 I ' , II ..... II i i

I
I I' I
11 I 11 / I !

++t-'mw/- 411/_+-'-f-...;J1 • I

I II -
I I ; t
I i I
I II: ./ ~ I 1/
, :
IJ / I ,I,

I I Ii I: II I"
-
f- •.
I II, ~. / :,I
I
II
/

750
v
i BOO f..-++-I +l-I~~-H+IHllfI--+-++L.l-rrJ+-++Hi+l+I--I-+l-I+1+J1

~ F­l-:ttJItm~t:trillTItj1:u1ttt11ttt!Ut!jj]1ill
150
.; 900
50 50 100 100 1000
01 05 1·0 Ie 5000 10 000

DjJC~lr~e 11111

CIRIA Report 113 71

 2, Trajectory method
This method Involves 1111..·a~urir1~ Ill . ., distaucc (x) away from

the cnd of the pip!! at the point \\ hcrv the lop of the w.ucr

- strcurn has dropped II.J rn (I~ ill) (noll.' this is measured

from 11ll' top of the imid,' of the pipe}. The flow rutc can

then be obtuiucd from the chart in Figure A22.

-- 'omIOllpip'dilm,tarlmml100 ISO 100 150 lOa L50 600 750 900

1000
V / / -I
100 a

10 00 -: V I/l.I V/ V 1/
1~
/.,/. V l.I V
E sao 1/
"/ 1/ l.I
-. V
E
~ 100 1--. / l.I
~. 100 V IV 1/
.
c
:?
100 / 1/-I // 1/Vii /

'/:IV
~
-;;;
~ 50 V
C._
V e- . .
.' ~ a 17 t:;; I) / -I V
-- Flgur. A22 Trajectory method:
lul/ pipe
01
Flow 111'1
5 10 SO 100 sao 1000 5000 10 000

i
.~

Thismethod canalsobe used for estimating now inpartially

full pipes. This is carried out by measuring the air space
10
' l - -__ (y) and multiplying by the percentage of full pipe flow

(Figure A23),

1 .. ' 08

I ,

'--..

I ":'" 06
riO
OL
I ­
L
0,1
I -

o+--.--,-,----,-,-----,----,r--r--,........l
I - o 10 LO 60 80 100
Flgur. A23 Trajectory method: partly lul/ pipe
~ Percenl,g. 01 lull pip' 1I0w

I ­
L.

72 CIAIA Report 11J

 3. Vertical pipe flow NDm,n,1
P'P! d'lmrlr' {mmll00 110 100 150 JOO lID
flow Irum a vertical pipe can he obtained h)' measuring. hOO
'T-rl- i -, -
-Til -r --
l--J IT
the heigh I of the plume
the chart tscc Figure
(II)
A~4).
and reading off the now from
\1 01-
1 - -1-+ -tI, ­ -jl
_____L

rr­
. I 1.1
Note: TIll' vertical hcig.l1t of pipe should he at least eight , ' !

pipe diameters. The method is not suitable where an elbow \0 o~_ ---- 11- I
is placed at the end of a horizontal run because the swirling
action created makes the plume hollow and (11) is then not ,\ 0 I
1i I
-
representative or the flow.
I I I

0 I I
'"
]10 f--+-----+-----+---H+++II--t\------f,..+-t/-+1f--H~~

f,f~'
f. --~
.>(1:......

T)
~~
• _ '~', It
] 00 i---+-----+------IH+++--t+---I-ic-ll-+---j-Lr--.---' .--.LJ ..11

"",m.m 110

80

J
100

---.I 0 ~-
Figure A24 Flow from vertical pipe. 30 ~o 50 60 75 100 150 ]ao 300 LOO 500 m
Curves for vertical flow

4_ v-notch weir
I , I II
With this method. water is discharged into a stilling tank
and then allowed to Bow over a V-notcn. The height of i I II
-, water measured above the apex of the notch is proportional I
, I I

to the now which can be read off the chart (Figure A25). ! i I I
100 H-+1i+-------I'--'-----1-+1L+---­

150H---t--lt--f---t----H-t-t-----,------;----:,1--tt---I­

- Figure A25 V-notch weir. Curve for 90~ v-notcn \\ eir

0500751·01525 SO 7510 15 2S 50 7S 100 250

.-,

C1RlA Repor1 113 73

 Appendix 9 Calculation of net

positive suction head (NPSH)

-
The NI'~11 is the head thut cau.. . cs the water In 110w through
the pumping sy~lcrn anti finally hno the pump's impeller.
11 \

- For Ih~ general dewatering case where the pump is above

the level of Ihe water. the required NPSH is equal 10 the­
barometric pressure tess (he st.ltlc suction lift. friction
losses in the system and the vapour pressure of the water.
100

}Static suction lift 15

- 1
Atmospheric

pressure

} Friction losses in system

} Vapour pressure

_I~-
e
IRequired NPSH ...•
"
~
\0

~
~
~
The 'required NPSH' is a function of the pump design and ~

irs value must be supplied by the pump manufacturer. ~

2\ \,
The 'available NPSH' is a function of the pumping system
and must be at least equal to the 'required NPSH'. !
~ I
The vapour pressure is small. less than 1 m. for water •
~
~
> 0
temperatures in the normal operating range. With increas­
ing temperature the value increases rapidly. as will be seen 0 20 ~O 6G 60 lUG
from the graph of Figure A26. Temperature rc 1

Figure A26 Relationship between vapour pressure and waler

temperature

L
1
L
1 ­

L.

1
L
~.

CIRIA Re00l111J
'­
Appendix 10 Design example STEr I
The equations for now (Q) and drawdown head (hlJ) for
of progressive wellpoint these conditions arc;
system T
Q= [ 0.73+017 ( II -")] x ;,,(H'-"o')
kx

One of the more common requirements is for dewatering C , C, ]

hD="o [--(H-h o)+1
a narrow rectangular open excavation (e.g. for a pipe R"
trench) underlain at depth by a relatively impervious stra­
turn (e.g. clay). See Case 5 on page 22.
where Q = total combined discharge from both sides
of the excavation when equilibrium draw­
I;
Consider the need for a rectangular progressive trench down has been achieved (m'/s)
excavation having base dimensions of 6 m x 120m at a H = height of static water table (m)
depth of 4 m below ground level. The water bearing stra­ ho = height of water in well points after draw­
turn is 11 m thick with groundwater at 1 m below ground down (m)
level and consists of medium sand having a permeability Ro = distance to line Source = radius of influ­
coefficient (k) of 5 x 10-' m/s. It is proposed to draw the ence (In)
water table down to 1 m below formation level in order to k = coefficient of permeability (m/s)
ensure dry working conditions (Figure A27). x = length of wellpoint system along side at
right angles to section considered (m)
Assume side slopes of 1 in 1 with the wellpoints set at 1 m
h o = height of water table midway between the
beyond the top of the excavation. A progressive wellpoint
two lines of wellpoints. after drawdown
installation will require about . ~on m of header ripe on each
(m)
side of the excavation with wellpoints set at around 1-2 m
(= distance from line of wellpoints to centre­
centres being pumped on a 240m length (i.e. twice the line of trench (m)
working length of excavation) (see also CIRIA Report
b = diameter of wellpoints (m)

97''').
C" C, = constants (see Figure 21)

For this example, two parallel and equidistant line sources

are assumed. In practice this is a rnaner of judgement and
will depend on whether the excavation (as in the case
considered) is long and narrow, and if a definite water
source (e.g. the sea) is closer than the radius of influence
(Ro) estimated from the permeability and drawdown.
Required drawdown at centre of excavation lt~ = 6 m
Radius of influence Ro = 1500(H - "o)Vk
= 134m
Ro 134
-=-=134
H 10 .
- This is greater than 3 so the equation for flow (Q) and
drawdown head h in Section 13 can he used.
Check operating level Q/ line of wellpoints
Distance from line of wellpoints to centre-line of trench =
8m
From relationship between "o/H, Ro/H and ho/H (see
Figure 22)
Ro/H = 134/10 = 13.4
"D/H = 6/10 = 0.6 whence IIO/H = 0.58 Hence ho = 5.8 m
Thus drawdown at line of wellpoints will be 5.2 m below
original ground level. Provided pumps are in good
condition. this is satisfactory. However. initial 0.5 m exca­
vation and installation of wellpoints. header and pumps at
this lower level would be good practice to reduce suction
Iifl.

- W~lIpornls '.
/' Bm
·------14m-------
.----,.. Hm
i __---'-=-__ Static
'\ water table

-
......
_.-._.- ­
._.- ...............
. "')"

-
......
water lable
alter
drawdown
"

\
'\. .-'
/ . , ....­
- h'L\/

-- Permtablr stratum,

- h, k: 5 x 10'~ mIt

" """,
- - - - - - ~ -------------
7/)')")"//'''»/'/'')0/
- - - - - - -_~~y.reratTffi'- _.:._ =
" /... , , ,/ / ,"/", , " ,?7/;/,~),", /"//,/M;;;'/-I,/,.,,,

- :
=-_-=--=-_-
_____- _- - - - - - - _=t=__ -- --=:::::0........_-
,m'ermeable- -
= - - -........ --- - _ - - - - -- --­­
I Ro:13~m

Figure A27

- CIRIA Report' 13 75
 Check had Or! lIn having ul..'lcrmincd tlwr 11 0 '=" S.8 curve) 10 allow for extra capacity 10 achieve initial draw.
down [see also Table 15).
III,,, = HI5.H = I.3H

- from Fipurc 21
C, = IJ.~': blH = /1.15/10 = fJ.OI5
To allow for possible surges, the usc of a 150 mm pump
will probably be advisable.
The above calculations assume that the site is at an elev­

- C, = 1.3

I,D = 5.H [
IJ.95 , \.3
134 ([(I - 5.H) + I
]
ation ncar (0 sea level and is in a temperate climate. A loss
in vacuum and in pump efficiency occurs with increasing
altitude and temperature. Thus when working in non­
temperate zones (e.g. Middle East) or in high altitude

- =6.IJ2 m (i.e. less than 1% difference, so satisfactory)

Compute total flow Q for 240 lin. m of header line being
areas. the following losses need to be taken into account
when assessing the required pumping capacity.
L A reduction in vacuum of about 1 m for every 330 m
pumped: increase in elev'ation above sea level.
. (10 - 5.8')] [5 x 10-' x 240] 2. A reduction. in vacuum due to temperature rise (see
Q = [ 0.73 + 0.27 -10-- x 134 Appendix c}.
3. A reduction in engine efficiency of 2% for every 5.5°C
x (10' - 5.8') (IO'F) above 30'C (86'F).
• 0.050 m'ls =50. I lis = 1811 m'lh 4. A reduction in engine efficiency of 3.5% (or every 300 m
increase in elevation of 150m above sea level.
i.e. Row per side will be 0.lJ25 m'/s
SUMMARY
The calculations indicate that wellpoints placed at 2 m
STEP 1

The number of wellpoints can be estimated (rom rhe nomo­

centres and jetted down to about 7 m below ground level,
gram lor clean unilorm sand {See Figure 64). Not.: Stand­
with 150mm header pipe and two 150 mm dewatering
ard spacing of take-off plugs on wellpoim header pipe is

pumps (one as standby) per side should be sufficient to

obtain the required drawdown to at least 1 m below the
1.0 m.
proposed formation level over the total area [Q be
Spacing required to obtain 4 m drawdown at centre-line of excavated.
trench = 1.5 m.
.. Assume wellpoints of 2.0 m spacing which would require
240 x 2/2 = 240 progressive well points around the peri­
IVAR:'-IING
The radius of influence (Ro) calculated above is an indi­

. meter orthe excavation. cation of the value of Ro when equilibrium drawdown is

,
Flow/wellpoint will be 50 t/24IJ = 0.209 lis
Cheek capacity of wellpolnts from graph (Data Sheet 4).
For k == 5 x lO-.Jm!s, self-jet welJpoint will yield about
! • 0.7I/s. Therefore wellpoint spacing 01 2 m will be
satisfactory.
STEP J
1 •
Check graph (Data Sheet 1) for approximate size 01 header
pipe required for flow of 251/s per side.
The graph indicates thar l50 mm diameter pipe would be
I • suitable if friction losses are 10 be kept ro a reasonable
amount.
established. During an initial drawdown period, the radius
of influence will be small and consequently the yield will
be higher and therefore the system must have capacity in
excess of that required when equilibrium has been estab­
lished. In practice. the initial rare of pumping is about
twice the equilibrium nile of pumping so sizes of pumps
and pipework should be selected to deal with this.
[1 follows that the dimensionless graph. Figure lJ, (or
assessing percentage o( drawdown must be used with
caution.

STEP 4
Check head losses in system
From graph. Data Sheet 1. allow 150mol 150 mm header
pipe at 15 m/lOOO m = 2.25 m head.
From Data Sheet 2 allow 50 m equivalent pipe length
for fittings (valves. bends and tees). J lead loss at 15 m/
lOOOm = 0.75 m.
Total head loss = 2.25 + 0.75 = 3 m.
Therefore, head loss would be about 3 m and system will
need to pump against a total head of 3 m + 4 m (required
drawdown) = 7 m assuming discharge is laid on level
ground.
A suitable pump to handle 5US', over 90 m~/h per side (i.e.
135 m'/h) (37.5 lis) against a head of 10m may then be
chosen (see pump manufacturer's published performance

• 76 CI~!A AepM , r3

L
 - Appendix 11 Design example
of multiple well system
drawdown. a ~nme'\'hill lesser druwdown ut the wcll!<l will
he required. Alternalhcly. assuming a full 12 III drnwdown
will allow a margin of error.

- Consider the need 10 lower the water lable for the con­
slrucl;on of a 7 m deep basement SO m by .50 m at its
STEP J
Calculate yield (Q). see CO" 8
""kO(H - iI_)
base. Assume circular source of groundwater (i.e. island Q=
(R,,)
conditions) as for Case 8 on page 23 (Figure A28). Iog,-)
(r,
STEP I h5 X 10-' x 17 x 121 - 9)

- Drawdown [Q at least +69,0 m at centre of excavation

required = 7 m minimum.
This will require a number of wells surrounding the pro"
=

log,
(470)

ill

- posed basemen! area, the yield from \.\'hich may be com­

puted assuming. a single well With an equivalent radius r.:
ax
r,=,!--=
i b J60--=41.5m
x 90
= 0.264 m'/s = 2641/,
where Q """ discharge from assumed single well (m:'js)
k = coefficient of permeabliity (m/,)
D = height of piezometric level above base of
" ,T ;r
aquifer (m)
where a == width of excavation + 10 m hy, = height of water at outside edge of pumping
b = length of excavation + 10 m wells after drawdown (m)

- Radius of influence Ro = 3000(76 - 69)\15 x 10-'

= 470m
Ro = radius of influence (m)
", = equivalent radius of assumed single well (m)

STEP 4
STEP %
4'
Check area of weald depth (II . ..) of It 'ells for calculatedyield
Check drowdown at centreof eXCallQfio'l by peripheral wells Assume 450 mm diameter wells.
Distance from perimeter to centre == 41.5 m
From graph ~Dala Sheet 5) for k = 5 x 10-' m/s
Percentage distance along radius of influence (Ro)
Yield per metre of wetted depth = 2.1 I/s
41.5 x 100
-'-- :::: ' : : 8 8% 264
470 .
Total wetted depth required = ­ = 126 m approx
2.1
From graph (Figure 13) % drawdown = 58%
Therefore. required drawdown at wells to obtain 7 m draw. STEP 5
down a( centre of excavation will be 7/0.58 = 12.0m. In For drawdown to +64.0m at [he wells (i.e. It... .: : : 9m) the
practice since each line of wells will contribute to the intake level of the pumps must be al a level sufficienlly

10m
i
.---..
,

- ,

- Ground Itftl.77m
Piuomelric levtl·'&'"i
!
,S,m_

r ,
1m
-!
';g-l
_ f __
--r-
--- l'-~ ,~
IJ- _
---.-"'-. ·m _ _ _ I~ ,./Om Im ~lmmm
101 u ~
~
,=.:::-----:.:::.::-:: [i;;-:.:::.:: .0.:
._--.. (._- --- ­ .
-' H~11m I ·6~,Om
I
f-. - -
-.::::~_
' ­
'_===:::--
-~--._.._ Medium ~3f'd
L'llm~ ~- .] . L- s:- - " -

I hw,9m
'
I . "I I

k,l.lO'm/..

------------_----: --.--
: : .-:; =-=- -- -- ~-. - _- -===
• S5·Dm I

___ --= '____

~­
, '

-=c- - _

-- -- -- -- ---­
~- ell'=--­

~ ~ • '*-fjdlSm

t , "";a zOOm

Figure A2B

CIAfA Report 113 77

 lower to allow for the length of the pump and to avoid
cavitation of the water above the pump, For the size of
pump required (see step 6 below), the length of pump will
he about 1.5 m and it would be prudent to allow at least
-
5 m alv-ve the pump 10 guard against cavitation, It would
therefore be necessary 10 set the pump inlet at, say,
+57.n rn. It is also good practice to allow a 2 m-3 m depth
STEP 8
I. Check alternative well/pump sizes and compare total
costs.
2. Check design of gravel pack and slot width of screen,
3. Check the entry velocity.
4. Carry out well development on completion of each well,

of well below the pump inlet and thus Ihe bottom of the
well screen should be taken down to, say, +54.0 ru.
Yield/well = 9 x 2.1 = 18.91/s
Hence, theoretical number of wells required
264
=-=14
18.9
~ Add three (about 20%) 10 allow (or variations in soil
conditions. pump breakdowns etc. plus margin of error
AND reserve capacity to establish equilibrium.

STH 6

Yield/pump = 264/14 = 18.91/s

Total pumping head lrorn pumping level = 12 m (+76 m Ii

to +64 m) plus allowance for velocity head and friction i

I
losses (say 4 m). i
Total head ~16m [approximately 5.5 kW with 100mm
discharge outlet-obtained from manufacturer's perfor­
1
r
mance curves) :[
From the table 01 discharge/head (Table 13) lor typical I
capacities of submersible pumps, select suitable pumps for '.
installation inside 200/300 mm diameter casing screen (i.e.
, .' ,
450 mm less 75 mm annulus lor gravel pack). So, depending
on pump diameter, select appropriate screen diameter [Q
give indication of minimum hole diameter.

I ­ STEP 7

Check entry velocity/open area of screen.

To optimise well efficiency, entry velocity should not

I ­ exceed 0.0] m/s
Well Yield
Velocity = a pen area
! ­ Well screen diameter == 300 mm
Operating level in well = +64.0 m

I ­
Immersed depth Ir, = 9 m
Assuming 1(1% open area and 9 m length of screen:

-
Entry velocity = .T x 0]

This is satisfactory,
0.019

. X 9 x 0,1 = 0.022 m/s

The riser pipe from each pump will discharge horizontally

at ground level through a gate valve via a tee connection
into a ring manifold installed around the perimeter of the
site.
From graph (Data Sheet 1) check pipe size for total flow
of 264:;s, This indicates a minimum pipe diameter of
250 mm. Allow (or ]05 mm diameter.
As a precaution. (1,.1,'0 points along the manifold should be
connected to 305 mm discharge pipes. Valves should be
provided along the manifold to isolate any malfunctioning
pump on either discharge main,

.­ 78 CIAIA Report 113

 Appendix 13 Suppression of
noise regulations

Excessive noise rrom some machinery such as pumps.

generators and motors can be both a nuisance and health
hazard to people on and in the vicinity or construction
sites. Contractors must therefore take all necessary pre­
cautions to limit noise to an acceptable level.
The prlncipal leglslntion includes the: Health and Safety at
Work etc. Act 1974 (Amendment 1982)"°' andThe Control
of Pollution Act 1974''''. The latter gives local authorities
powers for dealing with noise from construction and demo..
lition sites and other similar works which maybe exercised
either before or alter the work has been started. Con­
tractors may take the initiative and a-k the r.ocal Authority
to mak.e its noise regulations known.
British Standard No. 5228--Code of Practice for Noise
Control on Construction and Demolition Siles(27) gives
information on legislation, methods of estimating noise
levels and noise control. Guidance on the construction
of simple acoustic screens and enclosures such as that
illustrated below, is also given. '
If obtainable, use equipment which is designed to give low
noise levels, and so avoid the need (or enclosures, which
may give rise to overheating problems.

'-­ AtDuS(it rereen

.­
.

.
I

.. . _.-1._--, I .
.. FIgure A29 Use 01acoustic screens

, ..
,.

I .•
L

L" ,

CIAIA ~8pon llJ

80
 Appendix 14 Preliminary

checklist for a dewatering

............ ­
scheme

-
This is H basic check li!if for information fhal needs to be

available before designing a dewatering scheme. Other

Items should be added as appropriate to a particular

--
scheme,

Contract: Checked by: Date:

-- hem Information required Action required

1. Excavation dimensions:
length

width

depth (max from natura]

-.. ground level)

I
,
I 2, Site location:
,.

---
height above sea level
distance in metres to nearest: d"
slTUClurejbuilding (
road
major discharge point
"

F
"oIIIIL..:..­
(sea , river, canal, lake)
water supply
J
II

discharge quality restrictions

1 Pumping distance 10 discharge:

horizontal

~
vertical

,
Are sketch plans of sire

layout and elevation of

excavation available:

L.
3. Groundwater factors:
season (autumn, winter etc) rainfall
1
.L
depth of water below ground level
4, Ground conditions:
brief description
l~ soils reports available
borehole logs
particle size analysis
permeability tests

l'
5, Proposed methods of excavation:
progressive or static
likely rate of progression
vertical Or battered sides

L"
open cut
sheeted
length of sheets
dewatering methods used on site 10 date.

l'
6, Deadlines:
Start dale
Specialist subcontractors
lender required by:
L~

L'

l'

l'

ClArA Aepot1 113 81

.l'

L PART 6
L' References 84
85 ,

Bibliography ,

1=' Index
86 i1
U
"
I
I

1:' i,

I
1:'
1-'
j,
L'

l'

L~ ,I
'I

1" i

L"
1"

1"

L~

l"
l~

l"
L"- CI~IA Report 113
83
 •

· -
References
URITI';" STANDARDS INSTITUTION 19 WELTMAN A ) and HEAD 1 M

."­
Cod,' ,,' prartirt for !ouflf/flflfl1U Silt inlJl'.uiSl1/ion manual
CP ~lInl:IY12 PSA Civil Engineering Technical Guide No, 35
CtRIA Special Publication 25. t9RJ
2 IJRITISII STANDARDS INSTITUTION
Code of practice lor 'itt invl.ffIH"{{mu

·
20 He:!hh .1ntl S.1fcly at Work, CIC, Act. 1974
as 59JI/: 111M I London amendments. 19R2
-- HMSO. London 197J & 19R2
J IRVINE D J and SMITH R J H
Trtnching Prectice 21 The Construction [General Provisions) Regulations

· ­
CIRIA Report 97, 1983

4 TERZAGHI K and PECK R a

Sui{ mechanics in rnginuring practice
Statutory Instrument 1961 No, 1580
HMSO

22 BUILDING EMPLOYERS' CONFEDERATION

Wiley, N~w York, 2nd Edition. 1967 Construction StJfl'ty
BAS Management Services. London. 1985 (regularly revised)
• 5 TOMLINSON M J
2J THE FEDERATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Foundation design and cOrl.r!rllcrion
Pitman. London• .fth Edition. 1980 CONTRACTORS
Superotson Saftty bookitt
• 6 WI:-ITERKORN H F and FlING H Y
Foundation Engineering Handbook
FCEC, London, 5th Edition 1986

Van Nostrand Rheinhold. 1975 24 THE FEDERATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONTRACTORS
7 SOMERVILLE SHand PAUL M A Guide to rlu construction reguknions, 1961 and 1966
• Dictionary of Geotechnics FCEC. London. 2nd Edition 1985
Butterworth. London. 1983
25 THE ROYAL SOCIETY FOR TIlE PREVENTION OF
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION ACCIDENTS

• Mf:fnods of ust for Joi/s for ciuil engineering purposes

BS 1J77: 1975
Construction Regulations Handbook

RoSPA. Birmingham. 11th Edition. 1982

9 MANSUR C I and KAUFMAN R I 26 Control of Pollution Act. 197~

Dewatering, Ctvatner J of Foundation Engineering POri 11/: Noise

• Editor Leonards G A HMSO. London 1974

Mc~r3w·Hi". New York. 1962
27 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
10 POWERS J P Noise Control 0" construction a"d open sites
• Construction Dewatering: A guide (0 theorv & practice
Wiley, New York, 198\
Parr [, Code Ofpracticefor basic information and procedures for
noise control

BS 5228:Parr 1:198J.

II Control of Pollution Act, 1974

Parr II: Pollution of water

• HMSO. London 1974

12 GROUNDWATER and WELLS

Johnson Division, UOP Inc. Saint Paul (Minnesota), 1915

• lJ BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION

Distribution 0/ electricity 0/1 construction and building sites
CP 1017:1969

14 HVORSLEV M 3
Ttme lag and soil permeability in groundwater observations
US waterways Experiment Station Bulletin 36. Vicksburg (fl.fis·

,issippi),1951

15 KIRKHAM D

MeaJllremUJI of hydralilic conductiviry 0/ soil i" place

Symposium on permeability of soils

Special Technical publication 163

American Society (or Testing Materials. Philadelphia 1955

1< KING D L
Soakawavs in trench form

Tne Surveyor, 23 August 1974.22

17 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT

Digest 15/, Soukawa,Vs

HMSO. London 1973

18 US DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. BUREAU OF

RECLAMATION

Eunh Manual-a guide to tile use of soil as foundations and as

constructional materials for hydralllic !(rucwres

Tentative Edition. 1951: 2nd Edition 197..

US Government Printing Office. Washington 197..

84 CiRIA Report 113

 Bibliography

BELL F (;
MrrilOrlJ III "fat",!,,,, of lou/aMf ,crmllld
!'Jc.....nn-Illlller\lnflh. London 111.'\5.

BRITISH STAND,\RDS INSTITUTION

Codr 0/ "rt1('!ir~ far eartltworks
BS 6031:1981

BOUWER H
Groundwater Hydrology
McGraw-Hill. New York. 1962

CAMPBELL M 0 and LEHR J H

Wall!.'r "lit" tl!.'cknolog,v
McGraw-Hill, New York. 1973
CASHMAN P M and HAWS E T
Control of groundwater by water lowering
Proc. Com. on Ground Engineering London 1970

Inun. of Civil Engmeers, 1970

CASHMAN PM
Crou,,,JM'OIUpumping techniques for excavations and other works
World Construction, August 1976

CASHMAN PM
Pumps for Contractors

lnrernaHonal Construction, February 1980

DAVIES S N and DE WEIST R J M

Hydrogl!.'ology
Wiley. New York. 1966

HARR M E
Groundwall!.'r and seepage
McGraw'l;!iI1, Ne.. York 1962

HAZEN A
Some physict:Jl properties of sands and gravels k'iln. speciol reference
10 Ihtir use in fibration
Massachusetts State: Board of Health. 24lh Annual Report, 1892

KRUSEMAN G P and DE RIDDER 1'1 A

Analysis and ~valuafion of ptJmping text data: 8ull~,in No I J
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Necher/ands, 1979

LOUDEN A G
The computation of perm~abj(ir}' from simple soil tests
Gectecbnlque 3. 1952

NEELY W]
Fidd measurement of permeability using auger holes
Ground Engineering, January 1974

US DEPARTMENT OF THE I!'JTERIOR. BUREAU OF

RECLAMATION
Ground water manual
US Government Printing Office, Washington 1977.

CIRIA Repon "3 85

 Index
Detcrmiuution of friction losses in Jewah.'rinl.! S\~tt.'I\I'. 4~
Dctc rminuuon nf share Iuctur . f)ll • .

Development of WI,,'Il~, "U

Dewatering for ;I long uurtow IfI.:nt'h. ~I

Atf1('ulllH;!1 dr;\ln~, ~(,

Dcwurcring for;1 WitJl' trench IH narrow rl,,'el;I"~lllar cxcuv.uiou. "

I\;r lin !,lIlnp. 411'

Dewatering rump~, .!~ . .!ll

Auunonnuu hfin\,,' rdrr~~:r;IIt\ln, .~

Dianhrugm cut-offs. lJ. II. 11. 17

"I'PfO.'WII'I/l' l:H~'.\ uT i!lcDlI,,'dlJlk:JI pml"!.::;.\o lur c;'I;('ll1ding.

Diuphrugm walling. 4. 11. IZ. 17

grlllJlHlw:tll'r. 17
Discharge mcusuecrncnt l Appcndlx 1{1. 71

I\pllnl.'l:im;ll~ costv-c-Pctmuncut c.'l:l'lu,il.n 11lI,:lhlllh. 17

D;!>pos:lhle wctlpouus. J2

l\ppHlxim,dc cnsts-TI,,'mrorary (':o<CIlI... II1[l ml.'lh\,d~. 17

Dild\l·~. ~

Apprmtill1;llc co.~ts-gctllcchnil.,·al pnll,,·c~.~cs. 17

Or;lin"fl' [rum rLJl1lpl'U wcll.~ and wellpuinl.... III

Approximate grading limil:' (or wdll'l1ilH dc\q(crirl~. J I

Drainagv g'Jllerics. J( II. IZ

,\quiTer tvnes. 10
Drainuge of ~lupcs, ~~

"4uifc( unc.k'r arle.\ian pressure. ~o

Druwdown-c-cstimutc of settlement: 19

Anilid'll ro:dwrgl!, JJ

Assessment of permeability hy inflow lC~(~ in hl1fchllk~ (Appendix

Eductor erflciencv. 41

3). h"
Assessment of permeability from full-scale pumping tests
Eductor system dcsign.lI. II. 1.1. 17. .!1

Euuctor liyslcm~ . .!1

(Appendix I). 5H ErrecB of drawdown on adjacent structures. ll)

Assessment of permeubilitv (rom packer IC.\!~ in rock strata Ellects of druwdown on local water supplies. I~

(AppcnJi., 51. M Ejectors: Jl

r\~.'ic.\smcrH of pcrmcabilily Irom simple plJll1pin~ tests in Electrochemical consolidation. l). 10. II. 12. 11

borehole's {Arpcnui., 1). f')tl Electric plumb-bob. 6Q

Asscssrneat of perrneubiltty frum SU"k;lWtI:-' tI:S\~ (Appendix -l). (,; Electro-osmosis. 8. 10. II. 1!.17,.!5

• Avnilnble NPSH, 1.! Embankments. 8

Available methods of groundwater control. ~ Emulsion ~rouf systems. 10

Equivalent radius. ~.!

Buse urlift. 7
Estimate of settlement due to drawdown. IQ

BJ!'iic lime lag. 60

Estirtuuing quantity of water 10 ne pumped hy wellpoint svsrcrn.

Bt:nlOnill: gel. 17
3K. 1:'

Bibliography, 85
Excuvutcd wells or sumps wilh independent pumps. JU

Bleeder wells. .!5

Fedc nnion of Civil Engineering Cctumcuns Pnblicurions. 7Q

Culculauon of Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) (Appendix ql. Fielu iJenritic:llion of around. l.l

7"
Filter design. 70 ­
California pipe m~!h{)tl of discharge measurement. 71
Final desian checks, 50

Capacity of eductors. 55
Final planning checks. 50

Capacity of sand drains . .!.!

Flow diagram for header pipes. 52

Capacity of wellpoints. 5.!

Flow resttictions-c-Perrnanenr exclusion methods. 12

Capacity of wells per unit length of wetted depth. 5.!

flow restticuons-c-Ternporary exdcsion methods. lJ

Casagrande piezometer. 69
Freezing methods-ammonium brine. 8

Cement ~rOUlS. 9, to. 17

Freczing melhods-liquid nitrogen. ~

Cement/bentonite. 17
Freezing of ground. S. Ill. 11. I~. 17

Centrifugal pumps . .!8

Friction losses in smooth-bore rubber hose (Data sheer J). 5.'

Checks during construction. 50

Friction losses in valves and nllinl!.s (Data sheet ~l. 52

Checks-dail v, SO
Fuel and lubricating oil checks. JQ

Checks-e-desian. 50

Checks-planning. 50
Garland drains. 21

Circular supply to group of wens. 20

Gener.:!l in(nrmation. 4l'{

Circular supply (0 line of wells. ~O

Gr.:!ding curve (typical). 15

Circular supply to single well. 10

Gravel packs, 39

Clay/cemem grouts. 9. 17
Gravity drainage or slopes. 26

Coefficient of storage. 58
Gra vity drainage. 8. 12. 26

Coefficient of transmissibilir v. S8
Ground freezing. 8,10. 11. 1~. Ii'

Collector wells. 8. 11. l2 .

Groundwater control methods. 8. 9

Competence of personnel. 19
Groundwater exclusion methods. 8, 9

Compressed air. 8. 10. t L 12. [7

Groundwater Row, 6

Cone of depression. 18. 30

Groundwater lowering methods. R. 16ff

Confined aquifer, 20
Grout cut-ells. 9

Corl5ll1lc!;on Rezulations Handbook. 19

Grout injection methods. 9.10.11. 12. 17

Construction (General provisions) Reaulations 1961 (OGP)). 79

Grouting processes. 9.10.11. 12. i7

Contiguous bored piles. 9, 11. 11 •

Guumun process. 9

Control or groundwater. 7. 8,9

Control of Pollution Act t91J. 80

Hand lift diaphragm pumps. 48

COS1 of permanent methods of groundwater control. 11

Hazen's formula. 16

Cost of temporary methods of groundv ater control. 11

Header pipe. 33

Header prpe-c-Capncitics and Iricuon losses (Data sheet I). 5:

O'Ar"y relationship. 15
He<illh and Safety at Work etc. ACI 1974 (Amendmenls 19:-;>:-;0

Daily checks during construction. 50

Health and Safcty ,1\ Work etc. Act 1974 (HSWAj. I\)

Deep well systems. 8.11. 12.11.39

Holepuncher. 31

Degree of permeabilily for various soillypes. :5

Horizontal drains. 45

Depth and width restrictions-pcrmanent groundwater control

Horizon!al wellpoints. 8. II. J~. J7. JS

mC:lhods, 11
Ho\l.· (0 estimate lhe qUllnlity of \\aler to be pumpcd ror lhc

Depth and width restrictions-temporary grOU:1UWaler comral

. rcquired dril\"uo\\.n. ~O

mechods. II
Hvorslev's inflow and !)hap~ factor,. 63

,~ Design rhecks. 50
Hydrologic cycle. (,

Design (',.ample of multiple well system (Appendilli 11).11

Design ~'tample of wellpoin[ system (Appendi.,. 10).15

(deal aquifer. 2IJ
Design of educlcr syslems, .!1
ldentif\in2 the 2round. lJ
Design of filters (Appendix 7). 70
Idcmif;'ing the prohlem, (,
Determination of basic lime lag. 50
Imper\'iuus 50;1 barrier.~. I!. 12. J7
 l1110w and shape Iactors. I€ J
River pipe J2

I ufluw rests. b4
Rotary displacement or mono pumps. ~9

~nlormalion required [01 sclecnon or appropriate dewatering

Ro~al Society for the Prevention of Accidents, 79

system. 12

"nstallation or piezometers and measurement of .... atcr lcvcb

Safe slope". I~

i (Appendill tIl. fig

Safetv aspects of groundwater lowering. ~9

~ntcrnal pumping. ~
Safetv-c-Sclcctcd lesal requirements. 79

Introduction. fl Sanddrains, 4~

Sanding-in. 31

" .:'1 eductor svaems , 8.11. 17.41

Secant oared pile wall. 9. 11. 12. 17

, ::1 ~rouling"9. 11. 12

Selection of groundwater control methods. Sf(

-reued sumps, 29
Self-priming centrifu~al pumps. 42

johnson's Revert. 39
Shallow well svstema. 8, 11. 12. 17.40

, . Josten process. 9
Shape faclon:60. 63

Sheet puing. 9. 10. 11. u. 17

'~,_imilation of suction lift in wellpcint systems. 38

Silicates. 9, 10, 17

Line source to single well. 20

Sinking pumps. ~9

r .iquid nitrogen refrigerant, 8

Slurry trench cut-off 9.11.·12.17

! .ugecn lest, 68
Soakaway tests. 65

Sources of surface water and groundwater. 6

Maintaining water levels. 42

Spacing of wellpoinu. 37

Maximum capacity of sand drains. 44

Spoil heap surcharge. 49

taximum yield of wellpoims (Data sheet 4). 54

Standard wellpoints, 32

: taximum yield of wells (Data sheet 5). 54

Standpipes, 69

'-measurement of discharge, 71
Storage coefficient. 58

Measurement of water levels, 69

Submersible pumps. 48

. tethod of stabilising slopes. 28

Sump pumping in trench excavations. 29

lethods available for controlling groundwater inflow. 7, 8. 9

Sump pumping. B. II. 12. 17. 26

~.rethods of assessing permeability, 15

Sumps outside main drainage area. 29

Mono pumps, 49
Suppression (if noise regulations (Appendix 13). 80

J..1otor driven diaphragm pumps, 48

Surcharge from spoil heaps, 49

, .ultiple well systems. 24. 77

Surface drainage. 26

: .uhistage wellpoint installations. 11. 36

Surface water cut-off svsrems. 8

Surface water flow. 6 .

I'IPSH.74
Swing joint pipe. 32

ational Federation of Building Trades Employers. 79

er positive suction head (NPSH). 74

Temporary exclusion methods. 8

Loise regulations (Appendix 13).80

Temporary groundwater control methods. 8

Nomogram for wellpoint spacing-stratified sand and gravel. 37

Temporary safe slopes, 14

t'')mogram for, wellpoint spacing-uniform sand and gravel, 37

Tentative ranges of groundwater exclusion methods. iO

" in-vacuum assisted pumps, 48

Tentative ranges of groundwater lowering methods. 10

Thin grouted membrane. 9. II. 12. 17

Open ditches, 26
Three stage wellpoint installation. 36

Training walls, 8

cker tests. 66
Trajectory method of discharge measurement. 72

I nicle size distribution curve, 15

Transmissibilitv coefficient. 58

nrcenlage drawdown, 18
Treatment of recharge water. -(]

Permanent exclusion methods, 9

Trench cut-offs. 9

:- rmeability estimated from soil grading. 15

Trimming weltpomrs. 32

; rmeability rests in rock strata, 66

Tuning wellpoirus. J2

i-rmeabili'y tests, 15. 5B. 60, 64. 65, 66

Types of aquifers, 20

Permeability, 15
Types of garland drains. 27

p..-meabillty-e-Methods of measurement, 15
Types of pumps used for dewatering. 48

J nneability/Uniformiry coefficient relationships. 16

Types of well configurations. 20

l zometer monitoring. 49
Types of wellpoints. 32

PIezometers, 69
Typical eductor performance (Data sheet I€ ). 55

, Pilot tube type water meter. 71

Typical spacing of wellpcints. 37

F nning checks. 50

~ sumatic pumps. 48

Unconfined aquifer. 20

Power requirements, 49

• Problems of unstable ground, 7

P gressive wellpoint system. 35. 37

V-notch weir method of discharge measurement. 73

~ peller type water meter, 71

Vacuum assisted pumps, 48

f'~np breakdowns, 49
Vacuum wellpotnting. 38

Pumping (rom wells or wellpoinu outside an excavation. 30

Vapour pressure. 74

Pv-nping-in test (falling head), 60

Vertical pipeffow method of discharge measurement. 7J

~I. iping-out lest (rising head), 6~

Vertical wellpoinr systems. 8. 11, 12, 17. ':\0. 3J, 36

~ tps used for dewatering, 48

Pumps. 4B. 49
Water temperature. 74

Well development. 40

R .ius of influence, 18
Well screens, 40

Fd harge piping system, 4J

Well system-s-Design example. 77

Recharge using trenches, 42

Well systems. B, 11.12, 17.23

Recharge using wells, 43

Wellpoinl capacity. 54

R' tangular well arrangements. 24

I
Wcllpoinl dewatering components. 3~. 33

R, Itionship between vapour pressure and water temperature. 74

Wellpoinl spacing nomograms. 37

RGlive costs of temporary and permanent methods of

Wellpolnt system-s-Design example. 75

groundwater escfusion, 17
Wellpoinl systems. B. 11, 12.17, 30rf

, R..... uired NPSH, 74

Wellpoint-e-Jcning and dewatering. 31

RI n grouts, 9. 17
Wellpoints-Trimming.32

Ri ionsibility for labour-only suo-contractors and self-employed

Wellpoints-Tuning. 32

workmen, 79
Wells or sumps with independent pumps. 30

ell \ Aapor1 11.3 87

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