Instituto Politécnico

Nacional

Escuela Superior de
Cómputo

Electrónica Analógica

Professor: Edmundo René Durán Camarillo

Practice #1

Team: 3
Members:
Index

1 - Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

1.1 - Theoretical Framework ------------------------------------------------ 2

2 - Simulations ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

3- Questionnaire ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

4- Individual Conclusions --------------------------------------------------------------- 10

5- Group Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 10

6- Bibliography ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11

7- Annexed --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12

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 1. Introduction

1.1 Theoretical framework

In this practice, the central theme was the diode and its characteristics, to better
understand this practice it was necessary to have theoretical information about the diode,
some concepts are as follows

Diode

A diode is a semiconductor device that acts essentially as a unidirectional switch for current.
It allows current to flow in one direction, but does not allow current to flow in the opposite
direction.Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (AC) to
pulsating direct current (DC). The diodes are classified according to their type, voltage and
current capacity.

The diodes have a polarity determined by an anode (positive terminal) and a cathode (negative
terminal). Most diodes allow current to flow only when voltage is applied to the positive anode

Figure 1.1: diode

symbol
PN Union Diode

Currently, the diodes are manufactured from the junction of

two semiconductor materials of opposite characteristics,
that is, one of the N type and another of the P type. Two
metal terminals are added to this structure for connection
with the rest of the circuit.

A)Vertical diode
B)horizontal diode
Figure 1.2: PN junction
diode schemes

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PN union formation

Suppose you have a pure monocrystalline silicon, divided into two zones with a sharp edge,
defined by a plane. One zone is impregnated with impurities of type P and the other of type
N The zone P has an excess of holes, and is obtained by introducing atoms of group III into
the crystal lattice (for example, boron). Zone N has excess electrons, coming from atoms of
group V (phosphorus). In both cases there are also carriers of the opposite sign, although in
a concentration of several orders of lesser magnitude (minority carriers).

Figure 1.3: silicon impurification to obtain PN diodes

In each zone the

total charge is neutral: for each electron there is a positive ion, and for each hole a negative
ion, that is, there are no distributions of net charge, nor internal electric fields. At the moment
of creating two zones of different concentration of carriers, the diffusion mechanism comes
into play. As you will remember, this phenomenon tends to carry particles from where there
is more to where there is less. The effect is that the electrons and the holes near the junction
of the two zones cross it and are installed in the opposite zone, that is:

● Electrons from zone N pass to zone P.

● Gaps in zone P pass to zone N.

This movement of cargo carriers has a double effect. Let's focus on the region of the P zone
near the junction:

1) The electron that passes the junction recombines with a hole. A negative charge
appears, since before the electron arrived the total charge was zero.
2) When passing the gap from zone P to zone N, it causes a positive charge defect in
zone P, which also results in a negative charge.

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The same reasoning, although with opposite signs can be done for zone N. Consequently,
on both sides of the union a loading zone is created, which is positive in zone N and
negative in zone P

Figure 1.4:PN union

formation
The distribution of charges formed in the region of the junction causes an electric field from
zone N to zone P. This electric field opposes the movement of carriers according to
diffusion, and grows as more charges pass to the opposite zone. In the end the force of
diffusion and that of the electric field are balanced and the transfer of carriers ceases. At that
time the PN junction diode is already formed, and as a result of the process it has been
obtained:
● Zone P, semiconductor, with a resistance RP.
● Zone N, semiconductor, with a resistance.
● Depletion zone: It is not conductive, since it does not have free load carriers. In it an
electric field acts, or between the ends a potential barrier acts
It should be borne in mind that this process occurs instantaneously at the moment when the
N and P zones come into contact, and do not need any contribution of energy, except
thermal agitation.

Direct polarization
The PN block in principle does not allow the establishment of an electric current between its
terminals since the depletion zone is not conductive.

Figure 1.5: PN diode during application of a

voltage lower than the barrier

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If the applied voltage exceeds that of the barrier, the depletion zone disappears and the
device drives. In a simplified and ideal way, what happens is the following

● Electrons and holes are directed to the union.

● In the union they recombine.
In summary, polarizing a direct PN diode is applying positive voltage to the P zone and
negative voltage to the N zone. A PN diode leads directly because the depletion zone is
flooded with moving charges.
The applied voltage is used in:

● Overcome the potential barrier.

● Move cargo carriers.

Reverse polarization

By applying a positive voltage to zone N and negative to zone P, the main carriers near the
junction are eliminated. These carriers are attracted to the contacts increasing the width of
the depletion zone. This makes the current due to most operators zero

However, in both areas there are minority carriers. A reverse polarized diode is direct for
minorities, who are attracted to the union. The movement of these minority carriers creates a
current, although much lower than that obtained in direct polarization for the same voltage
levels.

Figure 1.6: Reverse

polarized PN diode When the inverse voltage increases, there comes a
time when the depletion zone ruptures, just like an insulating material: the electric field can
be so high that it starts electrons that
form the covalent bonds between the silicon atoms , causing an avalanche breakage
process.

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Voltage-current characteristic

The graph shows the characteristic V-I (voltage-current) typical of a real diode.

Figure 1.6: V-I characteristic of

a PN junction diode
The graph clearly shows the different operating regions explained in the previous section:

● Driving region in direct polarization.

● Region of cut in reverse polarization.
● Driving region in reverse polarization.

Above 0 Volts, the current flowing is very small, until the barrier voltage (VON) is reached.
The passage from conduction to cut is not instantaneous: from VON the resistance offered by
the component to the passage of current decreases progressively, until it is limited only by
the internal resistances of zones P and N. The intensity that circulates through the junction It
increases rapidly. In the case of silicon diodes, VON is around 0.7 V.

When it is polarized with voltages less than 0 Volts, the current is much lower than that
obtained for the same voltage levels as in direct, until it breaks, which again increases.

2. Simulations

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 Diode Type Diode Voltage
(Simulation)

1N4003 0.6V

1N4148 0.6V

LED Red 1.2V

LED Green 1.2V

LED White -

LED Infrared -

Figure 2.1 Current Simulation of Diode 1N4003

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Figure 2.2 Current Simulation of Diode 1N4148

Figure 2.3 Current Simulation of Red LED

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 Figure 2.4 Current Simulation of Green LED

3. Questionnaire

1.- What is the principle of operation of the diode?

If a negative voltage is connected to the "p" end of the diode, known as reverse
polarization, the diode will not conduct current (electron flow) through it.

On the other hand, if you connect positive voltage to the "p" end of the diode (direct
polarization), current will be conducted through it.

2.- What does the diode voltage represent?

When the voltage between its terminals is positive, we say that the diode is in direct
polarization. The voltage value is located on the positive side with respect to the
origin.

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If you apply a negative voltage to the diode, the terminal - is at a voltage greater than
the + terminal, which puts us on the left side of the graph. We say then that the diode
is in reverse polarization.

3.- Mention the most important diode applications

Half wave rectifier, full wave rectifier, parallel rectifier, voltage duplicator, voltage
duplicator, Zener stabilizer, led, limiter, fixing circuit, voltage multiplier and voltage
divider.

4.- Mention that the variation of the diode voltage in the diodes is due

It depends on whether the applied voltage is positive or negative

5.- Mention because when the diode voltage is measured on, however, the
multimeter does not show any reading.

It may be because the multimeter is not being set in the correct option, if even with
that it does not show reading, the voltage could be measured with another
multimeter without disconnecting the first

4. Individual Conclusion

Benítez
“ With this practice I can conclude is very important know about the
Semiconductor theory because we can implement it in the practice, see
the real behavior of a diode and know how to use for different
applications”

Pedro
“I conclude that diodes are important elements in the electronics that
surround us today, that for your understanding you have to be aware of
certain knowledge related to their operation and behavior.”
Camacho

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 “I can conclude that to measure the voltage of a diode in direct polarization it is
necessary to put the multimeter in the diode option. In the case that it does not show
reading, it will be necessary to measure the voltage with another multimeter without
disconnecting the first one on the other hand if we measure the voltage in reverse
polarization this is 0.”

5. Group Conclusion

We can conclude that to measure the voltage in direct polarization of the diodes with
the multimeter, we have to place the multimeter in the diode option followed by
putting the tips in the anode and in the cathode it could also be observed that if we
measure the voltage in polarization Inverse the diode voltage is 0.

6. Bibliography

● Fluke Corporation. (septiembre de 2018). https://www.fluke.com. Obtenido de

https://www.fluke.com/es-mx/informacion/mejores-practicas/aspectos-
basicos-de-las-mediciones/electricidad/que-es-un-diodo
● Molina. (17 de agosto de 2019). Profesormolina.com.ar. Obtenido de
http://www.profesormolina.com.ar/tutoriales/diodo.htm

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7.Annexed

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