Subject : gas Dynamic and Turbine Machine ‫ دﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻚ ﻏﺎزات وﻣﻜﺎﺋﻦ ﺗﻮر ﺑﻴﻨﻴﺔ‬: ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع‬

Weekly Hours : Theoretical:2 UNITS:5 5: ‫ اﻟﻮﺣﺪات‬2 : ‫ ﻧﻈﺮي‬: ‫اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺎت اﻷﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺔ‬

Tutorial : 1 1 : ‫ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ‬
Experimental : 1 1: ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬

week Contents ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت‬ ‫اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬

1. Principles of thermodynamics ‫اﺳﺲ دﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻚ اﻟﻐﺎزات‬ .1

2. Introduction to compressible flow ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻟﻤﻨﻀﻐﻂ‬ .2
3. Isentropic flow ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻻﻳﺰوﺗﺮوﺑﻲ‬ .3
4. Choked Isentropic flow ‫اﻟﺨﻨﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻻﻳﺰوﺗﺮوﺑﻲ‬ .4
5. Operation of nozzles at variable pressure
‫ﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻔﻮهﺎت ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﺴﺐ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮة‬ .5
ratios
6. Normal shock wave ‫اﻟﺼﺪﻣﺎت اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻮدﻳﺔ‬ .6
7. Equations of Normal shock wave ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻮدﻳﺔ‬ .7
8. Oblique shock wave ‫اﻟﺼﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻠﺔ‬ .8
9. Flow in constant area duct with friction ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن ﻓﻲ ﺑﺤﺎري ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﻄﻊ ﻣﻊ اﻻﺣﺘﻜﺎك‬ .9
10. Performance of long ducts at variable pressure
‫اداء اﻟﻤﺠﺎري اﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﺴﺐ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮة‬ .10
ratios
11. Isothermal flow in long ducts ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن ﺛﺎﺑﺖ درﺟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮارﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎري اﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ‬ .11
12. Flow ducts with heating or cooling ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎري ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﺴﺨﻴﻦ‬ .12
13. = = .13
14. = = .14
15. shock wave with change in stagnation
‫اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﺼﺪﻣﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ درﺟﺔ ﺣﺮارة اﻟﺮآﻮد‬ .15
temperature
16. Aerothermodynamics of turbomachinery ‫اﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻚ اﻟﺤﺮاري اﻟﻬﻮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺮآﺎت اﻟﺘﻮرﺑﻴﻨﻴﺔ‬ .16
17. Physical principle : ‫اﻟﻤﺒﺎدىء اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎوﻳﺔ‬ .17
a. equation of motion ‫ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﺮآﺔ‬.‫أ‬
b. continuity equation ‫ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﺳﺘﻤﺮارﻳﺔ‬.‫ب‬
c. momentous equation ‫ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟﺰﺧﻢ‬.‫ج‬

18 Turbine momentum notation ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﺘﻮرﺑﻴﻦ‬ 18

19. Efficiencies ‫اﻟﻜﻔﺎءات‬ 19

20 Flow in rotating blades ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟﺮﻳﺶ اﻟﺪوارة‬ 20
21. Axial flow turbine ‫ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻟﻤﺤﻮري‬ .21
22. Velocity triangles ‫ﻣﺜﻠﺜﺎت اﻟﺴﺮع‬ .22
23. Impulse turbine ‫اﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺪﻓﻌﻲ‬ .23
24 Reaction turbine ‫اﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻦ رد اﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ‬ .24
25. = = .25
26 Axial flow compressor ‫ﺿﺎﻏﻂ اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻟﻤﺤﻮري‬ .25
27 Radial turbine ‫اﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺸﻌﺎﻋﻲ‬ .27
28. Centrifugal compressor ‫اﻟﻀﺎﻏﻂ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﺑﺬي‬ .28
 Chapter One
Fundamentalof Ftuid Dynamics
Introduction:
Gas dynamics is a branch of fluid mechanicswhich describethe
flow of
compressible fluid. Fluidsrvhichshow appreciable variationin densityas a resurtsof the
flow - such as gases-are called_compressible
fluids. The variation in density is due
mainlyto variationin pressure andtemperature.
The flow of a compressibre flu.idis govemedby the first rawof thermodynamics, which
relatesto energy balance,and by the secondlaw of thermodynamics, which relates heat
interaction,andineversibirity ro entropy. The flow is also a-ffectedby both
kinetic anJ
dynamiceffects,which aredescribedby Newton,slawsof motion.An inertial
frame of
referencethat is, a frame in *'hich NeMon's laws of motion areappricabre- genera
is y
used.In addition,the flow furfilsthe requirement ofconservation oimass.
These laws are not dependenton the propertiesof particularfluid, therefore
in
order to relatethe motion to a particurarfluid it-is necessary to usesubsidiarylaws in
additionto thesefundamental principles, suchas the equationofstatefor perfecigas.
p - p R r . . . . . . .l ()
Ahhoughthe mostobviousapplication of compressible fluid flow theoryare in
thedesignofhigh speedaircraft,andthisremainsanimportant applicationto the subject,
acknowledgesofcompressiblefluid flow theoryis requirldin thedisignandoperatioiof
manydevicescommonryencountered in engineeringpractice.Amongtheseapplication
are:
1- GasTurbine:theflow in thebaldingandnozzleis compressible.
2- Steamturbine.Here,too,theflow in thenozzlesandbiadesmustbe treatedas
compressible.
3- Reciprocatingengines,flow of gasesthroughthe valvesand intake and
exhaust.
4- Naturalgastransmission
line.
Combustionchambers
6- Explosive.

I.1 Conserv ation of Mass:

Theprincipleofconservation of mass,whenreferredro a systemoffixed identity,
simplestatesthat the massof the systemis constanlconsiier an arbitrarycontr6i
volumethroughwhichfluidstreams Fig,l. we wishto derivetheform of the law of
conservation ofmassasit appliedto this controlvolume.However,in orderto apply
the law, we mustbeginwith a systemof fixed identity,andsowe i"nn"a our ryitl"ri
asthe fluid whichsomeinstantt occupies thecontrolvolume.
Next, we considerwhat happensduring the succeeding time interval dt. By
definition,the controlvolumeremainsfixed in space, butthesystemmovesin the
generaldirection ofthe stream.line. Thetwo positionof rhesystem areshownin fig.1
by dashedlines.For convenience in analyiis,we considei threeregionof spice
deootedbt I,II,III in fig.r. At time r the systemoccupies spaces1 andIiI, and atitme
/+d/ it occupies spacel and.1LThus,sincethe masiof rhesystem is conserved, we
write-
 tntr + nJr t = fr t na, I fr u,*a,...........-......2
where m11means the mass of ttre fluid in spacet at time t, and so on. A simple
rearrangement
then gives.
fr/ t+dt - frt t fru!, fru,*a

dt dt dt
The first term representthe time rate of changeof masswithin space.L But as d/ goes to
zerospace.Icoincide with the contrclvolume,andso in the limit.
ffit,*at-frtt A.
' \"'c u l
dt at
wheremn denotedthe instantaneous masswithin the control volume.
The third rermmay be wrinen.
*
," l* A*
ldt - /2q:I kdr =l.u,r'tt-,-a _
fa.^., ________-S
a t a t d t ) - '

where6m1,*4lrepresentthe amount of masscrossingthe elementarysurfacedlo4 during

the time dr. The ratio \mp*4/dt is calledthe out going flux of masscrossthe areadAol,
Or the massrate of flow and is denotedfor convenienceby dmoul.
similarreasoningyieldsfor inlet.
m,,,,
.:, =
ldn,. _______________6
dI
and so the conservationlaw may now be expressed
as

!o".t=!a^,.- [a,..,
for detailedcomputationwe note that ajtany instant
^,.=Ja.""= Loo,
wheredv is an elementofcontrol volume,p is the local massdensityofthat elementand
the integralis to be taken over the entirecontrolvolume.
dn"" 0r r0o.
- = , 4Iv Pav = r|, :-4v
dt dt dl
with the help of fig.1 we may expressthemassrateof flow in the form.
fur,*u, p(dA-)(V"dt)
dmo, _Myt-a _ = pyd4",, -------- 10
dt dt
where p is the local instantaneousmassdensityin the neighbourhood of dA.,r and y, is
the conespondinglocal instantaneouscomponentof velocity normal to dAo",.,with the
forgoingexpression equation7 may nowwriften.

Lp'= [cv.a't,.-
!nv.a* t1
a form which is usuallycalledthe equation
ofcontinuitv.
When the flow is steady,ihe identityof the fluid within the control;volume
changescontinuously,but the total massremainsconstantor mathematical\api6tis zero
for each elementof contror vorume . Then equationr r state that the incoming and
outgoingmassrate of flow are identical.
 = lor/"ae".
jov"ae,, I2
For one dimensionalsteadystate flow equation12 for rhe inlet and outlet condition
become.
P,v,A,= prvrA, l3

fi5.(1) Flow through a contol volume(conrinuieequation)

o
f 9.2 One dimensionalf ow

.fig..1.flov,through control yolumewith obstacle(momentumequation)

 Example:l
Ten kglsecof air entersa tank of r 0m3in volumewhire 2 kg/sec
is dischargefrom the
tank as show in fig. Ifthe temperature
ofthe air insidethetankremains"onrtu-ntat 300Ko.
Find the rateofpressureriseinsiderhetank.
Solution:
Appling continuityequation

n An
:4r=
r| , 8 r lpv"dA'- lpy-d,

tA"l'-r6 .\
but p= pRT 6p --6o
SO -1 = .(1 --1
et ot dI

*300**:68880 pysec
*O I = 287
lU

Example:2
A tank I ml in volume contains air at an initial pressureof6 atrrr(606.95 kpa) and an
initial temperatureof25"c. Air is dischargedisothermallyFom the tank at the rate of0.l
m3ls. Assuming that the dischargedair has the samedensity astbat ofthe air in the tanlg
find aa expressionfor the time rate of change of density of the air in tl'e tank what
would be tle rate of pressuredrop i_nthe tank a.fter5 seconds?
solution:

equation| 9k, = lpr/"A,.- lpV-d-A^

Applingconrinuiry .
tr' ot

dp
1.0;: -0. 10

or

dp
-o'to
ar:
Separating variables and integrating gives:

/ " . \
p: p , 2 _ 0 . 1 r :[ _ - t _ l e _ o . r ,
^ 1 1 /
\
where subscript I refers to initial conditions in the tank pressure change may be
expressed in terms of density cha-ngeaccording to the relation

P: PRT
so that:

dp dp
A: RrA: xz(-0.lp)
 -n" ' "1 p,
" y -!)-- o-0 tr
RT,'
-0.1p '
,s-o't
values
numerical
Substituting gives:

- O.tX 606.95 = -102.3

X e-o.r(s) kpa/s
#:

1.2-M omentum consen ation th eorem.

The fundamental principleof dynamicsis Newton's law of motion,and according
to this law the resultant
offorceappliedto a particlewhich may be at rest or in motion is
equal to the rate of chargeof momentumof the particle in the direction of the resultant
force. Newton's secondlaw is vector relation. Considerthe x-direction we write for the
system.

Tr'=!!hY"l -----------t4
dt'
Wherethe left handsiderepresent the algebraicsumofthe X-force actingon the system
duringthe time interval d/,andtherighthandsiderepresent the time of changeof the
totalmomentum of thesystem seefig.3.
d , . , , , , , ( ^ v , ) , , . 0 , + ( n v , ) n ,- *( ,m v , ) , ,- ( m v , ) , r ,
-----15
*\mt/,)=ffi
(mv,)' ,., - (mV,),,
--- as dl goes to zero this term represent the time rate of
dl
withinthe controlvolume.= 9f^r,1""
changeof theX-momentum
ot
so that :
a .
fr, =fit*v,t,.+
Jv.a^.,-
!v,a.,. lo

or
- !nv,v,a,,---------t7
fi, =fa'!t+ !or.v.at",,
Example:3
Air flowing isentropicarlyin a nozzrestrikesa stationarybladervhen it leaves
the
nozzlex shownin fig. Derermine:
l- The magnitudeof the reactionin the x-directionand in the y-directionneeded
to
holdthe bladein place.
2- The magnitudeofthe reactionin the x-directionand in the y-directionof the
brade
movestowed the nozz.leat g0m/sec.
Solution:

/ p, \tr-t|t,
n:nl;l : 3 0 8/ { ,I r \r0 /. / r . 4 - 2 1 4 . 3 K
The eas v€locity at this scction is obtained from the enerEy equalion:
v2 t/ r 22
, -f, -l-
' 1 - , , -t*
nt n2 +

Therefore:
rr2 tr|

aP\tt - tt)--i.
1-=

: IOOO(3O8
-rroa*$
from which V2: 266.46 m/s. The mass rate of flow is:

.i-ptArrr-(rrL\n,n,

/ 1 . 5x l . o r 3 x l o j \
: | _______;\1_;;;_
28...--- l(25 x r0-.X60)
\ ,l
: 0.258kr,/s

Applying the nroalenturnequation to the control volume shown giees:

&- i(Vt, - Y2) : O.258(V3cos30 + ,'2)
: 0.258(266.a6cos 30 + 266.46): 128.28N
and
- ,i'(Vt, - V7): O.25a(n sin 30 - 0)
\
- 0.258(266.46sin 30) - 34.3?N

'-\\
Y
 (b) When ti.l1eblade 6oves toward the nozzle, the relative velocity is 26646+3A
:296.46 m/s. The mass sttikinB the blade per ullit time now becomes:

/ 296.46 \
:0.258
i | ... ^. l= 0.281kE/s

From the velocirydiagram shown:

V1,: 256.'14rr.ls ar,d Vr: 148.23m./s

The momeatum equatioo then gives:

: 149'7N
i(Vz. - Vu\ -0281(256 t4 + 266'46)
&:
and
;(v3r - vzlr:
Rr : ;(v3r - 0) : 42.54
vzlr: 0.287(148.23
0.287(148.23 42 54N

Example:4
An airplaneis traveling at a constantspeedof200 m/s. Air entersihejetengjne's inlet at
the rate of40 kg/s while tlle combustionproductsare dischargedat an erit velocityof
600 m/s relative to the airplane.The intake areais 0.3 m2 and the exit area0 6 nP' The
ambientpressureis 0.? atm, ald the pressureat the exit is 0.72 am,-calculatethenet
:hrust developedby the engine.Assume uniform steadyconditionsat the inlet and exit
planes and the properties of the products of combustionto be lh€ sameas thoseof
air.
Solution:considerthe jet engineas a control volume as in fig. the air entersthe engine
with a speedof 200m,/s.assuming horizontal flight and neglectingthe momentumof the
fuel, the net force opposite to thrust is:
Appling momentumequation:
I-, = Lr d- ;d; *v r,,, t,
J V , d m . ,J, -V , d m , "
since the case is steady state thus mean that 6pl&:0 thereforethe momentumequation
become

F : ( p z A z+ ; V z , - ( p L A .+t m V t )
: l ( O . ' 1- 2O . ? ) l . o lx3 l d x 0 . 6 + 4 0 x 6 0 0 1 - ( 0 + 4 0 x 2 0 o )
: 1 7 , 2 1 5 . 6N

Vz- 2Oonls V: - 600 m/s

A: ' 0'6 mr
P2 - O-72attn
1.3TheFirst La the
Energy is conveyed a cross the boundaryof control volume in he form of heat and
work. Considerthe flow through the controlvolumewith of fig., with the system
definedas the material occcupingthe controlvolumeat time t. we consideiwhat
happensduring the time interval dt. passingthroughthe control surfaceare a
stationarystrut and a rotating shaftattachedto a turbo-machine,
perhapsa compressor
or turbine.The energyequationin a simpleformcanbewrittenasfollowing.
Q _dE +5W
dt dt dt
Rate of changeof total energyE:
dE ( E r , * a ,t E n , * a , )- ( E t , + E
n tt )
dt dt
dE _Et,*a,-Er,.*
lrpr__ 116l_
d t d t J d t J d t
6
dE ,aE, | , - t ,
a=\ a)-+ J e a m o uJ, e a m n
dE 1 depdv s,
* ) e d m . " 'l-Ie d m .
a,=L a
Rate of work done.
Omitting from our considerationcapiliary,magnetic,and electrical force, the
work done during the processesis the result of normal and shearstressesat the
movingboundariesofthe system.
A- Work Done by Normal Stresses.
Taking the normal stressat the boundaryof the systemasthe hydrostaticpressure.
the work done by the system owing to normalforce at an elementof areadAoulis
pdA""dx, where d: is the componentof distancemovednormalto dAo,,.BuI dAodx
is the volume of the mass elementdr27,17,*.hich volumemay be writeenas v6m11,*4,-
The total rate of work done by normal stresses during the processmay now be set
down,with the aid of the foregoing,as

r\t ._ Jpvbm,,,*o,
_ Jpvdmtt,
dt dt
=
[rvd*",,-!nd,,,
B- work Done bv Shearstresses:This workmaybeconveniently dividedinto two
categories(i) the work doneby the part of tle shaftinsidethe systemon the part
outsidethe systemtowingto the torquein therotatingshaftresultingfrom the shear
stresses.
(ii) the shearwork doneat theboundaries ofthe systemon adjacentfluid
whichis in motion.Thereforetheratechange of rvorkcanbewrittenasfoilow.
= r,* +W"0",,
+ ! n vd^.,,+ [ n rd^,,
#
Thetotalfluidenergypermassflow e is
Total fluid energ)': internal energy+ kineticenergy+ potentialenergy
 yz
e=u+-+gz

u=h-pv=h-P
p
Substitute rheseequations intothe energyequationresults
Q = r r. , . r * . " rt2 tt2
e a r , . . . s h *@1L,o, e d v , . ) { h + V + g 4 a m . , , -
dt dt fh+L+gz1dm,"

I .4Ihe r€qe4dLaw of Thermodynamics:

In a fixed-mass
system
entropy
change
occurJas
a resultof irreversibre
eventsor asa
resultof intemction
with theenvironmentin which thereis heattransfer.
t d Q- , a s , | ,
1,7=t;l- * J'd,,,*I'd,,"
4 *, | 4!!+d .tr spvd.t
for steady-one dimensionflow
. rln
r n ( s ,- s , ) 2 { }

for adiabatic
flow dO=0therefore
s, -s, )0 or ds>0 for isentropicflow ds=0 and flow adiabaticirreversibleflow
ds>0

For mostproblemin gasdynamics, theassumption of perfectgaslaw is sufficiently

in accordwiththeproperties
ofreal gasesasto bea acciptable.we shalrthereforeset
downherethespecial thermodynamics relationswhichaiply to perfectgas.
1- Eauationqf state:
- = Kl =-1
-p v =o J { --------------

Where.T is theabsolute
temperarure(K1, R is rhegasconstant(ykg.mol.Ko),
S is
the univenalgasconsrantand is equalto g134.3J&g.mol.d",La ful i, tt "
 molecularweight kgkg.mol. For atmosphericair berw,--.een
0 and i00 km,
thereforetheair gasconstantis 287.04Jikg.K'
i\.{:28.966,

\!hen a perfect gas undergoes

a thermodynamicprocessbetweento equilibrium
state.
u,-ut=
r' '-
ana -h,=f'cn.dr
"
tr.cv.dl k- . f,.

, 6 u. = d u ana =\. A h . = d h
o = li), cP lor perlectgas
dT *) e 7
p v )_ d u - d T r )
C' p _ C u = 4 1_ d u _ d ( u +
dTdT dt dT dT
Cp-Cv=R
R,
heatratioy is 7= 94 11.r.1or.
Thespecific Cp=-fR - andCu=
Cv y-l 7-1
Changes
of Entropy: Applyingthe specialrelationof a perfectgasto the general
relationbetweentz,y we get
. du pdv ^ dT -dv
ds=-+-=Cv-+R-
T T T v
and,uponintegration
s, -.9,= cv lnA +.RInh = cvtn( r.,,u
' !21.1'
Tr''vr'
T, ,,
Altematively,we mayeliminateeitherZor v fromthis express
the aidof pv=RT,and
soobtain
S, -S, = 6'v1nP: + Cph!! = Crln(P')(" ),
P t V t A V t

S.-S, = Cpln2- Rln4= C v l n ( t z l r1 P z ; t ' t

tt Pr lr Pt

The Isentropic.Often the isentropicprocessis taken as a model or as a Iimit for real

adiabaticprocesses. If entropyis constantat each step of the processes,it follows
from equationtha* Tand v,p andv, and T andp are connectedwith eachother during
theprucessesby the followinglaws:
/
+ ,-t = C O n S I . P T'-)
lv pv =L=COnSt- -=COnSt.
p p
For isentropic flow processthe enthalpychangeis important.It is calculatedin terms
of theinitialtemperatureandthepressure ratioas follows:
''l
f- | /-t I
lLh)" =Cp(r.- r,)= CpI,l (;) - t |=Cpr,lt "]1, - t I
Lrr ) lh l

l0
ChapterT*'o
florv
WavePropagationin Compressible
?.1Lntroduction:
Thetermcompressible flo$,impliesvariationin densitythroughthe fieldof flou.
Theser.ariatlons are,in many cases, the resultprincipalll,of pressurechangesfrom
one point to anolher.The rate of changeof densitl'\\'ith respectto pressurgIS'
therefore. an importanrparameter in-theanal;'sisof compressible florv'and,as ue
shallsee.ir is ciosely.connected uith the velocitl,of propagation of snrallpressure
d i s t u r b a n ci .ee..s i t h t h ev e l o c i t o
yf sound.

in Elastic\4edia:
2.2\\'ale Propagation
ler us er.mlne rr.hathappens*hen a solid elasticobjectsuchas steelbar is
subjeci' dro a suddenunjformdistribuled conrpressive stressappl!edat one end.In
rhe firsi insranr of rinte.a thin Jal,erne.rtto the point of applicaticn is compressecj.
uhile the remainder ofthe bar is unaffected. This compression is ihentransmitted to
rhenesrlaler.and so on dorin the bar.Thusa disturbance created at the left sideis
er,entuallr.sensel at theopposite end.The contpression $aYeinitialedat the left sjde
of rhe bar rakesa finite time to trarel to rhe right side.rhe rrare relociir beinS
depenienr on theelasticiq' ancldensiil'of the media'
Gas:s and liquid also are elasticsubstanceand longitudinal\\'a\e can be
propagated throughthesemediain thesa:rerral'that\\'avespropasated rhroughs-olid'
L.,'u g., becorlinedin a longtubeu ith a pistonat the left hand. The piston is gir erl
a sudcien pushto tlrerighr.In the firstinstanta layerof gaspilesup nert to thepls1on
and is compressed. the remirderof the -sasis unaffectedThe compresslon rrare
creared b;,tirepisronrhenmo'esthroughthe gasuntil eventually all the gas is able to
s.ns. rh. *o,,.irrentof rhe pisron.If the impulsegiven to the gasis infinitesimall;'
small.the uare is calieda sounds'aveand the resultantcompression \\ave mo\e
rhrough thegasat velocityequalto thevelocityof sound.
Let the pressure changeacrossthe u avebe dp andJetthe corresponding densityand
,.rp.rrrur. changebe dp and dT respectively.The gas into $hich the $'ave is
propagared is assrlmedto be at rest.The *'ave *,ill then inducea gas t'e)ocit; dl'.
tenirrJ it as it move rhroughthe gas.The changesacrossthe '.'are are,thereforeas
sboru in fig.2.2.In orderto analyzethe florv throughthe uave andthusto deternline
(a).ii is co-nr.enient to usea coordinated s)slemthat is anachedlo the $ave. i.e, is
movingNirh the $'aYe.In this coordinate s)'stem,the rvave$'ill ofcoursebe at rest
andrhJgas*i1l effecri'ely,florv throughit *lih the'elocit,,.a.aheadof ther'aveand
a .'elocil'. a-til/, behind the rvare ln this coordinatesystem.lhen, the changes
throughtie \\ar.eareshortnin fig 2 3. Thepressure. temperature anddensitychange'
ofcourse.independent ofthe coordinate systelnused
ll
lF-)--
,-a:=
i---+-
'
lh'
D::t
,,"xtI'

ll
 Thecontinuitl'and mqm-enfum equationare appliedto a controlvolumeof un;t area
:crossrhe \\,a\:eas indicatedln fig. For steadystatethe conrinuityequarionfor the
controlvolumeis:
nt' - Sn :(p + dp)(a - dV) ------------------2.1
r'herem is ihe masslo*' rateperunit areathroughthe u,a'e.Sincethecaseof a 'e11
*eak is beingconsider. the secondorderterm.dpdll ihat arisesin equationcan be
neg)ected andrhisequation rhen.eires:
n
dp =' ; 1 ' - " ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - -l l
Q

Cons:nai:;.: of ;tro;,.rentum is nert considei-ed. The onJl,for.ceaclirg orrihe co;ttroi

'oiume ar: ihe pressureforce.The mor)tentur)t eqrarionfor sreaciv statebecorne:
p . . *1( p + d t 1 . 1 = , , , ' l @ - d t , ) - o ] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 . j
u hlchleaci
:o:
,4dp= n1'r11to, dp = padl' ---------2.1
S u b s r i : uet qe u a i i o2n. 2i n t oe q u a r i o2n. 4s i v e s :
;- G.
T o ,, = . : + _ _ - . - _ _ _ t . 5
a p= o . \dp
In orcerto e'aluarea usingrbeaboreequaiion.it is necessary 1o kno*' rhe process
lhatrhe sasundergoes in passingthroughthe *,a'e. Because a 'erv *eak *are is
beinsconsidered. the ternperarure and'elocity chanees rhroughthe *,a'e are 'er'
smallandti:esradientof iemperature and'e)ocit1,*irhinthe u,averemainsmall.For
ihisreason. heattransfer and'iscouseffectfor florvrhroushrheu,aveareassunred to
b e n e e ) i g i b lH
ee. n c ei.s p a s s i nrgh r o u e h
r h er r a r e .r h es a i i s a s s u m e1d0u n d e r s o
an
isentropic p;ocess. Theflot' throughrheu'are is.therefore. assumed to satisf_\,:
t
L = co tis!. --------------- - - --2.6
p
puuinethisinroiogarirhlnic
form.anddifferenriating
ihe equarion;
)np-;rlnp=66p51.
lp
..L -',
do du .D
= --L
p p d p p
notinslhatihe flujd is compressible
andis perfectgas,therefore
p=pRf substituring
t h i si r t o e " ' r : ' i n nr 7 : n d e n " : r j o n1 . 5 .
/t,,
o=* = . / ; 1 Rr _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 . 8
dp

t')
 Disrurbance:
2.3 PressureField Createdby a Moving Point to the speedof
of rhebodi' relarive
In order to illustrare*le "ifeJt of the velJcity of
bodl',i e, essentiallya point sou.rce
soundon the flow R"tc, consio.,rhe small the
the gas and.let
disturbance, to be movlns ar a uniforrnliner velocity'through
be a Althoughthe bodv is essenriallvemitted*are
;p:;;?"til";";;";;t Sincethe
$ill be consider.
'""
contlnuously, a serresor *,are emitredat iime inten'alt
*a'es *'ill be continiJall-r'
U"it -;;f "g rhroughttt" gut' the ori-eirof .these ihe
.hrnoino \\ravesenerated ar tirie 0 t'2t' anJit u ill be considered First'consider
compared rothespeed of sound'.The
:#ii;:;. ;; 'pi.i "i,r," u"iv is i'ei1smat) superpositionof all the
utinf in'i"ntis theniound bl
;;;;';;;;;;"'-irhich exjsts pressure
ernjtted'Fig shorrssereral pulse
pressurepulsesrrllich ttt'" p"tiousll
nattelnfoidifferentr'a|ueofrhespeedo|thesourcecomparedrritht]respeeJof
d in rhefl uid.
-.oun

l')

fieldproduced by a pointsource moring at

ofdislurbance
Fie (2.3). Pressure
uniform sPeedleftuards'
(a) IncomPressiblefluid (I//c : 0)'
iui Subsodicmoriot (V /c = rr57-
icj Traosooicmotion(7/c : l) flow
f;i S;;eff";'i-"";ot]on', iti*ttt'tiog Karman's three rules of supersonic
:
(v /c 2).

(fig 2 3a) or rrhenthe

*- IncompressibleFlorv:\\ihenthe mediurnis incompressib)e
rriththespeedofsound'rhe
compared
speedofrhe movingpointai'i'ilunt" is small
pressurepulsespreaduniforrnliin all direction'

I J
 *- Subsonic Flo*: \\ihenthesourcemo'e at subsonic speeds. Fig.2.3b.rhepressure
disturbance is t'eJr
in all direcrionandar allpointsin spaie,but thi pressureparremis no
)ongersl mmeirical.
*- Supersonic Floiv:For supersonic speedFig.2.3dindicates lhal thephenomena are
entirel-v
differentfrom thoseat subsonicspeed.All the pressuredjsturLance are included
in a cone*hich hasrhepointsourceofdisturbance. Theconer'ithin r'irichthe
dislurbances areconfinedis calledtheMach cone.Fig.2.3cshoq,sthepressure Denemat
the boundar-r' benreensubsonic andsupersonic. thatis-for the caserrlLere
rhesi.eam
r eJocirlis ideniical rvirhrhesonjcve)ocity:heretheu,avefrontis a plane.

Karman'sRuJes ofSupersonicFro* : Fig 2.3 iilusrrates therhreerulesofsupersonic

iiorv proposed lr \r2n Karrlan's.
1- TheRulesofForbidden-Signars.The effeclofpressure chanseproducedby a
rodr rtrorins ar a speedfasterrhansoundcannolreachpointarread of rheboir,.
2 . - T h e z o n eo f A c t i o na n d t h eZ o n eo f s i l e n c e sA. s l a r i o n a p
r yo i n rs o u r c ei n a
supersoiic srreamproduces eflectoni'on J:ointthatlie on or insidethe \4ach
coneer:ending doNnsiream flor:rthepoir'rt source.converselr'. tbepressure anc.l
relocitrara:rarbitrarvpointofthe slreamcanbe influenced o,.rlvb'disrurbun."
:crineai pointrhatlieson or insidea coneertendingupsrrearn fioni rhepoinr
consideied andhavinethe santeverrexangleasthe \,Jachcone.
, t - T h eR u l eo f C o n c e n t r a t eAdc t j o n .T h ep r e s s u rdei s r u r b a n jcsel a r e e l v
concenlrated in theneighbourhood ofrhe -\4ach conethatfor:nsrhe-ourer li;rir of
ihezoneof action.

2..1Tbe\lach Number and the i\lach Angle:

Ii *as sho*nthatthenatureofthe florvpalterndepends on rhecomparari'e
nrasnirudes ofrheslreanr
'elocir1,andrhesonic'elocitl,.The ratiooftiiese .,o
r elocitl,is celledrhe\4ach,.-umber.Thus.
I.'
-2.9
a
Tliesemi-angle of rhe,\4ach coneis relared ro their4achnunrberb,r,
. i
s::ld=- ------2-10
.\.!
N o i e t h a tr h em a c h a n s l e i s imaginarv for subsonic fou,.

Example:

An obsener on thegroundfindsthatan airplane

ffyingborizontally at an altitude
of 5000m hastraveledl2 km from rheoverhead positionbeforethe soundof rhe
airp)aneis firstheard.Estimaterhespeedar u,hichrhe airplaneis flying.

1 t
 Solution
I t i s a s s u m e dr h a t t h e n e t d i s t u r b a n c e p r o C u c e db y t h e a i r c r a f ti s w e a k , i . e . . t h a t ,
a s i n d i c a t e db - vt h e w o r d i n go f t h e q u e s t i o nb. a s i c a i l y* ' h a t i s b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e ids
h o w f a r r h e a i i c r a f t* i l l h a v et r a v e l e df r o m t h e o v e r h e a dp o s i t i o nu ' h e nt h e s o u n d
wavesemitted by the aircraft are first heard by the obsen'er.If the discussionof
lvlach s'avesgiven above is considered,it tt'ill be seenlhat, as indicated in Fig.
E3.9, rhe aircraft rvill first be heard by the obsen'erwhen the Mach \r'aveemanai-
i n s f r o m t h e n o s eo f t h e a i r c r a f t r e a c h e tsh e o b s e n e r .

Now, sincc thc lamperulure\'aries throlgh the a',nospheie,lhe spccd of

sounC |arjes as the sou;rd\r'ales p!ss lsun through lhe almcsphererhich
me!ns that tbe \{ach 'eres irom lhc aitcrafl arc aclua:l! cur\:d. This ef;':ctis,
ho\1c!ar,anall and r\ill f'a neglectcdhere,th. sounCsPaedal th. avetala tem-
p3ratrre bai\rc.n :hc gio,Jid and lhe sirciafi bcitg used lo d:icrrbe the \'lach

No* as discuss3,jin Erimple i.l, for allituC.s, H. cf f:on 0m (se"- ;91; -

l . \ e l ) L o l l 0 1 9n I h e i c m l e r a i u t c i : l ! : a a l m o s p h c r e: s g i r e n b 1 I =
: ( ( l 6 - l ' 0 / A ( r / s L 1! : l : . c F e r : r i : l i : u i : c f l j i l : : . t h : t e : r p e : . : t - : :t s
: 3 3 . 1 6- 0 0 0 6 5x l i l : { = l i l . 9 K . H e n . e ,t h e n c a r s p e 3 do f s c r r , d i s g i r : n b 1 :

o = jlnr = \,Tlll$ or " r,-rg = 330.6m;s

,_-
F r o m r h ea b o r ef i g u r ei t * i i 1 b e s e e ni h a t i f o i s t h e l r l a c ha n g l eb a s e do n l h e
r.:]ean speeCof soundthen
0 0 0= 0 . 1 1 7
t a no = 5 0 C O / i 2

B u t s i n c es i i r o = l / - V , i t f o i l o * st h a t" v n s = 1 / v $ l z i 5s

( l / ' 0 . {I i ) r -

HeDce. it fol)o$ s lhat:

| c l o c i t yo f a i r c r a f =
r l 6 ' l j O 6 . 8 5 96 m . ' s

Problem:
4 V
l.I Air at a temperalure of 25"C is flouing nith a velocityof 180mis. A projectile
is firedinto theair streamrvitha velocityof 800m/s in the oppositedirectionto
that of theair ffow.Calculatetheanglethat the Mach wavesfrom the projectile
make to the directionof motion.
2.2 An obsen'eral sealeveldoesnot hearan aircraftthat is fl;'ing al an altitudeof
?000m until it is a distanceof 13km from the observer.Estimatethe Mach
numberat whichtheaircraftis ffying.In arrivingat theanswer,assumethat the
averagetemperature sealeveland 7000m is - l0'C.
of the air betrveen

An obseneron the groundfindsthat an airplanefl)ing horizontallyat an

/') altitudeof2500mhastraveled 6km fromthe overhead positionbeforethe
soundof theairplane rhat,overall,the aircraftcreates
is firstheard.Assuming
a smalldisrurbance, estimalcthe speedat u'hichthe airplaneis fl;ing. The
avcrageair lemp€rature betweenthe groundand the altitudeat $hjch the
airplaneis ffyingis I0"C. Explainthc assumptionsyou havemadein arriving
at the answcr.
l5
In rheabsentof electromagnetic forceandttjth frictionneg)igib1e.the only forceacting
on the controlsuriaceare pressure force.,Assume that a pressurep-dp/2 actson the side
surfaceofrhe controlrolume.
dp.
p.-1+ (p + z)d,4 - (p + dp)(A+ dA) = QA V )( + d t/ - V ),
a
SimpliffingI ields.
d p = p l ' d v= 0 3.2
The energl,equations ith no extemalheatiransferandno tr ork. for stadyone-
d imensionalflol' beconre.
, r) = 0 ---------------
l(h + ;)( nt/d'a)
J_-r
or dh+d_=0
l
An expression lor thesecond las'of thermodl'nanric
is siven:
.. Jp clp
Tds = dh - z :n,.i ,'oriseniiopicflou ds=0 .thereforedh = -:-
p p
t
C o n r b i n i ntgh e s e q u a t i o ne o b l a j n :
" tr)
d I
= -d - - cr d p - p l d l = 0 r rh i c h i s t h e s a n t ea s l l t e I r t o r t t e t r : uet n
q J 3 1 ir(t .
p J
a \/ar1ing AreaCharurel.
flou'Tluou-eh
3.3 Isentropic
momeniumequation
rhecontinuiil'and
Combining for isentropic
flou'resultin.
.
uu -1- pt
.. t dp. d.tf
I
I p AJ
But

Y = at for isentrop:c
fherefore. florr'
ep
)^
"P. /lJ Il
dp- pl't (-
' - lit ' = 0 rnd -il = -
p2: .1 a

dp(t--\1' )=pp'=+ --------------------3.3

,1
Equation3.3demonstrates theinfluence of \4achnumberon thatflorv.For V< i ,
subsonjcflou,.rheterrn./--1./is positive.Therefore,an increasein arearesultin an
increase in pressure andfromequation 3.2a decrease in velocity.Likerlise.a decrease in
arearesultsin decrease in pressureandan increase in veiocity.For supersonic flou',the
rermI -1t42in equation3.3is negatile, andopposite variationoccur.The:-esult illustrate
in fig har,eramifications.
Subsonic flo*'cannotbe accelerated to a velocity'greater than
tlrevelocityofsoundin a converging nozzle.This is trueirrespective oflhe pressure
differenceimposedon rheflon,throughthenozzle.If it js desiredto accelerate a strearr
fronrnegligib)e velocitl,tosupersonic lelocitl'.A convergenl-diversent channelnrustbe
usedas shou,in fi e.

17
 STJBSOXTC
DIF.Ft,SER

Fig 3.2Shorvrher.ariation of Fror P InIr:er'

thepressures andr elocitfin ( xx <<lll l

""""rb_
v d
6 .. .. rr1. o t c r

differentshapeof areachanee
for subsonic andsuPersonlc
florv. srrgsoNlc- - - SLJpEFSOHTC
ortFusER
-144aQrJar&

incr.ot.r
Flo' 6 dccr.or.t :F- :l :o-t: +- D
v t?.,,.k, rl',>,) ' jli""
*ai '
,44' z1'7
' .t n- I
///{" ,,rlrg}j,. /<r' .
'ffi-z'tz
;:,1.'iF. Jt--= .;):.4 j',.-l.l- -;
e*d Propenies'
Staenation
.1.-1 \ - - \.- ,--.
lJ -
Stagnaiion propeniesareusefulin tlrat slaiei'ort
rhel'definea referen'ce
enihalplor totalenthalpl'.
ilorr.Siasnation
compressib-le at appointjn florr is definedai
rheenihaJplanained to restai thatpo:nt.For adiabatjc
b) bringingrheflori'adiabaticalll
enerqJequaljonb.con]e
process
-*la. +:,r- lr,-
' 1

\\'hereft,is thestagnationor toralenthalpy perunitmass.Like*'ise'stasnation

ternperature re
or totaltemperatu Tpr To canbe definedasthe temperature measuredbv
to reit at a point.For
bririginga flo*, adiabatiially a gas
perfect * ith specific
constant
heatstheenerqvequation becomes:
't,
|; ?
c,T" + | = c,T +; s i n c eV o - 4 . t h e r e f o r e
! !

=JL
,,,--r=+ * ?=,,',"!i si,c*."
- ...': v
uhereas
a -- .lyRf ' andtr4=- The:'efore'
Therefore.
' *=tr-'*i- I a
T 2tRI
'Tr v-l ^
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - r J . 4 , , ,-\ L---'/c:-'l
= (\l' : - . \ 1 t )
:. 1 ./

relationbet\\'een
1'lo*'rhe
For isenrropic anddensityofperfectgas
pressure.iemperature

P - (2\' ' = anddensityrelation

are: 'p,,' and t' ll thepressure
Therefore
P. T" p"
become. >
4-\,lJJ
l' =(1t+M,)r -------- -------------3.s ( on,Lz
Alf!, 19e,1., (i'
1 _ L
b =X + t't:)/-r --------------------'----3.6
|

l8
3.5 Florvper Unit Area.
Ne\t \\e uill derivea usefulrelationbetueentheflorvper unitarea.stag-nation
temperature. pressureand \4ach numberlor perlectgas.Staningu,irhrheequarion
of
, . r e
c o n t i n u i t y m a k et h e f o l l o r irn ga r r a r r c e r n e n l s :
nt' .. D .. pl' t '/ iT, l
- - - - . - r j - :

.1 RT .,7Rf \ ,t I I \j4
florv
equation3.4 for adiabatic
Substitute
r; " -"r
_ : L= . : : , _ L . \ 1 . : ' t _ , ' . \ l - -______________1.?
I' ' a ' la r
|" R I l
To find a c.rnrentionalformulafor themassflos' perunil areain terrlsof \1. u e
e l i n r i n a tpei n t h ee q u a t i oar rb o r eb 1 ' n r e a nosf t h e i s e n t r o pliacn ' r e l : t i o.no r s u ' o s t i t u t e
e qu a ti o n3 . 5 .
Dl t'! l) j\l
---------------3.8
r lr D r-l
" '-\'" /
-t
,t l./l\:r'-l)
' )

i.6 \4axi;rrunr Flot' per Unit Area: To findthecondition of marinrunr lorr per
t r i t h r e s l e ctto \ { a n ds e t h i sd e r i ra t i re
u r : i ta l e ar re c o u l dd i f i e r e n t i aet eq u a t i o-n1 . S
e c . u ai ol z e l o .. l t t h i sc o n d i i i o nu.e u o u l dl l n dt h a t\ 1 - 1 . T h e r e f b tr oe f i n dt r r . i r , ." - \ \ e
n e e do n l l s e t\ 1 = l i n e q u a t i oin. 8 . t h u sr r ef i n d .
''' j*r#
. , ,. ) . . ,-= - . ; =-r , _
|,''' Er(-l , t=. , = -----------------3.9
-
.l .+ \K 7+) .,1o

For a givengas.therefore. thenraximu;:r flo*,peru;ritareadepends only on the

rzttop.AT". For a gir en valueofthe stagnation pressure andstagnation temperature and
for a passage rlith minimumarea.Equation3.9shou'stbatmaximumflo*'uhich canbe
passed is reJativel,v )argefor gases ofhigh molecular weishtandrelativeJl'srnall for gases
of lou'molecular*'eight.Doublingthepressure leveldoubles themarinum flou'.
\ h e r e a sd c u b ) i n rgh ea b s o l u tl e n l p e r a t ui reer e lr e d u cteh er r a r i m u mf l o $ b 1 , ab o u t2 9
p e rc e n t .F o r a l rr r i t h ; ' = 1 . -al n dR = 1 8 7J k g . K or h et n a r i m u mm a s sf l o r rp e ru n i ta r e ai : :

= 0.0.10-12

The panicularvalueof thetemperature. pressureanddensityratiosat thecriticalstate

(i.eat the rrinimu;narea)arefoundby sefiingM=l in equations].4. 3.5.i.6, We u,ill
rei'erro the criticalproperties
by superscript (*).
asterisk
T' ')
- = (-l lOr alI = U.dJ-)
T" "/ +1'

^ l
t1 -/
L = 1- \ \t-t lnr 2ir=0 itSj =( f o ra i r= 0 . 6 3 3 9
p. 7+
.)
t y + ;r) ' - '
 l'[" 1 t

te{(
5u - ' bc : ' t ' . 1 ( l

3 . 7 T h ea r e aR a t i o . p/poelc'
Justas \\'ehavefoundjr convenient to uork rrithrhedimensionlessratjo
itisconl'enienttointroduceadimension]essarearatio'obr'iousll,theapproprtate
is l'. and so \\e computefro:nequaiion i 8 andl 9 theformula'
;;;";"";t.^
l'l
"1:-::
-
r ) z - : -I - - , . .l - ' r - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 . 1 0
A _"r,1 _ _ , l 1 - _ 1 1 1- ' 17-rr - ' l
A ltlt.1
r / l . , , 1
:t1 L // - | r
lalue of A'/A' lhere
The arearationis a)rralsgraterthanuiritl'.andfor an;',eiven
ic flo*' andthe oiherfor superson ic
a)rravscorrespondtu'o r alueof-V. onefor subson
florr. \-

i.8 \\iorkingChartsandTables
FIou'
for isentroPic r.o 100
Sincethe formulasrhusfaederired leadto : T
s u m e r i c acla l c u l a t i o.no f r h eo f a
t e d i o un o.5 \-i" t
t rial-error na:ural.pracricalcontputalion:re
great)1' facilitated b1 u oikingchartand
T
p \
j
4 .\ i
I
Chartfor IsentroPicFIo*. J f
formthe I
Fig. represent in graphical
variousdimensionless ratiofoe isentropic \ -l 1
flsu,'ll ith \'{ as independent I'arilble'Since
. ; --
v- L\ + {

ih z
* I
changes of fluid propenies isentropic
in
tlorv-arebroughta bout througbchangein + l l \
+
cross-sectional aiea.the key cun'eon this I
chadis rhatof A/A' . The effectsofchange o.oo5 .t -|j
in areaon otherpropeniesma1'ea.qily be +n
foundby tracin-s' the cun e of '{ l'1', keepi:e i,r
in mindthat.1'.po -etc.areall constant
\ r'
t l
valuefor a givenproblem'For I I o.l
referertce
in areaat subsonic
o,00l L - 0.5 r.o to
exaniple. an increase o.l
speedproduces a decrease in velocitl''an M
increase in p. f, P. l"=fte,r.

\\rorkingTables.
For accurateor extensive calculation liststhevarious
tablesis available.
argumeni
isentropicfuncrionfor y= I .4 s ith \4achnumberas independent

M p/P. TiTo p/po -4"4

0.5 0 813 0.95238 0.8893 1.3398 11295

2.0 0.t 2i8 0.55s56 0-2300 1.6875 0'2I567

20
 Nozzle:
3.9IsentropicFlou'in Convergent
Coniidera fluid storedin a largeresen,oiris to be dischargethrougha converging
nozzleto regionu.herethebackpressure Pais controllable b1'meansof a valve.For a
constantresenoirpressure Poit is desiredto studytireeffecrsof the variationsin back
pressureon the rat of massflorvthroughthe nozzle.the pressuredistributionalongthe
passage andon the exit-planepressure P. . Theseeffectareportraled graphicallfin Fig,
anrb. andc. respectivel).

Ps
(vorioble)
Vo= o i F tow
Po' const Exhouster
To= c o n s t
Pe
Vo lve
i)
(i iL- Regime
(iii)- I
p
po Regime
vF
II

Dislonce Along Nozz le

(a)
tr
Regime
gimeu --J.- negimeI-']
[*-R e
l-.-frp" fi r: -,,
(v) (iv)i PE
( i ii )
Yo
(ii)

(t)
U P B/ P o Pa/Po
(b) (c)

Fig. operationofconvergingnozzleat variousbackpressure'

2l
 To beginu,ith.supposetharPb/Po= l, shou'nascondition(i) in fig.. The pressure
is thenconstantthroughthe nozzle,andthereis no floiv. If P6 is now reducedto a value
slightlylessthanPo as shorvnby condition(ii), theretvill be florv *'ith a constantly
decreasing pressurethroughrhe nozzle.Becausethe exit flow is subsonic,the exit-pJan
pressure Pe mustbe the sameasrhebackpressurePl, A funherreductionin Pt 1o
condition(iii) actsto increasethe flow rateandto changethepressure djstribution , but
rhereis no qualitative changein performance. Similarconsjderation applyuntilcondition
(v) is reachat u,hichpoinrPb/Poequalthe criticalpressureratioand the valueof lvle c)$'
equalunity. Furtherreductjon ln PbiPo.sa1'to condition(v). cannotproducelunher
chaneein conditionu iihinthe nozzle.for thevalueof Pe/Pocannotbe madelessthan
thecrrtjcalpressure ratiounlessthereis a throalupstream ofthe exit section( it is
assumed herethatthe strea:nfi1lsthepassage). ConsequentJy at condition(r').thepressure
distribution n ithinrhenozzle.thev alueof PetPo.anddreflo\\ rateareall identicalu lih
ihe corresponding quantiljesfor condition(iv). \\/hentheflorvreachthecondiiionthe
flou'is calledto be chocked.
To summarize theproceedirte discussion. thetrvodifferenttl pe of florr r. iil l.c
denoted asregimeI andregiireII. Thesereginres rray be compared asfolloris.

R e e i m eI R e s i m eI I

PblPo > P*iPo Pb/Po<P*iPo

PelPo=Pb/Po PbiPo=P*/Po

t\.{<1

til.,Jlo, , u...
r \ t;^
lu, ,
- independent on Pb/Po
Ae.f o Ae-Po

3-i 0 Convergent-Divergent Nozzles:

Consideran experirnent similarto theonedescribe, exceptthata
converging -diverging nozzleis to be used.Fig. With Pb lessthanPo by a
smallamount,the flow is similarto that througha venturepassage. and it
may be treatedapproximatelyasincompressible. The corresponding
pressuredistributionis shorvnby curve(i)and(ii) in fig. \\4renPb/Pois
reducedto ihe valuecorresponding to curve(iii). Thel\4achNunber at the
throatis unity,andno furtherreductionin Pt/Poarepossibleif the stream
fills the passage.We considernextthe operationwhenthe flow is entirely
supersonic, corresponding to curve(iv).The valueof Pb/Pofor curve(ir')
conesponds exactlyto the alearatioofthe nozzle.Ae/Al,asgivenby
isentropic table(in this caseAt=A*, sinceMt=1).Thisis oftencalledthe
desigrtpressureralio of lhe nozz[e.

22
 tr-, o
1,."

'Noflowpa|temfulfillingtheconditionofisentropicandone-dimensional
ho* "* u. found which-will correspond to valuesof Pb/Pobet*,eenthose
foe these
oi"u.,r., 1iiil and (iv) in fig. one merhodof findingsolutions
that irreversible involving
discontinuity
Uour]a^,y.o,"tairionis to sr-fipose
entroDvincreaseoccursomeu'here within thepassage'

oi
F low
Po= Exhousler
ro - ps
A
Y
.'E
Volve

I
i
-l
% ;r;{
o
Disionce Along Nozzle

nozzleat variousbackpressure'
Fig. Operationof convergine-diverging

Flo*''
i-1 1 SomeApplicationof Isentropic
of tlvo parts'
Thrustof RocketMolor. Rocketmotoris generallyconsist
thefuel is bum andthe
the combustionchamberu'hich is a containerwhere
almost a
thrustunit wherethe thrustis develop'Thetbrustunit is
no777e. The combustionchamberis generate gasses
convergent-divergent
pr.rru,t of Po andsta*snationtemperature of To and
steadilyat a stagnation
showin fig'
;;;,h'" **, i, J"puna.d isentopicallyin thethrustunit as
Th*econveiging-diverging nozzlebasa th-roatareaof At andexit€r'ea
gase,i,Jutg" to theatmosphereat pressure of Pa'
of Ae. The generaied with
'
gases at aboutiOOOpu andoperate in atmospheres
Most rocketengine
pressure is only
pr"rr"* "f l0i3kP; or less,therefore,sucha reductionin
iossible by converging-diverging nazzle'Thenet thrustactingon the rocket

z5
 -1 :.r 1\ <-=-..--\/2\E
.-----/)'

r+-*
r > f o l | c- p r a s s u r 6
- -:tt1 lDtst.jbutioo
Prodr,.ces whcrep.,po
PosiliveihrL'sl iP,ore
'Produces

Sur loc€

Fieisentopic
flon in rocket
moror.

engurenleY non'be obtainedb)'appll ing ihe r.Ironrentum

equationolr tl.re
free bociv diagrarlsof ihe controllo jurtre.

3 = n t l ' e- . r , e ( P-e P o ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i-.- i I

u biclris thenput intodinrensionless

for throughdivisionbt,poAt.
I nr ,. .4e Pc Po
) € ._ _ ( _ ' _ _ _ _ _ -1 t r
Po-lt Po..4t .1r Po Po

rolll c rO
! edC f lo\otl quailon
lll
lR7' C' 72= l:)
l
D^ ,4a
I
and from the energvequalior):
---=-.-
j^^,- , , ='
v e- , J t L p ( l o - I e ) . = r :- ? . C p T o. , ; k1 - ;= , -
t, f
, l Z . C p T o -r j()+ )
\ to \ Pc.,
Subsisting
rheseintothe thrustequation
andreananurns,
thereresults.

Sincethe pressure ratioPe/Podepends onll,onthearearatioequationi.l3 , indicates

thal_lhetrust lor a nozzleofgiven sizeandgeometrydepends only,on po and rheratio
Pe,Po and is independent of the temperature
fo.

Effectof AreaRation
\\,'eno*' ask,for ei'en 'alue of At- po andpa ri hate_xitareashouldbe usedin
orderto obrainmanimumrhrust?. 81,app)ingrhecarcurus to equarion 3.r 3 it mav be
shor'naftera laborious carcuration thats is a maxinrum rrhenthearearatiois clrosen in
sucha *ay to makethepressure in theexitpraneexactJ'equar to pa. Therforeequation
3 . 1 3b e c o m e .

1t
Perfonlanceof RealNozzle:
The performance of real nozzlediffersslightly from that computedby isentropic
florv are usuaJly.sm.all'
no* o":ing io the frictioneffect.Sincedepanurefrom-isentropic
function u'hich rhen
tha usual iesigl procedureis basedon rhe use of isentropicflorv
,,,oOil;.aby'empiricall;"determinedcoefficient'Thesecoefficientarethenozzle
effi ciencl'andthe nozzle discharge coefficient
energyto the
The nozzleefficiencl'T1\ma},definedas the rateof the erir kjnet;c
kineticenergl,rrhichmalbeobiainedbl.erpandingthegasiseniropically'tothesame
finalpressure.
')
l'-
------------------------i. I 5
''
1' 2

The nozzledischarge coefilcientCd is definedas

llo\\ raler)rlo the Ti
theraleofthe actualnlass r
iscnrroFic:rass \\hichrrouldbe
florrrale//r,rc
obrainedb1 erpanding thegasisentropicallf io
the samefinalPressure 2;e
-
"' ------- '3 16
Ld = ___ Tc
n1t,t

The figure at the righthandsidesho\\'sthe

isentropicandthe realexpansion Process through
ihe nozzle.\\rhenthefirst larvof thermodl'namic
at theexpansion
app);.'ing process andthereal process.
for bothisentropic
I t 7
and h=cr.T, therefore

- 7 . process =, / therefore
,
andfor isenrropic
Jo, t ,,--r.t
I p r]l
=2,0.r.1
r';.,' l-(;)' - --------------3.17
I
t '- J
process
isenrropic
theimaginary theactualexit
between
similarlyonernighiconsider
stateoe.
stateand its slagnalion

v?
h,,"= h.-+ and h= cr.T, therefore

= ,hr: '
rherefore
v"' -- 2.",.r*1t - process
^ofor isentropic
ll *

25
 T ^ .'-Ll
v,'=zc-.r,-lt-rt,, -3.18
l
Theprocess u irhin rhenozzleis adiabaticrhis meanthatTo,=To", substitute
equation3.i 8
a n d3 . 1 7i n t oe q u a t l o3n. 1 6a n ds i m p l i f l , i n g .

'p' I Prl;
= l l - n . ( )- {'P.'
9-r'1 ----------i.19
P", L l
Themassperunitareafor isentropicllos,canbe evaiuated
asa functionofpressure
ratio
instated
of\Jach\umber. jfone c:n substjtute -1.5jnroequatjon
equation 3.7.
. '- -^ ; ^ : -
"'', ^ r-r
= 'p" \ R- ! T t - t l r L t ; - r' P
l - t,f, ' : - - - - - - - - - - - - - j . : 0
.-i ' \I . / - t l ' P , '
Similarlvtheactualmassilur nrar be obtain.

a .
' t -- ', : , t ; : , -:*.r
r , , ; i ---------------i.: l
) , r , , : -
:' ' ' r ,?r i,..-r]'tl l I
r"" 1. L .
S u b s t i t u t ienqgu :ito n3 . 1 l .i . 20 i r i i o e q u a l lo n J . I o : o f i n dt 5 eg i s c h a r sceo e f f i c i c ni nr
t e r ; n n f n r p c c r ' r , .r r r i ^

P ----: P :---
/ ' r , l 1 1 / _ . \ '
\p ) )
i ' - \ p' -
Cd= "' :: ,
p t:: tl p t1
( - - r ) ' l tl - t - 1 ) /
f," I r",
Substiture
equation3.l9 intotheaboveequation to findrhedischaree
coefficientin term
ofisotropicpressure
ratio andnozzleefficienc;,.

----------------------i 2i
l p r i
1 - 'r ' .| I l - (pr ) ' I
i
\ L l

PROBLEMS

. , 3 . 1 ] . - d i r l l o r r s a t t h e r a t e o f I k g , l s t h r o u g h a c o n v e r g e n td- i v e r g e n t n o z z l e - T h e
entrance a-reais 2 X 10-3 m2 ard the inlet temperature ard pressure a-re438 K
a l d 5 8 0 k P a . I f t h e e x i t p r e s s u r ei s l 4 O k P a a n d t h e e x p a n s i o n i s i s e n t r o p i c ,
fin cl:
(a) The velocityat entrance.

20
 ,ke
C-,-

pressure-
(b) The stagnation lemperaturear|d stagnation
(c) The throat a.nd exit areas'
.- -. (d) The exit velocity'
6'5 X lO-a m?' Air entersthe nozzle at
3 a .onu"rgent nozzle has an exit area
-tt. 2 ) : K' If the flow is isentropic' determine the mass rate of
oo : ito iPa, l"o 370
fltt*' fot back Pressureof:
(a) 359 kPa
(b) s4O kPa
(c) 2OO kPa.
has a-.l exit area of 3'2X l0-a m2 and a:r
-A.3ri A convergent-divergent sleam nozzle
590 K \r'ith
;il;il" "i ilo tp. The inlet concitions are I MPa and
and
)osses'
".gfigiUf.velocity.AssumeiCealflo*" i e ' no
-: u .- \ . 4 )

Finci:
(a) Tbe mass rate of floq for this nozzle
(b) The throat area.
(c) The sonic \'elocit.v al the throat
'1j Air flo\.'s isentropically through a corvergent-divergenl
p a s s a g ew i t h i n l e i a - r e a5 2
"i" ^-l z.nf ind exita'e" 3 87 cm2'At the inletthe air velocitfis
il!,'-t"t-"- jne:
pressuteis 680 kPa' andtemperature 345 K' Determ
;ob';;,
( a ) T h e m a s s r a t e o f f l o w t h r o u g ht h e n o z z l e
section-
iui rr,. N{ach number at the minimum-area
p.ressute a t t h e e x i t section'
i.j fft" relocity and the
-}
J . 5 . ' Air is flo*ing in a convergent
nozzie'At a Part'cYl-"I-1""*.t"," within the nozzle the
is Z-aOtpa, tbe steam temPeratureis^3-45 l<'.and the veiocitv is I5O m/s'
;;.r;" is 9'29 X l0-3 m2' fiDd:
I f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n aal r e a a t t h i s l o c a t i o n
i"i ir," Mach number at this tocatio:l'
and pressu;'e'
iui rn" stagnation temp€rature I o'
where M:
l;i il; ur"-i pr"rtut"'' "nd temPeratureat the exit
for the nozzle-'
ial rr'" mass rate sf flew the
Indicate a n y a s s u m p t i o n sy o u m a - r r- n a l e a n O l h e s o u r c e o l d a t a u s e d i n
sotution. f/) I
k g l s t h r o u g h a s u D e r s o D i convergent-
/5]) Air flo*'s isentroPically a t t h e r a t e o i 0 5
is 6-80kPa".thetemf",|i*J9i K'-^nci
),1-:"/ divergenrnozzle. At the inlet, the pr"ssure
irr"li". J e .s cmz' If the exit area is 13 cm2' calculate:
(a) The stag!ation Pressureand temperature'
(b) The exit Mach r,ru1q€r.
, -.1.
(c) The exit pressure and tempeiature' y,) r^ a'I "
,,. , -.-?
rr," area and the velocity a! rhi thr-o+'-
iai ------^-,,-^ --,, lu^.,
(e) What *'ill be tn:e -"irn"t raie of'Gw and the corresponding exit Mach
the no-zzle?
number if the flow is completelysubsonicin
il;Ll*n I'D' pipe at a strean pressureor
i l, 3,7. A stream of carbon dioxide is flowinc
off$' A 7 5 cm X 5 cm venturi'neter
) 680 kPa and a stream itrnp"'"t"t
- - ) of 1'68 mm Hg
t;il; i n - i r t i , p l p " s h o w s a P r e s s u r ed r l ' e r e n r i a lr e a d i n g
A s s u m i n g i d e a l f l o w , d e t e r m-C-O'lp'\ .-r ^L^. -L.-:-^, ir,ha
(a) The mass rate oinot" of Compareyour alswer $ith that obtained if thr
'
igit i. considered incomPressib!-
 (it
t"r'i\

what would be the oew

(b) If the mass rate of flow of CO2 were to be doubled'
pressure differential reading for the lenturimeter? .. .
b e i n g t h e s a r n ea s
(' c ) i f r i , e f l u i d w e r e h y d r o g e ni n s t e a do f C O 2 ' o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s
mass rate of flow?
given in the problem statement'\r'hat *'ould be the
t h e C O 2 w e r e4 4 0 K i n s t e a do f 3 6 5 K ' o t her condjticns
" *p"earsagt ui treeonfi n r h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t ' $ ' h a t \ r ' o u l d b e t h e m a s s r a t e
(' -d' ll " ii fr rtgh,ent"esm

of flow for the CO2?

through a 2 2 cm diameter
\ I R A 0 . 1 4 m 3 t a n k o f c o m p r e s s e da i r i i s c h a ' r g e s
tank' If the mass flow coefTicientofrhe
"."i ".gj.g "ot.le located in the side ofthe
rhc lar:k
".lt:"-Uri"a on isentropic flou' through it is 0 95 and thc gas v'ithin
p l o t the p r e s s u r ei n t h e t a n k versus
" * p u n a t i s o t h e r m a l ) yf : - o n I M P a t o 3 5 0 k P a ,
t b e t e m p e r a t u r eo f r h e t a n k is 295
e l i p s e a t l n e a s r h e p r e s s u r ed e c : e a s e sA s s u m e
K a . r t dt j r e s u r r o u n d i n gp : e s s u r ei s l 0 l ' 3 k P a '
l l o $ s i s e n t r o p i c a i l l r' h r o u g h a
A i r a t s r a g n a t j o nc o n d i t i o n so f 2 l r { P a a r d 7 5 0 K
-3,.19,t rate rs 5 4 kg/s' detemrne:
con. ergilldiu:ergra g nozr-l!. If the ma-ximurnflo\r'

( b ) T h e lelocitl'. p r e s s u r e , a n d t e m P e r a t u r ea t t h e n o z z l e e x i t i f r L e e x i t a r e a i s
iimes as lerge as the throal area.
handllngair ar the
t h e t h r o a t a ' r d e x i r a r e a si n m ! f o r a c r i t i c a l - l l o r vn o z z l e
t ' . . ''Fr ui n" d-
3.10
* ' h e n r h e d e s i r e de x r r l e l o c i t l i s I I o O m ' l s \ r ' i t h t h e strealTt el
"li l kgls
i s e n t r o p ifcl o r va n d ' l :
-rlOK 'Assume t 4'
p-: )iO kPa and I:
of rhe nozzlethe
:.ttl) a i r f l o u s r e v - e r s i b l ya n d a d i 4 b a t j c a l l iyn a n o z z l e .A t s e c t i o n I
,'' r ' e l o c j t ] . p r e s s u r e r, . - p l i ' i u t t , a n d z r e aa r e 1 6 5 r s ' - 1 5 0k P a ' 4 6 0 K ' a n d
ltt l O - i m : - A t s e c t i o n2 i n n o z z l et h e a - ' ea i s 2 6 x l O * 1 m ? F i n &
(a) The mass ilow rate i! the nozzle'
(b) V2, M2, Pa, t2 and '7' | ;"'r
arsu'ers for this condition' Calculete both
i,ltl".' 1it,.t" are t*'o in*pendent
cases. If there is a 1fuoat' determineits area )
\ \ J \r' o
^. a7a \a --r-." a" -cao- rn' pvr e
o irr g
o -i n g
f - 1- 2 . , A i r a t a p r e s s u r eo i 6 8 0 k P a a n d a t e r n p e r a t u roei 8 3 3 K e n t e r s
.-. ,.t dir,.rging nozz le through a line of 4-6 X lO-3.m2 area and expands to a delivery-
rateoi flow
, * g i o i p i " r r u r . o f 3 3 k P a -A s s u m i n gi s e n t r o p i ce x p a n s i o na n d a m a s s
of I kg/s, finc
( a ) T b e s t a g t a t i o n e n l ha l P l '
( b ) T h e t e m P e r a t u r ea n d e n t h a l p ya r d i s c h a r g e '
v e l o c i t yo f t h e a i r s t r e a ma t d i s c h a r g e '
/ i4 Tne Mach numberand
rate perunjt ar€a
,:.., l/. Ldl The ma;iimum nass flo*
the
-t ' ti'; , i " f l o * ' s i s e n t r o p i c a l l ya t r l r er a t e o f I l g / s t h r o u g ha d u c t - A t o n e s e c t i o no f /\,)
,r'.r: 1 Y i 0 - 3 m 2 ' s t a t j cp r e s s u r ei s 2 O Ok P a ' : l d r ' \ n a
O r a a t ' l t "c r o s s - s e c t j o r .aarle ai s - 9
-:-,-r*r,-n t e m p e r a r u r ei s 5 i O K . D e r e r m i n et h e ' e l o c i t y o f r h e s t r e - a - rann d l b e
in rhe massrate cf
m i , i i m u m a r e a a t t h e e x i t o f r h e d u c l r h a tc a u s e sn o r e d u c i i c n
flR*. >:
(i; Air llows
p
isentropically through A i6nverging nozzl-elAt the inlet of the nozzle the
t p a , t h e t e m p i r a t u r eI 1 i s 5 5 - 0K , t h e v e ) o c i t y Z 1 i s 2 0 0 m ' u s '
' . rt " . r r r " p r : : a b
,/> d , h " . r o r = - r " c t i o n a l a r e a , 4 1i s 9 . 3 X l 0 - 3 m 2 ' C o n s i d e ra i r
\! ith y : I .4 and find:
to be an idealgas

( a ) T h e s t a g n a t i o nt e m p e r e l u r ea n dp r e s s u r e '
t h e M a c h n u m b e ta t t h e i o l e L
iUi fh" sonic velocity and : I at exit'
( c ) T h e a r e a , P r e s s u r el,e m p e r a t u r ea, n d ! e ) o c i t y a t t h e e x i t i f ' L |

o' \t
 t

i.',rl; '
J-6 '.1,'t \
(d) Draw graphs of G, M, 4 aad./ vcrsusprcssurc,indicating the values at the
inlet and exit of thc nozzlc.
3.15, Superheated stcam expards isentropicallyin a.convcrgcut{iverge_lrt-nozzle from
a-ninitial state in which the pressurcis 2.OMpa and thc superhcdtis 37g K to a
pre5sure.of680 kPa The rate of flow is 0.5 kgls.
(a) Find the velocity ofthe steam and the crosesectiooa!aJeaofthe nozzlc at the
sectionswhere thc pressuresare 1.0 Mpa and 1.2 Mpa
(b) Determine the pressure,velocity,and crosssectionalares at the tbjoat.
(c) Determine the vclocity ard cross-sectional area at discharge.

Assume4 : o.rr.
Po
3.16. A convergentnozzlereceivesstcamat a pressure of3.4 Mpa and a temperatureof
640 K with negligiblevelocity.The nozzledischargcs into a chamberar which the
p r e s s u r ei s m a i n t a i n e da t 1 . 3 6M P a . I f t h e t h r o a a
t r e ao f t h e n o z z l ei s 2 . 3 X l 0 - 1
m2 and the dischargecharnbcra-reais 0.056 nt', find
(a) The velocity at the throat.
(b) Thc mass rate of flow.
^',
Assumc a : 0.55 and the flo*, is isentrooic-
Po
3.17. Air flows isenrropicallyrkough rhe convergent-divcrgenrnozzle shown in Fig
3.24 The inlet pressureis 80 kPa, the inlcr temperature295 K, and the back

4 . 1 . 0c m
la"
i'"

F I G U R E3 J 1

pressure l.0l 3 kPa. What should be the exjt diameter of tie nozzle which
correspondsto the maximum obtainablevalueof Mach numberat the exit? What
aJe the mass rate of flow, the exit Mach number,a:rd the exit temperature?
3.18. A rocket motor is fitted with a convertenr-divergent nozzle having a throat
diameter 2.5 cm, If the chamberprcssureis I MPa and thc chambertemperature
is 22OO K, determine:
(a) The mass flow rate throughthe nozzle.
(b) The Mach number at the exit (ps..1: 101.3kPa).
(c) The thrust developedat sea level.
Assume that the products of combustionbchavelike a perfect gas (7:1.4,
.R: 540-J/kg K) and the expansionthroughtbe nozzleis isentropic.
3. I 9. Air is flowing through a sectionof a straiglt codvergent nozzle.At tlte entranceto
the nozzle section the area is 4 X lO-3 n?, the velocity is 100 m./s, the air
pressure is 680 kPa, and the air temperature is 365 K. At the exit of the section
the area is 2 X l0-3 r#. Assume reversibleadiabatic flow. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the force exenedby the fluid upon the gjven nozzle
section.

It
 i l $t
.i"
o ' t
ChapterFour /b/?tJ\

Introduction:
Normal ShockWaves
)rv "tf
The shockprocessrepresent an abruptchangein fluid properties,in which finite bAry
' "'
variationin pressuretemperatureanddensityoccurovera shockthicknesscomparableto
the mean frie path of the gas molecules. Ir hasbeenestablishedthat supersonicflow ^.
mean ofsuch shock wave,*'hereassubsonicflow can \"''
adjustto the prissureofa body.by 1^:)
adjust by gradualchangein florv properries. Shockimayalsooccur the flow through
in
nozzleor duct and havea decisiveeffecton theseflqw.

How ShockWaveTakePlace:
Considera piston in a tube and its given a steadl velociry to the right of
magnitudedv. A soundwavetravelsa headofthe pistonthrouShthe mediumin the tube.
Sufposethe piston is now givena secondincrernent ofvelocitydv, casinga secondwave
to .ou. into the compressed gasbehindthefirst rvave.The locationof the wave and the
pressuredistributionin the tubeaftera timet aresho*ttin figure.Eachwavetravelat the
velocity of soundwith respectto thegasintowhichiS moving,sincethe secondwave is
moving into a gasthat is alreadymovingto therighrwith velociry'dv. The secondwave is
moving into a compressedgas havinga slightlyelevated temperature, thereforethe
,..ond *,uu" travelwith a greaterabsolutevelocitythanthe firstwave and graduallyover
*ave
take ir. A seriesof this induced afterits overtakeeachotherwill producea shock
\\aveor a suddenchangein pressure andotherprope(ies

a€lt T3>72>TI therefore a3>a2>a I

Fig showsone andtwo, threeandtheovertakeofthe soundwavepropagate

a headof the niston

30
ChapterFour
Normal ShockWaves
tto"o?itlXt:"k in nl'1.00':f;"*.;rt:;g;:$ilt::
change
anabrupt
represent
process a shc
anddensityoccurover
variationin pressuretemperature

*:r"#,'l:L::[$f''3*I'"iffi :tl$Ult'1"*it'T*"'f
",.no*
il"l';'.:"; ;;,r'
i:):::1iJ:i:li..l1T;
""* una it'.'i*l "'.::1*nh'il#oll,"'1i
T"""",ToY?;,Il5"':':'t"uu. ;:iili
*ugnt,iJJule*i:11:i:::i1""'';:"XTi"'.:"'l::iT!If
iit'f
:J'J;;: i:iti+i{lj;:: l*f;:TfiiJ;:XT*:?:
i"r*"..i.".
:Tl*j ;:ttf U"
tr'.ff "
a",,r,
ffiqist1$::;*:;*":::*;ru
iil";t*.:l,:":n'."^'ffi
l':*:f
il"f i;;-"=;."::"..1t,i#J;:',.ffi
":",T"T#?Ji:'"'fi
,''i:",ff lirlJ
a.shock
*ili priduce
rvave itsover
after take *"i,'"ir'"'
ffi:ii-l';;[i:"1,'liin'ioTi.o andotherproperties'
pressure
waveor a suddenchangeln

t; T3>T2>TI therefore a3>a2>a l

acc\!t

propagate
and theovertakeofthe soundwave
Fig showsone andtw<i,three
a headof the Piston

30
t"'t'l:?,#,H:[]::,I.fffi ughastationarvr:i,1t,1,"i,],lJi;,"."""
rm*ll$**:*:t*:m::r,ii'"Ti+:liiilff*;;1
i?liiili;;iv,"t,.,ipi"'"*a
momert:?,i:1:TtJ,f"l*
ofmass,
""",.*",i"" '
We rvill referto the ProPenles
"Y"'
downstream bY
Oisco.rli-
2i =p,V,A,=P:ViAl
very smallthereforel':'{''
The shock*'avethicknessis

- r/ - ^ L/ --------------' 4.1
c^. ^a.€P .t o- -1_l \
r vr fi!' r!-.

YRT,=l-r,^F^+
--"'-'4.7
pressure
acting on the volumein the flor'vdirectionarethe
control
Sincethe onll'force
ls'
force,consenationof momentum
-V')
P,A, - P,-A!= m'(V,
= = P'V'A'
aboveequation'rvherem' p'V'A-
Combineof equation4'1 into the
-------4'3
P, + P,V,2 = P, + PrVrt
For perfectgas P= P R'-T
P , + p , V , 2= P , ( 1 + 7 M , ' )
P,+ p,V,2= P,(l+lM,' )
----'--'----4'4
P,(l + rM,' ) = P"(1+ /vI t' ) become'
is adiabaticand the energyequation
The florv throughthecontrolvolume
doesnit
temperature
flowthestagnation
--' =co+ r' Foradiabatic
' ,r, *l ,r, *vi
this meanthat To*=Tov'
.hung" ulros the shockwave
r.' (r+ | v'=, = T,(t+ * M,r' ----------------4'5
^/. into the continuity equation
5 and momentum equation 4'4
Substituteenergyequation4
A.)

one'M'=M'Thissolution
;Jfi;*;a^ io "uia"nttr'uto; ';r*ion +'oisthetrivial ltow
to isentroptc
conesoonding
in p'opttti"' in constant areaflow -Equation
;i;i;i;;;;il-c'
" tinotrnut shock' 4'6 canbe solve
andthatis not of interest'"' tn" i*"*t;Uf
to yield Mrin termof M''

3l
l i ')
M"+-
Y-l -'-----------------4'7
l{.'' = -#z /
_lvtr ,r2 -L1

y-l
equation4.7 into
Norv to find the pressureratio after and beforethe shock,substitute
equation4.4 .
P
__L
2 / . V --'0 - D
P v+ l
ratio aller andbeforethe shock,one may substituteequation
alio to find thetemperature
4.7intoequation 4.5
f, _Eryi_o:t:y:!v)
-v
_ --------------4,9
T, (y +1)M,'
equation4.7 into equation4'l we can find the densityandthe
andif *e substitute
velocityratio.
- . ' " t t 2
p, y. t r + L ) t utt _
---:-=:=---'-= -___--____--____--,+.10
p, Vy2+(y-1)M,-
It
the shockprocess.
Theratioofstagnationpressureis a measureofthe irreversibilityin
maybe foundbY observingthat:
P P' o v P
- y
"
P
, = p1 p P
. r . a x
y
lromEq'3'5'UsingEq'
Nowf/e isgivenby Eq.4.8, ind P"/Prand!/P."anaybefound
of ,41,
4.7foriheval-ue simplification'
we getafteralgebraic

,L
- --.1-r
P f| tt s. l r t . f -l | 'tl (y +t)M,' f-l
-------------4.1 I
P^ lr+t /^l L 2+(y +l)M,'

perfectgas formula'
To evaluatethe entropychangeacrossthe shock,we employ the

s,-s,=c,nl-nnL 4.12

Eq.4.8and4.9intoEq.4' 12then'
substitute

= ; - -
%-!#"1h,#).^^l#51 ""
Impossibilityof a RerefactionShock
rvith
Carfut studyof Eq'4 12 indicatethat for gases
whenMx is
l<t<1.67the enrropychangeis ahi ayspositive
nr*ut..thrn un;ty,ina is aluaysnegative whenivl'tis.less
in F,ig'It
itrununi,V.The generalfom of Eq 4 12 is shorvn
ir or*"".ig-""sly that for perfectgasonly theshockfrom
,ui"*oni" 6 subsonic is possibleSincetheshockprocess "7s
r;i
i, lAiuUuti.and accordingto secondlarvof thermodlnamic I
.i, e*
'l-
theentropychangemustbe positive
io*puring Eq. '1.12for entropychangeandEq4'll ll
for stagnationpressureration'one canconcludethe i'J,f
:V
followingcorrelation: :la
c - e P
oi
R P.,
Accordingto the secondlalv of thermodl'namic
'itrO therateofchangeof entropYis Posirive
P'r'is lessthanP"
, u""areferringto Eq.4.l3 this meanthat

Theshockrvavetakeplacein.ordertokeeptheflorvconlinuationthismeanthattheflow
shock'
i, ,t*dy and the massflolv doesnot changeacrossthe
m t=n1 .,
chapterthatthemarimum massfl-olvratecanbe
we haveseenlromtheprevious propertres
ani rhemassflowrarein termof stagnation
,.ii.r"a at thechokediondition
andthecriticalareais.

P A -'conslant PorA,constant
lf tl
!j o' \- oY

the florv through the shock is adiabaticthereforeIo'=I',

Po,-<P* this meanthat A'r'A',
P o ,A *r : P o , A ' , o r Slll\.E

Normal ShockTable:
TableisavailablewhichlisttheratioofthevariousflorvvariablesuchaspressureJ
waveandthe downstreamMach
temperature, and density u"'o" th" no'tul shock
Number as a function of the upstreamMach Number'

M, M) P/P, rr/r, P/P' P'r/P"' or A"/A'Y

-lJ
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle:
weretumnowtotheproblemoftheoperatingcharacteristicsofconverging-diverging
previouslvin chaptertwo' Frg' show the
discussed
;;;;;;;;.;rru."'ru,io, pressureto
;;;;;,;;il;;rfo.mun.. of converglntdivergentnozzlewith various back
the supplYPressure.
Four differentregrmes arepossible' In regimeI the flow is entirelysubsonic'and
thepassagebehavelikeaconventionalventuretube.Theflowrateissensitivetochange
in backpressure. At condrtlon 2, whichformsthedividingline between1 and 1l the
entered'a normalshock appears
inr.J NirtU", at thethroatis unity'As regime11is
a"",, ,t*", ofthe throat,andtheprocess aft ofthe shockcomprisessubsonic
;;.d*;,i;;. As thebackpressure is lowered'the shockmove dorvnthe nozzleuntil' at
1' the exit
"""ajii"i + it' appears in theexitplaneofthe nozzle'In regime11'as in regime
the other hand' the
;;;; ;t;r;" F; is virtuallvidenticalwith thebackpressureP6' on
andis unaffected by the backpressure'This is in accord
florv ratein regime11is constani

I
Po{ConsL)
to
To(Const.) ErhdJstet
v"'9

eu/ro !"/'o
(b) (c) -\.
Loctls of /
Stotes Down9tr6om
of Normol Shock

-.+**F 0islonca Along Noz2l8

(a)
7 6 5 4 3 z\
Po
!\
{a) Curves of pressure versus djstsoce along nozzle axis'
\. iu) Edt-p)ene Pressure verstls bsck preseur€'
ln9ao (c) Tbroat pressur€ versus b&cx pl€tl3ure'
iil frl"t" A,j* pBrsrDet€. versus ratio of back pr€deuroto supPly

gtfgo

(d)

properties at the throat section

with the fact that tfuoughoutregime/1 all stream
areconstant'
t:ntire nozzle is supersonic'
In regime.11LAs for condition5, the flow within the
the back pressure'The compressionwhich
"na tfr. pr.ti".. in the exit planeis lower-than
ililffiil;."" ""*fai, thefiozzleinvolveobliqueshockwavewhichcannotbe
treatedon one-dimensional grounds'Condition6 is termedthe designconditionP-t t"
pressureis then identicalwith the
.'#i" ,"i"r'r"p."""r" *niition, sincetheexi'plane to condition6
in thebackpressure below.ihatcorresponding
;ffi'!..",;;;". i reduction
on the flow patte-rn the nozzle ln regime I/ the
has no effect whatsoever .wi-thin
,h. "*it-pl*" pressureto'thebackp-rbssure occursoutsidethenozzlein
;##;;

34
 by one-dimensional
the form of obliqueexpansionwaves which also cannotbe studied
analysis.
- '
independent of
- In both regimesIII andIV the florv pattemwithin the nozzle is
condition'Adjustment
bu"k pr"ssur",ani con"rponds to the flow panem for the design
to the backpressure aremadeoutsidethe nozzle'
possiblepressure. distance
. For subsonicflow, there are an infinite number of
au.uar.portt..up".roni"t"gionofflorv,holvever,thepressure-distancecuryeisunique'
dependsolely on the
i" p", it differenily,in subsonicflorv the pressureratio doesnot
ur"u'rutio;in supersonic flow the pressureratiodoesdependsolelyon the arearatio' . .
coveredb'v
Only over a narrow range of back pressureratio, namely'the range
II' iil' M' the floir
,.ni." 1, doesthe florv rate dependon the backpressure'For regime
t"i. if i"a.o."a-nr-of th. back'pressure'since'11=i at the throat'may be computedform
chokedflorv equation'

-
Converging- Diverging SupersonicDiffuser'
gasis
is a dlvice that causethe staticpressureof a gasto risewhile the
; di"ffuser
that can be attained
a.".t.ruting. Whendecelerationis isentropic,the maximumpressure
subsonic or supersonlc:
is the iseitropic stagnationpressure.Diffusers are ei!her
i.p""ai"g "^ it," t,tuJn Number of the approaching stream.In a subsonicdiffuserthe
diffuserthe
.ror.-r".iionul areaincreasesin the directlonof flow, while in a supersonic
- "-- sectionalareafirst decreaseandthen increases'
cross
enginesas,the
t sup"rronicdiffuser is locatedat the inlet to such air-breathing
supersonicturbojetandtheramjet,.Thehighvelocityairisdeceleratedbythediffuser
or belore it under-eoes
U.?o." it is compiessedin the axlal florv compressorof the turbojet
convergent-divergent
combustionin tireramjet.An ide'alsupersonicdiffuserconsistsof a
flow to
;;;;;*", in which ih" flo* is shoik-freeand isentropic.Decelerationof the
to subsonic
ii ioiio*.d by a furtherdeceleration of
speeddownstream
ilfi;il,il."i
interfere_in
,; ih.";. In real application,however,startingtransientsand off-design
achievedin the
.ri"urirni"g thedesir'i flow pattem.The maximumpressurethat can be
diffuseris ihe isentropicstagnationpressure.Any lossin availableenergy( or stagration
engineas a
o..rru,"l in the diffuserwiil havea harmfuleffecton the operationof the
provideshockfree
;;il. i;; u sup"ooni"diftuserit would be highlydesirableto
--To. flow.
isentropic
'--'
any configurationof the converging-divergingdiffuser,therearetwo values
of Machnu*b", in *Ihi.h th" flow is isentropicallycompressed, thiswilt calledsubsonic
number(Mp*6 )and,supersonic designMach number(M2*o)'The following
a"rif ft4u.f-,
the designflying
."r.i * r showhow the flow is eitablishedfrom the starting-upto
' --- number.
Mach
the acrual
i_ wt.n the flying Mach Numberis belowMp*6 value, this meanthat
throatis
throatareais graterthan the critical area,thereforethe flow at the
andthi flow is continueto compressed at the divergentpart as showin
subsonic
{ic r
that the actual
,- Wil; the flying Mach number reachthe MDeb value' this mean
rhereforethe
throat areais equal to the critical areaofthe flying Mach number'
at the
flow at the throat is sonic M=l and the flow is continue to comPressed
divergentpart and the exit Mach numberwill be subsoqic fig'b'

35
-'-\.
-)- When the flying Mach number is grater than Mp*6 vdlue,this mean that the
actualthroat area is lessthan the critical areathis meanthatthethroatareais too
small to accommodatethe flow. The pressureis iristantaneously increasedat the
throat areaand part of the incoming fld4v is divert or spill overrhe inlet cowl of
the diffuser as show in fig.c This meanthat as the flying Machnumberincrease
the different betweenthe throat area and the required areaincreaseand hence
massspill over is increase.

n Wl-renthe flying Mach number is graterthan one but is lessthan the Mo',, , in
this casethe throat area is lessthan the critical areaor the requiredareato
accommodate the florv. Thereforethe instantaneously pressure built up at the
throat area.A curved or normal shock is appearsin the front of the diffuser
inlet. The subsonicflorv downstreamofthe shock is partiallyspilledover the
diffuser inlet, reducingthe mass flow throughthe inlet, this rvill lower the
combustionpressureanda lossin thrust.

When the flying Mach number is equal to the Mp"uovalue,in this casethe
existingof the shockrvavewill causedof stagnation pressure loss.The critical
areabehindthe existingshockis increased and this meantiat the criticalarea
upstreamof the shock is to
equal the throatareabut the areadou"nstreamof the
shock is still grater than the throat area.Therefore the normal shock is still
existingandthe flow spill overis continueasshowin fig. d.
o - To over come the existing shock the enginehave to speedover the design
supersonicMach numbqr until the shock located at the diffuser inlet. At this
casethe Mach number down streamof the shockwave is equalto the M2-6 so
that the mach number at the throat is equalto sonic. A little increasein speed
will make the shock wave to swallowedand stand at the divergentpart of the
diffuserasshow in fig. e.
n To retum back to the design condition the engine have to slow down to the
desigr supersonicflying Mach number, in this case the shockwave is drawn
back toward the throat and it strengthwill reducegraduallyuntil it vanishedat
the throatwhen rhe flying Mach numberis equalto the Mp* asshow in fig.f

\ ^ r , /
",.^'l
*-l _. -f Mdr
?: n',.- M<l
/t-_;;\
. / ^ . ' > ^ n \
i,-a;.i;\

\-.-:---'l*,
*-*s\{* Mrjreg

/-q
 PROBiEMS
and 330 K passesthrough. a
4.1. Air with initial stagnation conditions of ?0o kPa
areaof the nozzle the
convergent-diverge* ""J" ttii" t"" of t fgl"' At *t" exit
50O kPa- Tbe nozzle is
,t"gnrion pr"*uie is 550 kPa and the streamPressureis
the "t:g:".n* of a shocL
insulated and there is no irreversibility exc€pt fcir --l'::--l
- '. . ' :'"'
-What is the nozzle throat area? -
(a) 'what .
(b) isth"M";;;;;' i"i.* a"q4t $e s,|9-c5i:: '" :6
point of shoekand at the exrtj
ic) Wfrat is rhe nozzleareaat the
ia; Wt"t is the streamdensitytit the'exit?
(r: t.+i"o*o " "onuersinqaivlJiilgnoSrre ltfr-a Macl:ybj'
,,-q.2. I'pealstcqs pressure and temPerature values of 28O kPa and 280 K'
of 0.5O and.local
m2 and the nozzle exit area is
iespectively. The nottl" rhio"t area is 6'5 X lO-a
26x 10-a m2. The nozzleexit pressureis l?0 kPa'
temperature at the
(a) What ale the values of the Mach number and the stream
exit?
(b) At what areadoesthe shock occur?
iho* you, methodof solutionon a skeletonflow chart'
I '6 timesthethroatarea-If a normalshockoccurs
.. 4.3,. An air nozzlehas an exit area pressure'
;;;oi;;" where the area is i'2 times the throat area' find the
temp€ratureand
i"*p"Lt,r.", and Mach number at the exit' The stagnation
pr"rrur" beforethe shockare 310 K and 700 kPa'
: 6'5 X l0-4 rrP'
Air €nters a suPersonicn627ls with inlet conditions 4
.t4.4. 'ii
:'1-.e, pt : is kPa, and Tt : 260 K' A normal shock occursin t}re nozzle
: Mach numberat the
resultingin an increasetn entropyof As I l3 J/kg K' If the
exit jl{z : 0.3, find:
(a) The area of the normal shock l" '
ifter the shock M*' Mr'
iti frt" Mach numbers before and
(c) The pressure at the exitp2.
(d) The mass rate of flow Per unit area at exr!'
plot'
(e) Show the process on a schematic {low chart and a FanneRayleigh
shock'
Assurne isentropic flow except for the normal
reads 186 kPa' If the local
4.5, An impact (stagnation) tube in an air stream
i"tnp"o,"t" L zbS r'-a the local Mach number is 0'8' determine
(a) The local Pressure.
(b) The mass rite of flow per unit.area'
measuremeotspertaining to air
4.6. A Pitot tube and a thermocouPlegive the lollowing
flow in a duct:
: i80 kPa' P
- l5'1 kPa' Io : 1250 K
Po
 ^-..
la

-\4oving ShockWave:
-Previous
sectionhavedealt rvith the fixed normal shock wave. However, many
a
physicalsituationarisein rvhicha normalshockis moving.when an explosiveoccurs,
'ihock
propagatesthough the atmosphere from the point of .the explosion. As a blunt
of the
Uoay..-"nt"is the atmo;pherefrom space,a shocktravelsa short distancea head
booy.rvnenavalveina-easlineissuddenlyclosed;ashockpropagatesbackthroughthe
gas.To ireat thbsecases,-itis necessary to extendthe procedures alreadydevelopfor the
ficednormalshockwave.
. considera normalshockmovingat constant velocityinto still air as show in fig.
wave' both
Let Vs= absoluteshockvelocityand V5 velocityof the gasesbehind the
velocitiesaremeasured \Yithrespect to a fixedobserver'For a fixed observer'the florv is
notSteady,sinceconditionatapointaredependentonwhetherornottheshockhas
passedoverthat Point.
Norv considerthe samephysicalsituationwith an observermoving at the shock-
"sittingon the shockwave".The
for instint,with theobserver
r.vavevelocity.a situation,
case
shockis now fixed rvithrespectto the obsen'eras shownin fig But this the same
alreadycoveredin the normalshocksection.Relationhave been derived and result
tabulaied for the fixed normal shock.To apply theseresult to the moving shock'
consideration must be givento the effectof observervelocityon static and stagnation
DroDerties.

v;
V'=Q

v; v, v,=V)-v', v,-v;- v:

{s} ltlovirg,*are {b} Statiorrary rvar e

the
Since static pioperties are independentof the observer velocitY,
systemhasno effecton static prope(ies. Stagnation
transformationof the coordinate
are
propertieson the other hand dependon the observervelocity and consequentlY
propertiesin a fixed
attectea Uy the choice of the coordinatesystem'Table 4.1 show
coordinatesystemandi a movingcoordinate system'

37
 TABII {.r

S/6ic prdperli$i
o-- p'- - .;rij*.*

t"=€i
]fach autuM.sl
, , - f l r
vi t1- v" , -
Mt." ^ =---.*
u,-;--1 .t ,,

T/'r Vi . Y, ri t', - vt
r{',:; =--:- Mi';- "

Sragn4li{a /ro?ei;.ti

/ r-r ,\
ro,=r,\r* 2 lr) 7"8,'r' ('r?*')
/ v-t -\ I t-t -\
r o . , -r:r lt' , Mi'l
\r*;ui )
/ __r \r4r-I' ( , ,'-'.r',
z "' J
pb|= P; \t"'-"
,""-- - \I t +J-i: ul I
* . o" \'
/
| --l \Y"tl-r) I t-l -\Y'(rr,
Pdr- Pi ,4t;'/
n o , - o " l t + -t ; : u ] tl l'+ 2

\\hen a normal shoik wavetravelsin a closed-end. thegasbetweenthe shockwave and

at a velocity
the closedend remainsat rcst' The gasbehinedtheshock,however'moves
and
vy' as shoo,nin fig. The incidentshockis reflecledat the closedend ofthe tube
moving with the wave the
piop"gut., back throughthe incominggas.For an observer
decresacrossthe reflected wave,
i,.iJ"liy upp"", us shoin in fig. Sincethe gasvelocit-r'
the incide;t shockwaveis reflectedat tbe end of therubeasa shockrtave'

r_* v:
lDcjcrFnt

Eeilect.d

' 1 {.} Va}ecili6 rehriv! to {bl Velocitils .dsiv!

l
r firgd cooaciirste tg r Syrttrr rngying
tyl8!.rl Itith th. rEr

38
 Chapter9

ranno r rcw
7-1 T-17

9 . " 1I N T R O D U C T I O N

At thestan of Ch3prer I lvementionedrhatareachanges,friction,andheartrans[er are

the most imponmt factorsaffectingthe propeniesin a flow system.Up to this point
we hal e considered oniy one of thesefactors,that of variationsin area.However,we
havealsodiscussed thevariousmechanisms by which a flow adjuststo meetimposed
boundaryconditions ol eitherflow directionor pressureequalization.We now wish
to take a look a! the subjectof friction losses.
To study onll the effects of fricrion, we analyze flow in a constant-areaduct
without heat transferThis conespondsto many practical flow situadonsthat involve
reasonablyshon ducs- We considerfirst the flow of ar arbitrary fluid and discover
thatits behaviorfollowsa defioitepattemwhichis dependent on whethertheflow is in
the subsonicor supersonicregime.Working equationsare developedfor the caseofa
perfect gas,andrheintroductionof a referencepoint allows a lable to be constructed.
As before, the tablepemits rapid solutionsto many problems of this type, which are
called Fanno flov.

9.2 OBJECTIVES

you shouldbe ableto:

After compleringchischaptersuccessfully,

1. List theNsumptionsmadeio fte analysisof Fannoffow.

2. (Optional) Simplify the geoeralequationsofcontinuity, energy,and momen-
tum to obtain basicrelationsvalid for any Ruid in Fanno flow.
3. Sketcha Fanno line in the ft-u and the lr-s planes. Identify the sonic rroint
and regionsof subsonicand sugrersonicflow.
4. Describelhe variationofstatic and stagnationpressure,slatic and stagnation
temperarure, satic density,and velociry as flow progressesalong aFanno line.
Do for both subsonicand supersonicflow,
 and t:loiren-
5. (OptionalySlrrting with basicprinciptesof continuity'energ)
for propeny ratios such as T: /Tr ' p:lpr' an'i so on
tuor, deriueexpressions
(rVl c hear ratio ( Z) for Fanno ii"\\ N ith
in rermsof lvlachnumber ) and specifi
a perfectgas.
'rith the
6. Describe(incLudeT-s diagram)horv lhe FannorabLeis developed
'
useof a relerencelocatton-
nrir<'/i/ieJt '
1 . Dei,nefriction factor, equit'olentdianteler' absolu!e and re[cnite
ho$ to
absolute and kinematicuiscosi4,and R4nolclsnLunber'and kntl\i
determineeach
shccks'
8. Comparesimilariliesanddifferencesbet\reenFannotlorvandnomrli
sho$ ing a Fanno
t,v-pical line tDgether$ iLh: non]ral
Stetch an '-s diagram
shock fbr lhe samemass velocitl"
9. Explain what is meantby/rictiotr chokitg'
10. (Optionall Describesomepossibleconsequences of addingduct in a;hoked
Fanno florvsituation(for both subsonicand supersonicflo$ )'
useoi the
11. Demonstralethe abitily to solve typical Fanno flo$ problemsbl
appropriatetablesandequations.

9.3 ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUIO

efrectsof
\\t first considerfte generalbehaviorof an arbitraq'Suid To isolatethe
friction,we make the following assumptions:

flow
Steadyone-dimensional
Adiabatic - 6q=0,ds"=0
No shafr work 6u,', = I
Neglectpotential d::0
Constantarea dA:0
momentum
\!'e proceedby applyingthe basicconceptsof continuity'enetgy'and

Continuity
rn: p,-lV = consI

but siflcethe flow areais conslant,this reducesto

pY : consl (9.1)

V)' which is refered to as

\!'e assigna nerv symbol G to lhis constant(the quantity p
the rnass valociry, and thus

i/O7)
pY=C= const

wha! are the typicalunitsof C?

Energy
\\'estaftwith

h,1+ y' = 7,' -' u

Foradiabatic
andno work,thisbecomes

h ' 1= h , , = h r = c o n j t (9.3)

If rveneglectlhe potentialterm,this meansthat

V7
/7.=lt+2gc = const (9 . 4 )

Substitutefor the velocityfrom equetion(9.2) andslror'rhat

/lr :, + --:- = const (9.5)

P- zEc

Now for any given flow, the constantl, and G are known.Thus equation(9.5)
esiablishes a uniquerelationshipbetweenll andp. Fisure9.1is a plot of thisequarion
in the .4-u plane for variousvaluesof G (but all for the same,r). Each curve is called
a Fanno line and rcpresents8ow at a panicular massvlociqt Note carefully that this
is constantG and not constantzi. Ductsof varioussizescouldpassthe samemass
flow rate bu! would havedifferent massvelocities-

massvelocity

u= Up
linesin h-r'pla-ne.
figure 9.1 Fanno
 the /r-t'
fluicl is knorvn' o"" t'1 :rl:o plot linesof con\tilntelltrop) L)n
Once the ligure' It
] tre 'ht"' n iis cl:Nhetllines in the
cliacrunt.Typicll curresof ''' cttlltt'nt plene Suclra
Fa'rnc'littesin the fanriliar/r--r
is nruchrrore instructlveto p*iftttt quite clear'
in Figure ''t it Ut't point' a signihcetltf;rctbeconles
rlitgratni-s showll - orrir' * it)' th"lt
rve have rssttmetl th:rt there i' no heet trlrttstertr/'s.' 0)' the
Since (lsi)' Thus tltc'fltttt' t'un otrh'
irret'ersit'ilities
entropycan be generatetl't int"t*n oI
r((tsi'"3 t:t'i"tt' t't t'"tny;r'l \Vh'r? ClrLn!otl locate the points
/)/{).grr.tJtt)\t(tr(l ittL
in Figr-rre 9'l l
ltt;ii;.';"t entropyfot eactiFannoline 9'i sho$'sa givetrFirnno
tttttit' Fi-strre
Let us esrntineo"t Et"no'ii'nl i" -"tttti
line togethenvith typical G;;; ii'*t' lrr point\ t)n this line represent-s-:::::^"]:ft
en-
flo$' ,"t" p"""'ir'*tu"lrel (tnass\eiocit)) 'lnd'tlte sirtrtestl-qnlttlon
tlie silttte ntuss can onl) Pro-
ot the frictional ettects' rhe florv
thrlpy. Dtte to the irreversiibt" an upper and
i: divided into t\r'oclistinctparLs'
.*.iio th. right' Thus the Fanntrline entropy'
L'r'alimiting poirltof tllxitrtttnl
n |:rver branch.rvhicharesepxrated \Ve nor-
florf in a constallt-arelducr'l
What cloesintuititln tell u-subouraiiabatic
ntaltyfeelthatfrictionaletlects\\'illsholr'tlpasallinlern l l s e n e r r trate
i o t l o($'ith
f"heaC'with
i'i""iti
recluctiott t''f the flLrictTo prstihe snnteflorv
a correspondirrg tlt:::llll1"^tlt'
constantarea)'continuilvmt"lo't*t theVelo.'ilyto increase'This
in enthalpv' enthalpyremalnscon-
sincelhe.stagnation
energyruustcaltsea decrease hrunchof
stant.As canbe seeni' Fi;;;;-i' tl"t agrees*'ith.fiowalongthe uppe'r
pressure
c-aseboththestaticandstagnotion
theFannoline.It is atsoctearinarin this
aredecreasing' lower
: brunch'!Mtrl* tr,r,opoints on the
Btrt what about flow alPngthe /t)r|er
afonq^t!3-f1n1i":^,Yill
movement
proPer
branchancldra*'an"'oo i-' i'nAit"te
; ;;;;;;t d," tr.'.
-' iothedensitv
ntt'orpvi l."-'
::l"l':J,[?:][ JilT# ffi:
!q*,i* (9.2)ll From thefisure' is
rvhat happentng
i.* constult'
rentalns
decrease'or
rirr l^ i'iit!'
pressure'l
slagnation Lttith irrcrenstl'

f lgure 9J Two bmnctL5 of a FrnrKr line

Trble 9.1 -\|lJl] 5ii ('f Fr]ltlo Flort firr Fiqure 9 -3

Ptrrlt'I11 U p 1 ' uBr ri r n cI Ll])$cr B[trieh

tntl.r pv
DcrisiLl
\!'1,)cit)
P l c r \ u r ,{iJ t l l ! i ( }
Plcssltlc (rlu.t tt.tli 'nr

N o r i : e t h l r tt r n l t . r :l r ) r v e b r | l r r c h .p l o p e n i e si J o t t t : tI h r . r i-n t h e n t a n n e rp r e d i t - t e d
. h - r : r h i s I l u \ l h e a f l t t r i ' r e g i n t ei | i t h " r ' h i c hw l r r e r r ( r lr e n f l n r i l i l r r '
h . \ . i t t i l t ; t i i t ]T
Beibrc ,,r.e irrre.ti5.rtethe Iirriitirr.lI'oint that sePifiltei theset*'o flo'r'regiittes. let us
presstlre
llote thet theie drri!i Co hll\e OItething io ct-rtttlttot.Recall the srxgnilhon
energv eqtlttion.

EAUATION
PRESSUFE-ENERGY
STAGI.IATION
ccnsider the t$.o selrio.rlocatiotrson the plil-sicalsYstetnsh'trvnin Figrrte. .It_
* an
*i 1., ,r. disrencebet\'.ee1thr.se:rrcatillniapproa--hze.'!',.11'care dealing itir
c!rr)!ml !olult)e t ith the tlrenlrodi'namLc states difierentially separated'
ininitesimal
as sho*,:rin Fi_rLrre brlon. Also sh,:ll'nate the corre;po[dil)gstagnaliollslittesibr these
tn r locirions.
\\ie rna-v.,rrite the follow.ingpropert) ielation betrvien po'rnts I and 2:

T: I
I ,''
I
I

Figure Innniterin:rlly :e paritedstaticslxte!\lilh associate'l stntes-

s('1-cnatlon

Tds=tlh-vdp (.{ l)

Note thar even tbougltthe strgnalioostatesdo not acttlnllyexist, they rePresent

legitimate themrodynarniu-states,aDd rhrrsany valid property relation or equation
(A'l) between
miy be appliedto ihesepoints.Thus u'e mry also appLyequation
statesl, and2,:

T, ds, : dh, - rt,dP, (A.2)

' l

Ho',r-c'rt'r.
|. \ . 1 )

ill)rl
(.{ -l )
rls:tlq.*t/,c,

I hil\ \t lttil! \\llld

f i i ( / - s .+ d 5 ' j : dlt' - t'<1lt, r - \ . i)

Rr'c;rlI th.' .-l)r'l-;) ('qurtioll l"rirt.rt in th.'Iorur

6q:3n':*dltr r- { . 6 l

B l s u b s t . i t u t i n g . ' r[l ri rorr l r! - q t t i r t i o(n- q . 5 )i n t o 1 ' { 6 ) ' * c t ' b t ' r i n

* Ir(r/.r. * dstl + Lt d!"

,,\r7: 'J11', r . \ . 7)

NLr\r f,lslr r(-c ll thal

3q=Tds, { . \ .g )

: I lP,l and
Stbs nue equotion(.4'-8)ilrto (A-7) and note tiat t1
you shor.rldobtain the tbllor';ing called
equation. the P rtssurc.-tlErg)'
stagntrtiort
eqrtttion:

i!-! y alsjTl - T ) + Trdsi * ,5u, = 0 (.{.9)

Pt

For Fanno flos'. d.r" : d u', : 0.

. Thus any fri ctionaleffect mustcausea clecreltsein the total orstagnltion pressure!
t'r:lches of the
Figrrre 9.3 r'enlies this lbr ffow alon,sboth the upper and lorver
F a n n ol i n e .

LimitingPoint
we haddeveloped.
Fromtheenertyequation
l'/ '

h,:h+;-: constant (9.4)

 \\'eobtain
Di f'lerentiating,
t'dl/
t l h '= d i t + - =0 (9.6)
3'

F r o mc o n t i n u i t r$ e h i i dt b u n dt h r t
-71
pl'= Q : c0n51xn1 /q

Diiferentiitins this. !\e Qbtain

/ Ol \
i,J\'+Vlt=0
q hich can be solred lbr

= - y " d- D ( 9 . 8)
d t
p

(9.8)into(9.6)ands/tor'thar
equatioo
Introduce

.. v 2d p
dh = _______: (9.9)
8cp

Norv recall the property relation

Tds:dh-vdp

which can be wnttenas

(9.i0)
p

Substitutingfor dh from equation(9.9)yields

v1 do dp
( 9 .11 )
gcp p

We hasrento point our that this exPression is valid for afr,!fluid and belween
two differenfially sepa.atedpoints anyp[ace along the Fanno line- Norv let's apply
equation (9.11) to two adjacentpoinls that sunound the Iimitingpoint of ma.rimum
entropy.At this locations = const;thus ds = 0, and(9.I I ) becomes

V2dp
--: = dp at lrrrutpornt rrQ l?\

ot
 v'r = g. : ''(H),
(#)",,,,.,,,",",
=.""' ( 9 .l i )

t__*
&l and ue.recognizethat fte
This shouldbe a familiarexpression [dp/dp=J ) ,]
ii{ upper brancht"" ":",ltJ*"
vetoci^. is soricat rtv lintitingpoini. :1.::li.!-
sttpersorttc
t; i,o"i' u'o"i'' and the lower branchis seento be the
ffi;;-";.
'-ulll ior
of our inruirionro.predicrbeha!
" " beginto seea reasonfor rhe failure it sho\!s thll
From our privous studies
orr lhe lower branchof rhe Fannoltne to our e<pectationsThis
fluid beharior in supersonic ttor" rr-ir.qu.nrty contrary
"subsonicalLi""'and in facr' our
,^tt"t*" live most of'our lives
;;t;,r";;: ;i. i"., with- incompressible
*ainly from experiences
knovledge of fluid ptt"no*"n" tott' guess at whrl miShtbe
fluids.It shouldbe aPparenl thatwe ;;nnot useoLirintuition to
flow regime \\" must learn to 3et religious
happeningpaflicularlyln tnesupersonic
relrtions'
and'putfairhin our crrcfullyderi\ed

Momentum
tnt
aoalysis
Theforegoing wasmaoe usiogonlytheconrinuitl',unO
1:t^:i'.l"t"ttont 9 4
uolume sho*n in Figure
nowproceedtoapptytorntntu* "o*ipi' o tht "ont'ol flowis
ortnemomenrum
The,t-comPonent ei'u"tionfor st"ady'one-dimensional

i,.,
l r, = -tvou', - r' 'rn !\. /

suflxratuonls
From Figure 9.4 we seethat he force
(9.t 4)
fr,: t r A - P 2 A -F s

force on the fluid between sectionsI and

where F/ representsthe total wall frictional
direction of flow becomes
z- Thus ihe momentumequationin the

4J--------vt
t
t !
r,A fr"'t

ControlvoLume

Fannoffow
Figure9.4 Momentumanalysisfor
 ti oAV
\t) - r:tf Ft = ( l :- l'.t- - { l :- 1r) (9.15)
g. .{.

s , r L r r t' h a t c q u J t i o n' L L 5) c J n b c r r r rt t e n r s

rI P'\-- DLv'-
(9.r6)
o 3 . c t

/ rrvr\ F; p:l,l
lp +- | . =i:+- (9.l7)
\ -!. ,/ ,.1 E.

In this fonn theequationis not panicularlyusefulexceptto bringout one signilicant

facl. For the steady,one-dirne siondl, constcnt-areafote of an'"fuid, lhe value of
p + pV1/g, can ot be constantif frictional forcesare present.This fact will be
recalledlaterin the chapterwhenFannoflow is comparedwith normalshocks.
Beforeleavingthis sectionon fluidsin general,rve might say a ferv words about
Fannoflorv at low ivlach numbers.A glanceat Figure 9.3 showsthat the upper branch
is asymrotically approaching$e horizontalline of constanttoralenthalpy.Thus the
extremeleft endof the Fannoline rvill be nearlyhorizontal.This indicatesthat Eowat
very low Nlachnumberswill havealmostconstantvelocity-This checksour previous
work, which indicated that we could treat gasesas incornpressiblefluids if the lvlach--
numbers* erc very small.
*
9 . 4 W O R K I N G E O U A T I O N SF O R P E R F E C T G A S E S

\\'e havediscoveredthe generaltrend ofproperty variationsthat occur in Fanno flou

both in the subsonicand supersonicflow regime.Now we wish to developsome
specificworkingequationsfor thecaseofaperfectgas.Recallthatthesearerelations
betweeflpropeatiesat arbitral]. sectionsof a florv sy5lgrnwrinen in terms of N1ach
numbersandthe speci6cheal ratio.

Energy
\lt startwith the energyequationdevelopedin Section9-3 sincehis leadsimmedi-
atelyto a lemPerature ratio:

(e.3)
But for a p€rfectgcs, enthalpy is a function of temperatureonly. Therefore,

l tl = tt2 (9.18)
 heats'
No* for a perfectgaswith constantspecitic

,' r -- , . (I r - r EI p l ' \l
/

llo* can be wr !eqas

Hence rhe energy equalion for-Eaano
.\ I :' -1.,' \ (ete)
r , ( ' * ' . ' n ' , ' ) = r : ( r+ / I " r r ' : )
, v-l

Tz l+[(r-l)/2]'!1,: (9.20)
T1 l+t(y-l)/21:v.

ContinuitY
From Section9.3 we have
(9.2)
pV:C= const

(9 21) :i
pg1 = p1V2

o[ state
If we introduce the perfecl gas equation
p=pRT

the definitionof NIachnumber

V : irlo

gas
and sonic velocity for a perfect
^ _ ,Tn:Fr
r r - \ ' q _

equalion(9.21)can be solvedfor
pz ut ( Tr\t/t (g.zz)
a: M1\T)
Now introducetheEmperature ntio from(9 20) and
Canvou obtainthisexpression?
workingrelationfor staticPressure:
ii'irin i"t. ,n. followlng
 p.- ltllll'1, - rlll/,r1r':
- a ar l r
p1 rvz\t+[,., - Lt 2]u,)/

T h e d e n s i t ; r e l a t i o nc a n e a s i l yb e o b t a r : : : : r . r n te q r L a r i o( n
9 . 2 0 ) ,( 9 . 1 1 ) .a n d r h e
perl'ectgas la$':

ti1
l: _ Nlt
(9 . 1 1)
pr lvlz : - lr ll.!/L

E n t r o p yC h an ge
\\? startu ith anexpression
for entropy
ci.r-.jirharis validbetween
anyt'\ o poinri:

ar1-,:corri-nrn4 (1.5i)
1. Pl

Equalion(4. l5) can be usedto substitute

rci c-.andrvenondimensionalize
rheequa-
tion to

.t. -Jl v T. D1
____: ln __: _ ln j_: (e.25)
R y-l T1 p l

If we now utilizethe expressionsjust dereloped ratio (9.20)and

for rhetemperature
the pressureratio (9.23), the entropychalr!r bicomes

sr-sr| y -lt'/ - l)/2)Mt' \

= h(l
R y-t \t-[r _t)/2).vr!)

|r
- ,"'n
- M t l 1 - [ , v - l ) / 2 ] , 1 /\ r :
\t-rt:lttr,'trl
Slolr,that rhisentropychangebenveentro lsints in Fannoflo* can be written a:

.'2*sr , M2 lI+[\/ - l)/2]rvlr?\(/+rri?(r-r)

(9.27)
R Mt \l+[,r'- ]t/21'v,:/

Now recall that in Section4.5 we integrdt.dd. stagnationpressure-€nergyequation

for adiabatic no-work flow of a perfectsa-i.\r ith the result

U = ,-u a
Prt
 9 . 5 R E F E R E N C ES T A T EA I ' ] OF A N N OT A 3 L E

and equalionl9.lLrrbtionl.s

r - t.y:_!C_ = \,\t.y) (e.:rl)

"f '
T T- t'r - l)/llt1r
g i v i n g \ a l u e so i
\ \ , e s e er h a tT i T ' - . i t . i l . y ) a n d\ \ e c a ne a s i l l c o n s t r u cat l a b l e
t/ ii u.rru, ,rt tir : grrticulary. EclLt:ttion (9 23 t canbe lreatedin a sirrlilarfashion'
I n t h i sc a s e

p: =) p ,|1: = ,1 (an) vaLue)

t1t ::? D' .!/1 .=: I

and equation(9.11 ;'e.ooles

i , -_ t ( 0+ttll .\,,= t,.,1.r, (9.12)

Jt \l - l \ Y - t\tll\l-/
f

number and )/ f'om

The densitl rli:o .ln be obtainedas a iunction ol N1ach
a relocity r3tio
eqJon i9.:ir. Thi: is particularlyusefulsince iI also represents
whv?
p \'. | (r-!,_tt,l!_\' = rr,rz,yt (9.43)
- : = - = - l - -,n\
F- r t7+t)12 /

Apply thisame techriques!o equation (9 28) and s'toruthr't

f ,.
+ l { y _ |D\ //,trtr,Ivr :t \-r Y - l ' / : t / - l l =
..
" ,, t
- v \ (t
= \ 1ru.yt e.44J
a (Y+ttl2 l
(9 40)i that is' let
\\t nolv perform the sametype of transformarionon equation

.rl+r M:+M ( a n yv a l u e )

'11 $ 'Y ' vl, :+ L

with the followingr.sutt:

i'r-r') / Y l - l \ ' / l___--=:-:--

-lY- l)':ltlr\
= | - I ln I
D, \2Y / \ (r+r)/r /|

-L(L-r)-/.-ltnMt (e.45)
l'\M= / zY

(r. - r) wilt alwaysbe

But a glanceat rhePh\sicaldiagramin Figure9 5 showsthat
signsin equation(9 45)
a negalivequanriq:dluslt rs moreconve;ientto changeall
and simplify it rc
 252 FANNoFLo$/

/ - _ ,
I nr - I n ( t- ' n , , ) = t nc n n s r ( 9 . 32)
a'

andthendifterentiitring,
we obtain

dr , d(t+l{1', t)/21,v2)
=" (9.3i)
7-t-tr./- lt2lJlr

w h i c hc a r rb e u s e dt o s u b s t i t u tfeo r d l / f i n ( 9 . 3 0 ) .
The continuityrelation[equation(9.2)] put in termso[ a perfectgcs becomes

4: .onr, {9.1:l)
r/T

B ) ' l o s a r i t h m idci f f e r e n t i a t i o( tna k et h en r r u r l l l o g a r i t h m o n , J r h e n d i f t et r a

et e ) . r l l o l r
that

dp d.\l L dT
_ _ _+_ _ o rgt5r
p tvt 2T

l\t can int{oduceequation(9.33)to eliminated7/ f, wirh the resulrrhar

dp _ | d(t + [(Y - D/2)tv2)

_d,v _ .q ?6\
p t"I 2 l+lQ-t)/2) 12

which can be usedto substitutefor dp / p in (9.301.

ll
N'{ake
the indicatedsubstitutionsfor dp/ p anddT /T in fte momentumequcrion,
neglectthepotentialterm,andsrav thatequarion(9.30)canbe put into the following
form:

.dt d(l + lO - t) /2ltd1) div2 z dM

'
D, | + lty - l)12l,rl: llJ y iIIt

I d(t + l\y - t)/:l,u:)

' \2 r'l
y't41 | -[(y - l)/2],r/:

Thelastte|mcanbesimplified
for integrarion
b,vnoringthar

r d(r + t(r - 1)/4M2) (y - t) dtr2

,, M
/ M 22 | + l(y - I)/21M2 2y M2
(1,- r) d(t + tu - D/?ltvrz)
(9.38)
2y r+l(y -r)/7)tv2
The momentumequationcan now be wriften as
 tl.u l . + l d ( 1 + [ ( ] , - l ) i ' l i . t / r-) t 1M
clil /+ldM?
.- ( 9 . l 9)
7y I + [ ( ] ,- l i i l l . t l : + tl=
flowof a perfect-gas'with no
Equation(9.i9) is restrictedto st.ad) one-dinlensionaL
potentialchanges' \\'e can now
heat o. wark tr nsfsr.const3ntarea.anrlneqii-sible
integratethis eqtrationbet\!een t\\ o pointsin the il!]!\ andoblain

-rr) y*1,- L;lrr-1r,llJ/,:

, f( r :
D, ?i, 1 - - 1 1 7- t r ' : l i v l ' l
| . ., -:- 1 i t' lj, :
' ,
-t\ltr
I I I r ' (9..10l
i t. : J 27 tvt,'

$e hare held the friction faclo( constalt

Note that in performingthe inte-sration
Somecommentsrvillbemadeonthisinalrtersecrion'lfyouhaveforgotrenthe
diameter,.vouml,v \! ant ro reriew the lastpan of Seclion3 8
conceprof eqLtivalenl
a n de q u a t i o n( 3 . 6 1 ) .

9.5 R E F E F E N C E S T A T EA N D F A N N O T A B L E

the proper-
The equationsdereloped in Section9.4 govide the meansof computing
ties at one location in termsof tlose given lt some other locatio-n' The key to problem
af.lhe ne* location tkough the use of equa-
solution is predicting the lvlach number
for 'he unlnown M: a messy task'
cion (9.40). The solution of this equation Presents
we tum to a technique similar to thal used
u, no "^pii"i, relalion is possible.Thus
with isentropic flow in ChaPter.
manner as
We introduce anorher' tefetencestate,*hich is definedin the same
'that thermodynamicstate which \'rould exist if the fluid reached a Mach
before (i.e.,
procesr") l"rrthiscase we imagine that we continue
numbeiofunity bl a partictiar
by Fannofow ii.e.,moreduct is added)unrilthevelocityreaches N{achl Figure9'5
with its f-s diagram for a subsonic Fanno flow'
shows a physical system togelher
1&'ekrrowthatifwecontinuealongtheFannoline(rememberthatwealwaysmove
velocityexists'
to the righ0, we will eventuallyreachthe limitins pointwheresonic
sufiicient length to enable the flo!\' to
The dasied lines show a hypotheticalduct of
brarch and reach the limit point Thisis
traversethe remaining portion of the uPPer
' referencepointfor Fannofow.
the
* diagram to
The isentrojic referencepoints have alsobeenincludedoII the I-s
* referenceis a totatly different thermodynamic
emphasize the fact that the Finno
between
state.One other fact should be mentioned.Ifdrere is any entroPydifference
reference conditions are not
two points (such as points 1 and 2), their isentropic'
great care ro label them separately as l' and 2''
the same and we havi always talien
 --1

----'----_)- I
Acturlduit Hypotheticaldu.t I
I

I
I l
( r l ,,1-'
,rl
I tll t
tl'

Figure 9.5 The' referencefor Fanno frow.

Howerer. proceedjngfrom either point I or point

2 by Fanno fow will ultimatelv
readto rhessmepraceuhcn i\Iach I is reached.
Thus we do no,i"".,o,"tt oi-il--
2' but merel.v' in the caseof Fanno flow. Incidenrally.
*t y _. ull ,t rJ" " ..f"."n""
points sho*n on the samehorizontalline in
Figure l.:: iVou ","y na"o to review
Section4.6.)
lt'e. nolv rewriri the working equationsin terms
of the Fanno flow - r€lerence
condition-Considerfirsr

T I + [ ( y - 1 ) / 2- ] &. ! , 2
: = (9.20)
tr l+tQ - D/zlVzl
L"., p:iA2 b€ an arbirrarypoint in the flow system
and let its Fanno . condition be
point l. Then

T2+T M2+ M (any value)

tult+l
and equltion(9.20)becomes

T (y + I)/2
= f (Nr,y) (9.-lI l
T- l+llr- l)/2]/!11

gi\ing laiues Qf
We seethaf T lT' = f( l.y) and \\'e can easilyconstructa table
Equation(9'23)can be in
treated a simiLarlashion
;i i: r;r;;t i'l fo, o poni"ui", 7.
In thiscase
p1 .-> p &1: '+ M (any value)

P t = +P " i/l +l

and equation(9.?l) becomes

- ' , ' , / l ^ , , t, =, )7' , , " . r '
L -=, !' / ( !, (9.,l])
p. \ l + [ ( y - t \ / 2 ) . \ t/ :

number and y from

The densityratio can be obtainedas a function of N{ach
since it also a velocitl ratio'
represents
.qu"tion {9.zil. This is panicularly useful
lVhv?

#=+: =""'
ie+;#Y)"' (9.43)

that
Apply the sametechniquesto equation (9 28) and slzarv
(Y+r)r2o'-r)
= =r@'v) (9.4.+)
# * (+t#ffi
(9 40); that is' lel
\!'e now perform the same type of transformadonon equation

.r2 =+ r M2 =+ /v/ (anYvalue)

11:i, r' Mt+l

with the followingresuit:

ry:(+),^1::#fifv:)
-iG-t)-';-',-M' (9.45)

(r' - x ) will alwaysbe

But a glanceat thephysicaldiagramin Figure9 5 showsth,at
in equation(9 45)
^ ""g;,i"" q*"ti,y; thusit is moreconvenientto changeall signs
andsimplifyit to
 /rr'-.{) lv.t1,1 l t y- t 1 / ) l \ t :\
D, \ 2 v / " \ t r t r y _ t ) t l l , tJr :
t t I \
*tf ( 9 . 1 5i
,"'-t)=f\l\r'Y)
The quan!it) (-!' - .r) represents
the amounrof duct thatwould hr\e to be added
to causethe flow to reachthe Fanno* referenceconclition.ft can alternltilelr be
viervedas the ma\imum duct lengththatmay be addedwithoutchan-qinS somelit),.r
condition.Thus theexpression

"f ft' - r) 4:\

ir .",.d
D" D"
and is f istedjn rablealongwirh theotherFannoflow parameters: T / T.. p,,p-.
V/ V' , and p, / p," . ln the nextsecrionw e shallseehow this table simpliries
-srearl\.
the solutionoI Fannoflorvproblcm\.But first,someuords aboutih: deierminlrion
of friction frcroo.
Dimensionalanalysisof the Ruidflorvproblemshowsthat the frictionfactorcan
be expressed as

J: f (Re.€/D) (9.17)

where Re is the Reynoldsnumber,

. R.=# ; (e.{s)
and

tfD = relative roughness

Typicat valuesof e, the absolne roughnessor averageheight of wall inegularities.

are shownin Table9.2.
The relationship among/, Re, ands/D is determined experimenr3lly
andploued
on a chart similar ro Figure 9.6, rvhich ts calleda fuIood.ydiagram
If rhe flow rate is known togetherrvith the duct size and

Table9.2 AbsoluteRoughness
of Commonr\Iaterials
Material € (ft)
Glass,brass,copper,Iead smooth< 0.0000L
Steel,wroughtiron 0.00015
Calvanizediron 0.0005
Casthon 0.00035
Rivetedsteel 0.03
 TLlrbulentflow regjr.le+

Log Re

Figure 9.6 ivloodydiagramfor frictionf:rctorin circularducls'

and
easilybe calculated
material,the Reynoldsnumberand relativeroughnesscan
The cune in the laminar
ih" uulu" of theiriction factoris rakenfrom the diagram
flow regioncan be rePresented bY
64 (9.49)
, -Re

describedin Section3 8
For noncircular cross sectionslhe eqlrivalent diameter as
can be used.
4A (3.61)
r
of reladveroughnessand
This equivalent diameter may b€ used in the determination
must be taken!o work
n"ynoiO, nr.U"r, und hence rhe friction factoc However' care
lhat the
*iii ,t " ot*f averagevelocity in all computations'Experiencehasshown
zone',ln the laminar
"ra oi un aq"i"^l"nc d'iameterworks quite well in the turbulent
,f.rft*ncept is not sufficient and considerationmust also be given to the
i"*l"gl*
'In ralio of the duct
aspect
solution
some problems the flow rate is not known and thus a rial-and-error
too difficult; an excellent
r"sults.As long as the duct sizeis given,the problemis not
the friclion factor can be made by taking the valueconesponding
^ppr*fi",i"*"
rapidly to the final answer'
to wfrere ttre e/D curve beginsto lelel ofl This converges
as most engineering problems are *elL into the turbulent range'

9.6 APPLICATIONS
problem-solringtechnique:
The following stepsare recommendedto devetopgood
 i. Skercbrhe ph_vsical 'reference poinr),
siruarion(includingrhehyporherical
2. Label sections w hereconditionsarekn.rLr
n or desired_
L L i . La l l g i . c n i n f o r m r t i o n
*irh unrr..
4. Computethe equivaient diameter.relxti!. roughness,
and Reynoldsnumber
5. Find the fricrionfacrorfrom rhe lilood.,dLesram.
6. Determinethe unkno$n Mach numbe:.
7. Calculatethe additionalpropeniesd;sired.

The procedLrre abovemay havero be alrercddependingon rvhattype of infonna

tion is given,andoccasionaliy,trial-and-enorsolu:ionsarerequired.you shouldhave
no difficult,vincorporating
thesefeatureson!-irhebasicstraightforward solurionhas
beenmastered. In complicatedflow sy5gs6115rhrr inr.olvemore thanjust Fannofforr,..
a 7-s diagranris frequent)y helpfulin solrinu problems.
For the folloivingexampleswe aredeaiing\,,irh the steadyone-dimensional ffo*
of air (y : 1,4).lvhichcanbeEeatedasa pedectgas,Assumethat O = 14 = 0 and
negligiblepotentiaIchanges. The cross-secrional areaof the duct remainsconsranr.
FigureE9.I is commonto Examples9.1 rhrough9.3.

I
/;\

FigureE9.I

Example9,1 GirenM1 = l.80,pr =40psia-and.y:: 1.20.findp2andJ Lx/ D.

SincebothIlach numbersareknown,we cansolvi immediately
for
p)p' .^ | I \
p: = - - pt = (0.80!r ( f.lOr= 67.9p"ia
93_ J

CheckFigureE9.I ro seethar

f 3.r _ JL|M _ !L-_,.

---'=0lJlg-00136:0108
D D

Example9.2 GiventI: = 0.94,fl = 400K. andl: : 350K, find Mr andp./ pt.

To detemjneconditionsat sectionI in Figure89.1,we mustestablish
th9ratio
 r =\r: - i + o o ) , 1 . s 1 et 5t o; -; :
T' T:T' \150/
1
|
- l r'om
- Fanno lable at rV1= 0 9-l
IL
Given

: 0lsi
Look up ?'/f' = t.i65'i in the Fanno !3ble add d!'te'minr thal ''1l
I hui
p : _ o : p ' = ( i o 7 . r (. r. fr ) -o lsr
P P' Pt \-: duro/
sliltlcpressure
Noticethattheseexamplesconfirrnpre! iausslalemenlsconcernlog
whereas
decreases' in supersonic flow
.fl""g".. f" subsonicflor" lhe staticp;essure
ratio
pressure and sholv that the
ih. ri",i" p..rrur. increasesComprrrethe stagnation
friction lossescausepr:/pr t lo decreaseln eachcase
For ExamPle9 l:

(p1 l p,1 = 0.1 t6)

Ptt

ForExample9.2:
(P':lP't=061l)
Ptl

galvanizediron duct-lnitialconditions
Example 9-3 Air flows in a 6-in -diameter,insulated'
: ZO psia, T1 = 70'F and V1 = 406 ft'/sec Afrer 70 ft' deermine the final Mach
*" oi
number.temp€rltureand pressure
Since the duct is circulaJ we do noi have to compute an equivalent
diameter' From Table \t'lJ
9.2 the absoluieroughnesse is 0.0O05 Thus the telative
roughness \,^'.
e
D
0 0005
0,5 t)l: '+ i

(Figure E9 l) since this is lhe only location

\!'e compure the Reynolds number al section I
\ahereinformJtionil known
-. / ) O \f l l j r
t.=#--ffi=ororrbnvic
table)
/rr : 3.8 x t0-r ttf-secrtill Air prop'rties

Thus
o , V 'D r (0.t02)({06)(0.5)
RF, : :-:---i- = = 1 . 6 9x 1 0 6 tLn /yr,"
ltr8, ( 1 . 8x l 0 - 7 ) ( 3 2 . 2 )

= 00O1,we
From the lvloodydiagram ar Re = 1.69x 106and e/D
that the friction factor is / : To
0.0198. usethe Fannotable(or equa[ons)'we
determine
needinfo.mationoo Mach numberg

(,1i-
A -"
" 5^
,<. _ \
..4t z ?.eX,'y'
+ ^" )1,"]
'',-/ =z''4*2
1
-
 a t = Q g , . R T t ) t i=. t ( l . . 1 ) ( 1 2 . 2 ) ( 5 1 . t ) 1 5 3 0 1 1 r 1gr y , , " .
= t 123

, v r r = \ = i ! 1 -=" n- ". , ^
cr lllS
Fion the Fannotible at rtlt = 0.15,,re
hnd,ra.

3
P =.r.00
- . I' ' :
= r 7. r o s r4 =u= = r , r o ,
""T0j.,,:g theproblemis in esrablishin-s
]1:_l?.j: the}lach numbefat rheourje(.
riJ rhir
rs oonethroughthefrictionlen2th:

(0.0193)(70)
/ A , r = --;--
T =ttt'
Looking at rhe phljicalskerch ir is appaienr(srnce
I and D a.e constaors)
rhat

f!1 _ / 1 i " , , _ ' -r-J=. cI l s O l - 1 7 7 1= 0 1 0 3

D D
\!'e ente.the Fannorablewilh thiJ
frictiontengthand find rhit

Thus

ang

-, . = T z T ' - / | \
V T , ' = ( r . t r 3{6. .) G r / r r r o=, , o r " *
In the example above, the friction factor
was assumedconstant.In tact, rh.is
sumptronwas made when equation(9.39) as_
was inregrated
to oiojn (S.OO),ana *i,n
*
the introduction of the reference
inthe
Fanno,"ur..
r,tr,i,...","""';i:";i:i;i::1....rff11?"f,;11,;lil:li,"i],li
Reynoldsnumbers,which in tum dr
change
quite,^prdiy
;;;;;;;;;r:nil# ffJ'I.ll:,i;:i'li.
nl::,:"J..*.rl:
9.3-and compare ir wirhthatartheinf.t f y, = iie fJ*. l* u, joOZ
Burdon'tdespair. ,r*. ,t
Fromconrinuiry weLow that*.;;J,;#;.is
theontyvariable aJ*ays
a
:"Tr-"::-11.:h^ in Reynolds numbe r is ,fr""i*rii,y E\rremely
rargeremperaturevariationsare required,!ochange
the viscosityofa gasirgnilicantly,
and thus variations in the Reynoldi

1l::r"T"Thil;;;;;;#"ilil::ffi T*,T"ii'"i:T"T",H,T;hH
wherethe friction factoris relativelyinseositive
to Reynoldsnumte.. .+ gleu,.apo-
tentialeror is involvedin the estimation
of theduci ;;G;;r;,;il nasa more
significanteffecron thefrictionfactor

H
Exatuple9.1 A converging-diver-qing nozlh { ith rn alea'atio o[ i 4] connectsIo an u-l!-
long;onstanl-aiea rectangularduct (see Fi,:ui: E9'J) The duct is 8 x 4 io in cro\s sr'ctirn
anihcs a iriction factor of = 0 01 \\'h:t ir lhe ninimum s(agnatioo pfessurefeedingthe
/
nozzleit the florvis supersonic throughoullie entiii ductand i! exhauslsro l4-7 psia?

-!r=8ft

--+=* i iI j r , " . =L a T p s i a
I L I
i /--'l---'-.- | .,=oo, I
t / - "

C 6 6 6
FigureE9..1

4A t:r -j:l
= i.JJ+ ln,
P 1 :
( 0 . 0r:S r r l l l
- = u.Jo
D

hl P' = 0 1901'and
with ArlA: =: 5.42'[lt = 316'pil po = O'Olg5'
Tobe supefsonic
=
fLt^""/ D 0.5582,
Jr-'n : --ry-
7,-1,.. / ! r = 0 . j j 3 t _ 0 . 3 6= 0 . l 9 S l
D o
€
Thus
Mr= t613 and {=051+3

ano

p) P t t , t l \
- t u tp t t L o . r g- o l - l ( t 1 . 7 )= ? 2 S p s i . r
,o, .' , p , t p , p . p , ,D- . = ( t ; { \: 0
--
. 0 1 3 /5' - \0.5t1J./

Any pressure above288 psiawill mainnir theffo$systemasspecifiedbutwilh expansion

wavesoutsidethe duct. (Recallan undere\Pn-aded 0ozzle) Can you envisionwhat would
pressur.fell belou133 psia?(Recalltheoperationof ao over-
happenif fie inletstagnltion
erpandednozzle.)

WITH SHOCKS
9.7 COFFTELATION

youmayhavenoticedsomesimilarities
throughthischapter
As you haveprogressed
b"t*eenra,rno-flowandnormalShocks.Lelussummarizesomepeninentin|or.
malion,
 P +; i-:g.

> 1
Fisure9.7 \'arixrionot p L pV:
ig, in Fannollor,,.

The pointsjust bei.-rre

andaftera normalshockrepresent statesq ith the samemass
llow per unir area.rhesamelllue of p p vrg".
+ il;; ,;; ,*_"n",ion .n,t utpy.
Thesefacisaretheresutrof appl.vin-q rireb"ri" ;"*;;;;;;;"ii"",r,-.".n..,".,
ener-qy to anyarbirrenIiuid.This anal_vsis *o
resultedin equarions fO.Zj, ana
A Fannoline represenrj ii.:1, fg.Sl.
stateswith thesamemassn;!v per u;i;;J;
stagnationenrhalp_v. anq rne same
This is conErmedbI equations

;;;;;;; ; il .'*?;ffi:",j;f""."',,,":,r;iJ::ilt:ry"f
<s.) ;"di;.;;.;. moyeatono
a Fannoline requiresfricrion.At tb
p"-*J :'llr::i;
Tie variarionof rhequanritvo +,pV2/g."along
a Fannoline is quite interesting.
Such a plot iy shoqn in i,gu,e'e.z. you *iii
no,o"'tiut f* ";;;;"1;; ;" the super-
sonicbranch gi the Fannoline there s a coc.espondin-q
point on the subsonic branch
L':,lJl::T" l"',.ofor
ror theendpoints
p + pv!/se.-thu,trl*" t*"-pj"',,,"i,"rf"u ,r,r?."o"0,,,o",
s normal
shockandcouldbecoonected Uyir"i " ,n*f
Now we canimaeinea supersonic Fannoflow leadinginl i no.malsnocf f f
. rf,is
is followedby additional
duct,subsonic
Fannoflow,,vould occur.Sucha sltuationis
sholvnin Figure9.So.Notethatrheshockmerely
causes tle noru.tluirp from ttre
supersonicbranchto rhesubsonicbranchof theso.,a"
nr""" frn".fi"Jiigure 9.gb.l

-11>I ,'/<l
Farnoflow Fanno flow

Figure 9,8a Coobinarion

of Fannqflow andnormalshock(physical
sysrem).
 S l : o c k- )

\'
/
I

Figure 9.8, Combinrtionoi Fannoflow and.no.malshock.

Example 9.5 A largechambefcontainsair ar a tempefatureof 100 K and p.essure g

r of
bar abs(FigureE9.5).The air enrersa con!erging-divergingnozzle\r.irhan area
ratio of 2.4.
A constant,areaduct is attachedto the nozzle and a normal shock stlnds ai the exi! plane.
Receiverprcssureis 3 bar abs.Assumethe entiresyJtemto be adiabaticand neglect
iriction in
Ihe nozzle.Computethe / A.(/D for the oucr.

Figure E9.5
 Fof a shock !D occu. aj specilied,the duc! flo!! rnust be supersonic.Nhich mians rhrr
the nozzleis opcratingar ili rhird criricul point The inler condi(ionrand nozzleareurlriir
fix conditionsar locrrionJ. \\t can then find p. at rhe tip of the Fannoline_.lhen rhe .iriic
pjlp' cnnbe computedand rhei\'{achnumbe.afrerlhe shockis foundfrom thaFannotxbla.
This solutionprobabll.wouldnot ha\.eoccured to uj had we not dia*.n the I_s uragramano
reco-gnizedthat point 5 is on the ssmeFunnoline as J.4. and'_
For Al/At - 1..1,,l1r = I.l and pj,/p,r = 0.063-10.\\t proceedimmediarelrto conrlure

i: =+
p' p .r p+: \4p-i 4
p'
= f : ) , , f _ : , ) ( o l r L r= r ? o j o
\ s./ \u.rbil/

From the F:rnnotrbl. \re nnd ther rtlr - 0 619. anLlrher from the shcck t3ble..f1r= l.lS9
Retumingto the Fannolable,/Lra,!,/D = 0.-1099 anC/Zr,r*/D = 0.2_tSl.Thuj

= 0 . 1 0 9-9 0 l i s t = 0 . 1 ; l
D D

9.8 F R I C T I O NC H O K I N G

In Chapter5 rvediscussed theoperationof nozzlesthatwerefed by consranrsragna-

tion inletcanditions(seeFigures5.6 and5.8).\Ve foundthatas the receivcrpressure
was lowered, the flow through the nozzie increased.When the operating pressLtre
rcrio reacheda certainyaLue, thesectionof minimumareadevelopeda ivlachnumber
of unity.The nozzlewas then said to be choked.Furtherreductionin the pressure
ratio did not increasethe flow fate. This was an exampleof area choking.

Tl
pr
l/)

Figure 9.9 Co{erginB nozzleandconsrlnt-arca

ductcombinarion.
 4 = constant

s
Figure 9.10 T-s diagramfor nozzle-doc!combinalion

a givenlength
The subsqnicFannoflow situationis quitesimilar'Figure9'9 shows
pressure is belo$
of duct fed by a large tank and convergingnozzle lf the receiver
as path l-2-3 in
the tank pressure,flow rvill occur, producing a ?-s diagram shown
duct and $eo \re
fig"." 9iO. W*. Oat we have isentropic Row at $e entrance!othe
more' tie flow rate
mive along a Fanno line. As the receiverpressureis lowered still
to Faffro lines of
and exii lvl-achnumber continue to increasewhile the systemmoves
to rccognize $at the
higher mass velocities (shown as path 1-2'-3')' It is imponant
is controlling the
receiver pressure(or more Properly, the operaringpressureralio)
must equal that of
no* rnis is becausein subionic floru the iressure at the ducr exit
the receiver.
numbe' at the duct
Eventually, when a certain pressureratio is reached'the Mach
choking aj.d af.y
exit will be unity (shown as path l-2"-3") This is called/naion
conditionsinsidethe
funher reduction in receiverpressurewould not affect the flow
a regionoi reduced
at.i"^. *tr" *""rd occur as the ffow leares theducrand enters
pressure?
Letusconsiderlhislastcaseo|chokedflowwithrheexi!pressureequaltothe
maintoinedat this vslue
,a".it"t ptatt"r". N ow supposethat the receiverpressureis
preventus from doing
but more duct is added to the system (l"lothingcin physically
the Fanno line' yet
,ttrir.) W't u,t happens?We know that we cannot move aro''nd
,orn.t'o*wemustreflecttheaddedfrictionlosses.Thisisdonebymovingtoanew
Fannolineatar/ecreosedflowrate.TheT-sdiagramforthisisshownaspathl-2,',-
mainlainedat the exit bul
3"'- + in Figure 9.1 l. Note that pressureequilibrium is srill
 Original =I
ductchok3d.,l/l
t
Supply air
Il = constlrl
Pt = constant
l't - o
I
I
I

,I.
r 4 t
p,e- held constent

,u=0
lie w Fannoline at
--'-t-
lo,*er flow rarc
_\*1,-

Fanno line fo.

o.iginalduct --iV =|

G , ,<, G "

Figure9.11 Additionofmoreductwhenchoked.

the sysremis no longerchoked,althoughthe florvl3te hasCecreased. Whet rvould

occur if the receiverpressure werenorvlowered?
In summary, when a sulsoaic Fanno flo* has become/n-clioachoked.and more
duct is added ro rhe system.fre florv raie musr decrease.Just ho',vmuch it decreases
and whetheror not the exit velocityremainssonicdependson how much duct is added
and the receiver pressureimposedon the system.
Now suppose rhat we are dealing with supersonicFanno flow that is fiction
choked,ln this casethe additionof more duct causesa normal shock to form inside
the duct. The resulting subsonicflow can accomrnodatethe increasedduct length at
the same flow rate. For example,Figure 9.12 showsa Mach 2.18 flow that has an
JL^ / D value of 0.356. If a normal shock were ro occur ar lhis point, the Mach
number after the shock would be-*iout 0.550, which cocrespondsto an /|.*/D
 l-t+=oii6--

, V= 1 . 0

L_.,
N3r:nrlshock
.,-;:=orr8

Figure 9.12 [nfluenceoi shocl on r:1.]\imumduct length

valueof0-728.Thus,in this case,the appearance of the shockpermilsover twice the

ductlengthto the chokepoinl. This differencebecomesevengreaterashigherNIach
numbersare reached.
The shock location is determined by lhe amount of duct added As more duct is
added,the shock moves upstream and occurs at a higher Mach number Eventually'
the shock will move inlo that portion of the system thal precedesthe constant-area
ducr.(lvlostlikely, a converging-diverging nozzle was usedto Producethe supersonic
flow.)lf sufficient friction length is added,the entire systemwill becomesubsonicand
wili
then the flow late will decrease.Whether or not ihe exit velocity remains sonic
againdependon the receiver pressure.

9.9. WHENy lS NOTEOUALTO 1.4

As hdicared earlier, the Fanno flow table is for 7 : i 4 The behavior

of /L.al/D, the friction function'is given in Figure9.13 for 7 = 1 13, l 4 and 1 67
forltfach numbersuPto M :5. Here we can seethat the dependence on / ls rather
nodceablefor rll : 1 4. Thus, below this Mach number the tabulation in fanno labl€
mal be usedwith Iittle error for any 7. This means that for subsonic flows' where most
Farno flow problems occur, there is little difference berween the various gases'The
desiredaccuracyof results will govern how far you want to carry this aPproximation
into the supersonicregion
Suictly speaking,thesecurvesare only represenlalivefor caseswhere / vanatrons
of
Ne negligiite witiin the fow. However, they offer hinls as to what 44gnitude
 Uore duct added

_l_
Il = constanl \
= cOnstant

Fanno line fo.

originalducr

Figure 9,11 Additionof moreducr whenchoked.

the systemis no longerchoked.althoughthe flow rate has decreased. What w,ould

occurif the receiverpressurepere now lowered?
In summaw, when a sabsanic Fanno flow has become/noioa cloted and more
duct is addedto thesyslem,the ffow ratemustdecrease. Justhow,much tt clecreases
andwheth€ror not theexit velocityremainssonicdependson how muchductis added
and the receiverpressureimposedon the system.
Now suppose that we are dealing with supersonic Fanno flow that is
fiction
choked.In this caserhe addition of more duct causesa normal shock to form inside
the duct. The resulting subsonic flow can accommodatethe increasedduct lensth at
the same flow rate. For example, Figure 9.lZ shows a Mach 2.lg flow that hL an
fL,n",/D value of 0.356. If a normal shock were to occur at this point, the lvlach
number after the shock would be abott 0.550, which conesponds to an
fLftax/ D
Listadbelo\\ irrethe p.ecisein:L'-i;:: ?.ogrrmrhal yotl tlsein lhe compuler

t > q : = - . . . : I : = - i : :
- - : - ;r i E - : } - \ \ ' 2 ) / 2 J / t l
Y := {;r - \J/12';
['
' e - : , ' x - 2 ) - : ; ' : : ( ' 2 ) - l ) r
|
L ! = j rsDrrTi:.l

y is 3 1801 -
\\e cun pro;c-edlo find lh. \::-'i )ienberat stalion 2. The new value of
2.772 = 0.103.\o!v \r'euseth. !-::.qul(ion (9 46) but solve fo. Ml as sho*fl below' Note
-fsolve ' Let
(hrt sincer!1 is i plicil in lh. ei::li:. \: ar. going to ulilize

-g= /. a parlriis: L_.tr:tio of specificheats)

.X = the depe;1J.li1il:r'rl. ($'hichin thii caseis rtll)

l = lhe ind.ler'l.l:1:ixble (lvhich in thiscaseis /L."*/D)

Listedbelorvarethe preciseinlr-s r:,J irogram that you use in lhe compuler'

l> 92 := I.4: Y2 := l.il!

'-'
f> fsclve(Y2 = l(q2 - . 2 ' s 2 ) l ' 1 o g ( ( ( q 2 + 1 ) i ( x 2 ^ 2 /) 2 t / 1 7 +
'
I , n t - r \ " l r i 2 ^ 2/ J2 t : - . ' - / q 2 ) ' ( ( L / X 2 ^ 2 ) I L X2, A..I) i
L cta97415

The answer of Lll = 0.6?21 is .!1nsis!entwith thsl obtained ir Example 9 3 \\'e can now
proceed to calculate lhe requit.d irfi; ProPenies'but this will be left as an exercise for the
reader

T
9.11 SUMMARY

We have analyzedflow in a consr:.nr-area duct with friction but without heat transfer'
The fluid propertieschangein a predictablemanner dependenton the flow regime as
sho*'n in Table9.3. The ProPerr,!Eriations in subsonicFanno flow follow an intuitive
pattern but r.r'enore that the super:onicflorv behavior is iomplerely different' The

Table 9.3 Ftuid Propen}- l-ariltion for Fanno Flow

Propent- Subsonic Supersonic

!tloLity Increases Decreases

Nlachnumber lncreases Decaeases
Entialpf Decreases Incleases
Si!gnation enftalp)' Constant Constant
Pre5suae Decreas€s Increases
Density Decreases Increases
Stagnationpressure Decteases Decreases
' Also temperaN.! ifl: i'rid iJ a p.rfec! 8as.
 onll contntonoccurrence is the decrease
in stagniltionpressure,which is indicative
o f t h ei o s s .
Perhapsrhenlojt si,gnificant
equationsare thosetharapplr ro all fluids:

pl':C= constart (9.2)

h, =o*#i: consLanL ( 9 . 5)

Alon-s!,,irh rlteseequations you shouldkeepin mind theappearance oI Fannolinesin

thel;-r and f,-r diagrams(seeFigures9.I and 9.2). RememberthateachFannoIine
rep.esentj gfinrs r.irh the samemassvelociry(6) and sra-snarjonenrhalpy(h.), anct
a no.m3lshockcanconnecttlvo pointson oppositebranchesofa Fannoline $hich
hare d135xfl16 valueoi p + pV. /g". Fanilles ofFanno linescould represenr:

L Diderenrveluesof G for the samell, (suchas rhosein Figure9.10),or

The sanreG for differentvaluesof h, (seeproblem 10.I 7).

Deteiledrrorkingequations *,eredevelopedfor perfectgases,and the introduction

-
of a referencepoinr enabledthe constcuctionol a Fanno table which simplifies
problemsolution.The * condicionfor Fanno flow has no relation to the one used
previousl,v in isenrropicflow (exceptin generaldefiniiion).All Fannoflows Droceed
towarda limiringpoint of lv{achl. Frictionchoking of a flow passageis poisible in
fanno flow just as areachoUng occurs in Iarying-area isentropic flow. An ft_s (or
T-s) diagramis of grearhelp in the analysisof a complicated fl-orvsystem. Cer rnro
rle habir of drawing rhesediagrams.

PROBLEMS

In !h9problemstharfollowyou may assumethatall systemsarecompletelyadiabatic.AIso,all

ducE a.9 of constantareaunlessother*ise indicated. you may neglect friction in the va.?ing-
area sections.You may also assumethat the f.ictibn factor shor,,.nin chans applies
to noncircul3icrosssectionswhen the equivalentdianeter conceptis used and the flo*
is
turbl]lenr.

f 9.yconditions at theentranceto a duct are ltl1 = 3.g un6 pt = 8 x l0r N/m:. Af!e. a
'.J cenainlengrhthe ffow has.eachedM: = 1.5.Determinep: and A.r/ D if y :1.4.
f
of nitrogen is dischargedfrom a duc wirh t1: = 0.85-,I: = 500"R, and p: =
{9.?7lA-flo"
\J ?3 psia. The rempe.arureat the inlet is S6O"R_Com-pm€th-ipressure ar rhe inlet and
the-rnassvelociry (G)

93. Air enrersa circular duct with a Mach number of 3.0_The friction factor is 0.01.
(a) How long a duct (measuredin diameters) is required to reduce the Mach
numbe,
to 2.0?
 ) ; :,>'aL> 7v\ l-"-e-
L--

- .',
-. : 1,.,_ a, ,'(','"t i
/ : 1

' )
I rr - \- i - \ - t

pressureandden i(t' \,
lb) what is the percentlgechansein temperature, C l,'r, i \ I I f,
(c) Dete.minethe enl.opyinc€aseof lhe air
(d) Assume the same lengthof duct as computedin pan (a). but the rrrti:l \llch
numberis 0.5. Computethe percentage pre!!ui: dentit)'
changein remperatufe.
andthe enlropyincrease forthis caseComparethechangesin the rxmelengthduct
llow'
for subsonicand supersonic
!
9.4, Oxygeoeniersa 6-in.-diameter duct wilh n. = 600"R' Pr = 50 psir. rnJ li = 600 , ,/
ftlsec. The tiiction facto. is / = 0.02.
(a) What is the maximum lengthof duct pen-oilledthxt \!ill not chan!:e3n! ol the
conditionsat the inlet?
(b) Deiermine 7r, p2. and V2 for the merim um duc( length found in piril I I I
-^.
,/ 9.s.)l;r Ro*s in an 8-cm-insidediameterpipethat is 4 m lo0g.The ai. enteis*ith a }Isch
t-,-/ number of 0.45 and a temperatureof 300 K
(a) What friction factot lvould causesonic velocity a! lhe exit?
(b) If the pipe is made of cast iron, estimatethe inlel pressu.e
(-_ 9.6. At one sectionin a constant-areaduc! lhe stagnationpressu.eis 66 8 pjia l]I1dthe }lach
number is 0.80. At anothersectionthe pressureis 60 psia and the lemper:tureis l]0"F'
(a) Compute the temperatureat the first seclion and the Mach numbcr 3( lhe second
section if the ffuid is air.
{b) which way is the air flowing?
(c) What is the friction length (/ A.r/D) of the duct?
= 3.0 and lea\es at Ml =

{a) Find the staticandstagnation conditionsat theenttance.

tb) whar is thefrictionficto( of fte ducl? t

9.8. A ductof 2 fr x I ft crosssectionis madeof rivetedsteelandis 500ft long Air enters

with a velocityof 174ftlsec,p| = 50 psia,andIr = 100'F.
(a) Determinethetemperature, Pressure,andvelociryat |heexit.
(b) Computethe pressuredropassumingthe flow to be incompressible. L;s' rheen-
teringconditionsandequation(3.29).Notethatequation(3.61)caflr3silybeinte-
gru(edto evaluirte

| - ' .ar Vl
J''"'-"o,zc"
Did you expec!dis:
(c) How do theresultsof pans(a)and(b) compare?
a ductwith a massflow rateof35 lbrn/secat Tr : 520'Randpr : 20psia'
9.9. Air entecs
The ductis squareandhasan areaof0 6t fi:. The outletl{ach Nmber is uniry'
(a) Compurethe temPe.ature alldpressu.eat theoul]et.
(b) Flnd thelengthof theductif it is madeof steel.
a! lhe '
9.10. Coosiderrheflow of a pedectgasalonga Fannoline.Showth.t thepressure
stateis Sivenby therelatioo
reference
a

:nr' '':
r - : ' 'A|
L v - ? , i )-, l ; j

9 , 1 1 ,A l 0 f r d u c r l l i n . i n d i a m e r
tont"illt o\l:i'n dolring ai lhe rate
Nleasurenrcnrs ar rhe inlet erte of s0 lbm/sec.
nir:t pl = J0 Pril an'l rl = 800'R
*u", i,'o, ="tr'or*.rr'Ilr The pressureal the
(a) Calcularr,l/l, tVy 12. Ta,
andpa.
(b) Determlne rhe f.iction
frct or ano estrn:reth: ab\oluteroughness
reflal. of the duct m4_

49.12. /! rheoutle(of a 2j_cm-diamererducL air ij t_r!iling 3t sonicvelocitv$.irh

a.ufeof l6.C anda p.essurcof lba...flet..ri:.en--sm-o-o,n*ir,ii,","^r.rn*"a rempef_
\ -_,/,/
irre!lvo pojsibleconditionS
Ihat
(a)Find
rhe
sraric
and,,"*"",,"ffi.'.i.1,i'J,
(b) Assuming rhesunounding
;::il:J;l!1"llio"n"".ono,uon.
air ro b" "r.t .,,",pr.srur",tr_.u.i
necessar).togetambienta tntolh' duc{for eaih i*."oorr., ,ll
losses case?(Youmay assume no
in theworkproiarr-r"
tt.
lilf iffi..:,:111",:.1],1;]o,i"*.",:r!tri.ijenlropicariy
intoa r2-jn.-diamererduct.
Afrer^l0O fr rheducrrransirions
jnrorn g x 6 in !rhefethei\ lach nurnbea
r)0.50.\eglecr3llfricrionsl
It U.)U. -\eqlecr.lJ
fri..i^""' efiicrs
-F,-^, . -.--
ercept
r" ,:Jffi,*idi;
(a) DetcnriiiretheMach number - ,r:0.0+.
ar theduc! .n";;'
(b) lvhat are the temperatu.e
and p.essurein de sqrjaresec|ion?
k) How much 8 x g in. squareduct could be added
before the tjow chokest
that / = 0.04 in this ducr also.) . 1,l,ssume

Ix,;n;:i,r;
divergino
s!.e,s,xg ruzre
n6721q ;"1: ll,)1".:.1{1.=^ryKeoreN
havingan aJea
navlng arearatio
africionress
convergrng_
ratio of 1.0. The nozzle discharges
lnto a constanl-area srrpenoni..uuy
ducr that has a fdcttDnlenerh
len_sth
/.\r/n
A.(/O =_ 0.35S.
lemperatuaeand pressureat the exit / Derermine til
of the ducl
are'{, =
: 5.p,, = 67Ppsia,
' o ' cand r r r ==/ u7006R.
r r u4r u ' K - l hrhrs
i s?lilf:*t::"-::"X:focj
followedbyarengthofFannoffowa,rd is
c:nreryrngnozzleasshownin Figu.ep9.15.
,, such
rhar
rhe
s)5rem
The are;rchrno" i. ",, .r
i' .;;r.Jli""r,;ilil:"",iljiJjtl'#;']
I-1.;T;:.n*t"
1.1.7
psia.

l.r.7pria

6 6""-,
tlr - 2.5

Irr = 700'R

* Figurep9.15
l''.'

.-
(a) Dra\\ a f-J diagrlm fo. thesystem
(b) Fiod .!1r xnd,l1r.
(c) \\'hr! ij .l f.I i D ib. the duc(?

Ttii) A .ont"rging-ili\ergingnozzle(FigureP9 l6) hasan arearatio of 3 0 The stagnation

L----l conclitionsoi lhe inlei air tu-e!50 plia and 550"R A conslani-aieaducl wilh a lcnglh
of l2 di3iretefsis allachedto lhe nozzleoutlct.The triclion factor in the duct is 0 02-5'
l9.l conrPu(ether:Jel!er pre\'ur. lhlt !!oLr[lplr--cr shocL
, --- thro,.
rir in rh.nozzre
( & -_ !] " >
, , t ' , r r t h en ! ' z z l e \ t r ;
C_) (iii) al rheducle\!t. )2 .!
(b) \\'hr! raiei!cr pressu.ewould causesupersonicflo* throLlghout the duc! with no
*
sho.ks irhinthe syrtem (or aftefthe du.t exit)?
(c) i\laker s\etchsimilarto Figure6.3showing thepressuredislribulionfof thevanous
operrtin-rpoinrjoj'pirns lo) an,i(b).
.7Yr
"
pg. l

\O\' p, = r:oe,i"
/-. 7,=sffE
- I
Qc/
/ ;
1 urp
( A (. FigureP9.16
I l -

(j.n)io, u nozzle-ductsystemsimilarlo thatof Problem9 16, the nozzleis designedto

^ l- ,---1 Dtoduce a lllachnumberolzJwithi' =l.4 Theinletcondirions arepr| = t0barand
is d diahretecin length,but the ductfriction factoris unkno'''n'
'e ( ?".r= 370K Thedr-rct
it. ,"".i';;;;.;;" is fixed at 3 bcurqda-normal shock has formed at ttrelill eiii
$
(a) Sketcha I-s diagramfor thesystem.
(b) Determinethefliction factorof theduct.
-(c) What is the toral changein entropy fo. ihe system? (
I largechamixrcontainsair at 65 barpressureand400 K. The air passesthrougha )
duct.The friction lengft of the
con"eiging'onlynozzleandtheriiritoa constaiit-area

t
I
ducr is / .(/D = 1.067andthelvlachnumberat theduct€xit is 0,6'
(a) Dra* a I-s diagram iot the system.
(b) Detemine conditionsat theduc!enfance.
(c) What is tie pressuiein the receiver?(,ryintrHow is lhis related to the duct exrt
-: PressuEl)
-rf@tt, ,tt" t.ns.h of the duc( is doubledand the chamberand receiver co'tditions remain
'9
un.h-n"--d. *hat are tire new Macb numbeir ai the enttance ana exit of the-duct?
, _:- .
( \rq, ductis fedby a convergidg-only nozzleasshownin FigureP9'19'The

P
9,19. "onttant-arca
"'--*---lnozzle
receives oxygenfrom a laryejlS!99r-4J PL = 100psiaandG = 1000"R'The
duct has a frictionlength of 53 anit it is chokedar theeK;t'The receiverpressurels
-. exactlythesameasthePressure at theductexit.

-; c--
1t,.'1

. t';
O - t

: '' i,
\, ,";f '^"(:
-( at <'
tL' I
,/:' '
lL

. ,i,i...t
Y '

q
a7
\- I

P t = 1 0 0p r i t r
I
\\-
f. = loo0"R t ^ .
I

i
M{z y
( r )

FigureP9.19 M't. ') L--

(a) $ hatis th.-pressu.ea! the end of lhe ductl

(b) Four-fifihtof the ducr is removed.(The end of rhe duct is norvat 3.) The chamber
p.essure,receiverpaessure. and iriction factorrenrin unchanged. Nolv * hat is the
pr:ssurear the exit of the ducr?
(c) Sketchboth of the casesabole on the sitme I-J diagram.

9.20. (a) Plor a Fannoline to scalein the ?-s planefor air enreringa duct with a Nlach
numberof 0-20,a staticpressureof 100 psir, and o staticrempe.atureof 5-+0.R.
Indicatethe Nlach number at vaaiouspoints along lhe cua1e.
(b) On rhe same diagram, plo( another Fanno lioe for a flow with the same total
entltalpy,the sameentering entropy, but double rhe massvelocity.

9.21. \rhich, if any, ol the rariosrabulaledin rhe Fanno rabte(I/I., p/p., pt/p:..rc.)
could also be listed in the lsentropic table lvith the same numedcal values?
9.22. A contrdctoris to coonectan air supply fao.na comp.essorto testapparatus2l ft away.
The exir diam€te. of the compresso. is 2 in. and the entranceto the test equipment
has a l-in--diameter pipe. The contracto. has the choice of putting a reducer a! the L

compressorfollowed by l-in. tubing orusing 2-in. tubing and putting the reducerat rhe
eotl-inceto the test equipment.Since smaller tubing is cheaperand lessobtrusive,the
conrractoris leaningtoward the 6rst possibility, butjusr tobe sure,he sendsthe problem
rc rheeogineeringpersonnel.The air coming out of Ihe compressoris at 520"R and rhe
prcssureis 40 psia.The flow rate is 0.7 lbnL/sec.Considerthat each sizeoftubing hasan
effective/ = 0.02- \rtat would be the condilions a! the entranceto the testequipment
for eachtubing size? (You may assumeisentropic ffo*. everywherebut in the 2l fr of
tubing.)
9.2,3.(Optlonat)(a) Ioroducethe' referenceconditioninto equation{9.27)anddevelopan
expfeisionfo. (.t'- J),/R.
(b) Wrile a computerprogram for the expressiondevelop€din part (a) and compurea
tabieof (J' - s)/R versusNlach number. Also include other eotriesof the Fanno
tat'le.

CHECKTEST

You shouldbe able ro complete-4 s tesr without referenceto mate.ial in the chapte.
 'l
l'

9.1. Sketcha Fannotine in thei-L planc.lncludeenoughadditiontlinfocm:tion asnecessary

to locatethe sonicpoini and then identiry'the of
regions anJ
subsonic flo\!'
iuPersonic

9.2. Fitl in theblanksinTableCTg 2 toindicatewhethe.the quantilicsi:'r':;se decreaseo(

re |{rin consta itr lb,ecaseof Fanno flow

TableCT9.2 Analysis oi Fanno Florv

P.operI) SubsonicRegime Supeii..rl.Reginie

\tlocity

Pressure
Thrustlunction
(p+pv2/g,.)

9.J, in the systemshorvnin FigureCT9 I' the frictionlen-qth of lhedui{r' r \r,/D-= 1110
and lhe luach number at the exit is o S Aj = l 5 inl rnd A1 = I0 in: \\t3t is the air
pr.ssurein the tank if the receive.is al l5 psia?

= 15 psia

/u,('z ,,8
l"\ ..
kt'. ("'

9.4, Over what rangeof receiverpressureswill normalshocksoccu' someplace within the

CT9.4?The atearalio of theoozzle
syst.m sho*'nin Figr.rre is "{3,r'{; = 1'l0l.tnd6e
ductfAr,/D=0.30.

L-erge
r
cha.rnb€

"1\ Pr = 100Psia
Tr = 600'R
Friction

6
Figure c"tg.1
( f
i,'

9.5. Thereis no frictionin thesysterisho!!nin Fijuai CT9.5exceptin theconstantareaducts

from I to l and tiom 6 to 7. Skerchthe f-i Jrrsarmfor theentiresvstem.

lrrg:

I i i -A I

oo
i
,\
t l ) t l ) ( 6 ) { 7 )

Figure CT9.5

9.6. Star1ing \!ith thebasicpnnciplesofcontiiru:tr.energt.andso on, de.ivean expre|jsionfbt

the pfopertyretio p|/p1in iermj oftrlach:lrinbe.sand rhe specificheat ratio for Faitno
fforv with a pedectges.

9.7. \!brk Problem9.1S.