Topic/S:: EM 510 Mine Research and Studies

EM 510
MINE RESEARCH AND STUDIES

(Lecture – 1)
TOPIC/S:
I) Overview on Research:
a) Meaning of Research
b) Scopes of Research
c) Objectives of Research
d) Motivation in Research
e) Qualities of a Good Researcher
f) Characteristics of the Researcher
g) Characteristics of Research
h) Classification of Research
i) Types of Research
j) Research Approaches
k) Significance of Research
l) Research Methods vs. Methodology
m) Research and Scientific Method
n) Importance on Knowing How Research is Done
o) Criteria of Good Research
p) Tips on Writing a Good Research Title
A) MEANING OF RESEARCH
When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are
implying that:
1. The process is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies

(approaches).
 Philosophies mean approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic

discipline in which you have been trained;
2. The process uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their
validity and reliability.
 Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a
question.
 Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides

repeatability and accuracy;
3. The process is designed to be unbiased and objective.
 Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased
manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing
your own vested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight
something).
Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called “research”.
However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to
discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.
The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the
process must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements
by examining some definitions of research.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

Research - Lecture – 1
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 re - is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
 search - is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems
and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Research Means in search of knowledge. Or, Research is an art of scientific investigation.
Research is an academic activity and as such term should be used in a technical sense. Research
comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis and suggesting solutions.
Or we can say collecting, organizing and evaluating the data; making deductions and reaching
conclusion, and carefully checking the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
 Research is Search for Knowledge;
 It is an Art of Scientific Investigation;
 According to Redman and Mory, Research is a “Systematized effort to gain a new

knowledge”;
 Research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its

further advancement; and,
 In sum, Research is the search for knowledge, using objective and systematic methods
to find solution to a problem.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art”. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock
of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either
in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.
Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day-to-day
generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of
formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter.
B) SCOPES OF RESEARCH
 Does the research cover a particular Objective of research or researcher?
 Does the research cover a particular time period?

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 Does the study cover a specific geographical area?
 If the study involves people. What age group, gender and place of origin are to be included?
 Are all dates of publication to be included?
 Is the research going to cover publications from other countries?
 Will the research include other languages and scripts? (Language of research)
 Are all perspectives to be considered? For example: Philosophical, political, psychological,

etc.
C) OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we mention
some general objectives of research below:
a) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
b) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
c) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
d) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).
D) MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiate research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may
as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
E) QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
Research Oriented
Efficient
Scientific
Effective
Active
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Resourceful
Creative
Honest
Economical
Religious
F) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER
1) Intellectual Curiosity – researcher undertakes deep thinking and inquiry of the things,
problems, and situations around him.
2) Prudence – researcher is careful to conduct his study at the right time and at the right place
wisely, efficiently, and economically.
3) Healthy Criticism – the researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.
4) Intellectual Honesty – researcher is honest to collect or gather the data or facts in order
to arrive at honest results.
5) Intellectual creativity – a resourceful investigator always creates new researches. He

enjoys inventing unique, novel and original researches, and considers research as his
hobby. (creative researcher is innovative)
G) CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.
But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible,
be:
a) Controlled - In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of
control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up
your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship;
This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most
of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and
Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings
living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism,
as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact;
b) Rigorous - You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor
varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences;
c) Systematic - This implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow
a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others;
d) Valid and verifiable - This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others;
e) Empirical - This means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations; and,
f) Critical - Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be reliable and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
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H) CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
Research can be classified from four (4) perspectives/dimensions:
1) The purpose of doing research;

2) The intended uses of research;
3) How it treats time, i.e. the time dimension in research; and
4) The research (data collection) techniques used in it.
1) Purpose of Doing Research. If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we

might get a range of responses: "My boss told me to do"; "It was a class assignment"; "I was
curious." There are almost as many reasons to do research as there are researches. Yet the
purposes of research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher is
trying to accomplish - explore a new topic, describe a social phenomenon, or explain why
something occurs. Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to describe)
but one purpose usually dominates.
a) Exploratory/Formulative Research. You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order

to learn about it. If the issue was new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at
the beginning. This is called exploratory research. The researcher's goal is to formulate
more precise questions that future research can answer. Exploratory research may be the
first stage in a sequence of studies. A researcher may need to know enough to design and
execute a second, more systematic and extensive study.
 Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem. When a researcher has
a limited amount of experience with or knowledge about a research issue, exploratory
research is useful preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more
conclusive future study will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of
the management problem. The findings discovered through exploratory research would
the researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the findings in
subsequent conclusive studies.
 Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the "what" question:
"what is this social activity really about?" It is difficult to conduct because there are few
guidelines to follow.
 Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to

investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study /
pilot study).
 A type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.
 Exploratory research helps determine the best design, data collection method, and
selection of subjects.
 The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.
 Goals of Exploratory Research:

1) Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2) Develop well-grounded picture of the situation;
3) Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
4) Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5) Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
6) Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
 For exploratory research, the researcher may use different sources for getting
information like:
1) Experience surveys. As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to

contact individuals who are knowledgeable about a particular research problem.
This constitutes an informal experience survey.
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2) Secondary data analysis. Another economical and quick source of background

information is secondary data analysis. It is preliminary review of data collected
for another purpose to clarify issues in the early stages of a research effort.
3) Case studies. The purpose of case study is to obtain information from one or a
few situations that are similar to the researcher's problem situation. A researcher
interested in doing a nationwide survey among union workers, may first look at
a few local unions to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should be
investigated.
4) Pilot studies. A pilot study implies that some aspect of the research is done on
a small scale. For this purpose, focus group discussions could be carried out.
b) Descriptive Research. Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a

situation, social setting, or relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the
term implies, is to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive
research seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions.
Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and Educational Census are examples of such
research.
 Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of

the phenomena of interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to give its
profile - the characteristics of the students. When we start to look at the relationship of
the variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.
 Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or program, or provides information about, say, living condition of
a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
 It is a type of research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a

particular individual, situation, or group.
 Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.
 Descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which has
an impact on the lives of the people it deals with.
 It is used to describe characteristics of a population (a set of similar items or events

which is of interest for some question or experiment) or phenomenon being studied. It
does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it
addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of Philippine population or
situation being studied?)
 Goals of Descriptive Research:
1) Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate

profile of a group;
2) Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3) Present background information;
4) Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5) Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6) Focus on “who”, “what”, “when”, “where”, and “how” but not why?
 A great deal of social research is descriptive. Descriptive researchers use most data
-gathering techniques - surveys, field research, and content analysis.
c) Explanatory Research. When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a
description of it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to
know "why", to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and
descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For example, a descriptive research
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may discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas the explanatory
researcher is more interested in learning why parents abuse their children.
 Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
 Goals of Explanatory Research:
1) Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory's
explanation.
2) Determine which of several explanations is best.
3) Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions or principle.
4) Advance knowledge about underlying process.
5) Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or
principle.
6) Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics.
7) Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
8) Test a theory's predictions or principles.
2) The Uses of Research. Some researchers focus on using research to advance general
knowledge, whereas others use it to solve specific problems. Those who seek an understanding
of the fundamental nature of social reality are engaged in basic research (also called academic
research or pure research or fundamental research). Applied researchers, by contrast, primarily
want to apply and tailor knowledge to address a specific practical issue. They want to answer
a policy question or solve a pressing social and economic problem.
a) Basic Research. Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human
world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates,
what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society
changes. Basic research is the source of newest scientific ideas and ways of thinking about
the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research
is the most common.
 Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and development
in different fields. Today's computers could not exist without the pure research in
mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical
application at that time.
 Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or counselors of youthful offenders may

see little relevance to basic research on the question, "Why does deviant behavior
occur?" Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns.
Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential
to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem.
 A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by basic research. Applied
research, too, can build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential for
nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the center of the scientific
community conduct most of the basic research.
b) Applied Research. Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help
practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on a
specific problem for a limited setting. Applied research is frequently a descriptive research,
and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
 Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a specific real-life
problem. Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer questions
about specific problems or to make decisions about a particular course of action or
policy. For example, an organization contemplating a paperless office and a networking
system for the company's personal computers may conduct research to learn the
amount of time its employees spend at personal computers in an average week.
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 Types of Applied Research. Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some
of the major ones are:
1) Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of

power and abolishes the line between research and social action. Those who
are being studied participate in the research process; research incorporates
ordinary or popular knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness;
and research is tied directly to political action.
The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding

public awareness. They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the
goal is to improve the conditions of research participants, formal reports, articles,
or books become secondary. Action researchers assume that knowledge
develops from experience, particularly the experience of social-political action.
They also assume that ordinary people can become aware of conditions and
learn to take actions that can bring about improvement.
2) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely

consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment is used for planning
and making choices among alternative policies - e.g. to make an impact
assessment of Dam on the environment; to determine changes in housing if a
major new highway is built.
3) Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, "Did it work?" The process of

establishing value judgment based on evidence about the achievement of the
goals of a program. Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a
program, policy, or way of doing something. "Did the program work?" "Did it
achieve its objectives?" Evaluation researchers use several research techniques
(survey, field research).
Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation research

for their own information or at the request of outside decision makers, who
sometime place limits on researchers by setting boundaries on what can be
studied and determining the outcome of interest. Two types of evaluation
research are formative and summative. Formative evaluation is built-in
monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program
management. Summative evaluation looks at final program outcomes. Both are
usually necessary.
c) Basic and Applied Research Compared. The procedures and techniques utilized by basic
and applied researchers do not differ substantially. Both employ the scientific method to
answer the questions at hand.
 The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of
applied research findings are practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and
caseworkers, or decision makers such as managers, committees, and officials. Often,
someone other than the researcher who conducted the study uses the results of applied
research. This means that applied researchers have an obligation to translate findings
from scientific technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.
The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in publications.
Results may be available only to a small number of decision makers or practitioners,
who decide whether or how to put the research results into practice and who may or
may not use the results.
 Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research

methodology. Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to conduct near-
perfect research. Applied researchers make more trade-offs. They may compromise
scientific rigor to get quick, usable results. Compromise is no excuse for sloppy
research, however. Applied researchers squeeze research into the constraints of an
applied setting and balance rigor against practical needs. Such balancing requires an
in-depth knowledge of research and an awareness of the consequences of
compromising standards.
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3) The Time Dimension in Research. Another dimension of research is the treatment of time.
Some studies give us a snapshot of a single, fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail.
Other studies provide a moving picture that lets us follow events, people, or sale of products
over a period of time. In this way from the angle of time research could be divided into two
broad types:
a) Cross-Sectional Research. In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point

in time. Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. Its
disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change processes. Cross-sectional research can
be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive
approach to research.
b) Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of

people or other units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than
cross-sectional research but it is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek
answers to questions about change. There are three types of longitudinal research: time
series, panel, and cohort.
1) Time series research is longitudinal study in which the same type of information is
collected on a group of people or other units across multiple time periods.
Researcher can observe stability or change in the features of the units or can track
conditions overtime. One could track the characteristics of students registering in
the course on Research Methods over a period of four years i.e. the characteristics
(Total, age characteristics, gender distribution, subject distribution, and geographic
distribution). Such an analysis could tell us the trends in the characteristic over the
four years.
2) The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In panel study, the
researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or organization across time
periods. It is a difficult to carry out such study. Tracking people over time is often
difficult because some people die or cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of
a well-designed panel study are very valuable.
3) A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact
same people, a category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified
time period is studied. The focus is on the cohort, or category, not on specific
individuals. Commonly used cohorts include all people born in the same year (called
birth cohorts), all people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or two-year
time frame, and all people who graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies,
researchers do not have to locate the exact same people for cohort studies. The
only need to identify those who experienced a common life event.
4) Research (data collection) Techniques Used. Every researcher collects data using one or
more techniques. The techniques may be grouped into two categories: quantitative, collecting
data in the form of numbers, and qualitative, collecting data in the form of words or pictures.
a) Quantitative. The main quantitative techniques are:
1) Experiments
2) Surveys
3) Content Analysis
4) Using Existing Statistics
b) Qualitative. The major qualitative techniques of research are:
1) Field Research
2) Case Study
3) Focus Group Discussion
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I) TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Types of Research:
a) Descriptive e) Quantitative
b) Analytical f) Qualitative
c) Applied g) Conceptual
d) Fundamental h) Empirical
 Comparison of Each Type of Research:
1) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 In Descriptive Research, the researcher has to only report what is happening or what has
happened. It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
A descriptive approach to research is called as a foundation for research. Its logic is based
on the statistics of the research analysis. So, the descriptive research can’t take into
account the validity of the research results, because it does not explain the causes of the
result.
The descriptive research method is basically divided into three (3) types:
Observation Method - The Observation Method concentrates on observing the

subject in both Natural and Laboratory methods to draw the conclusions on the
research. Its highly useful in the Natural observation because the original results
of the research can be obtained. In laboratory method the result would be
according to the quantities of the data provided to the observation.
Case Study Method - Case study method involves a deep research on the
problems discussed.
Survey Method - Survey method is based on the questionnaire prepared for the
participants. After the participants answered the questionnaire, the research
moves towards its final stage.
 In Analytical Research, the researcher has to use the already available facts or
information, and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.
Analytical approach concentrates on the process of the final result rather giving importance
to the result. Analytical approach stands applicable in all stages of research, right from the
articulation of thesis to the formulation of arguments on the issues mentioned in the
research.
Evaluation and comparison are the central features of analytical writing.
There are different types of Analytical research methods available. They are:
Regression Analysis approach - In Regression Analysis the outcome, or the

result produced from the research, is affected by the one or more individual
elements of the experiment. Therefore, the Regression analysis method is
further divided into four (4) major subdivisions: –
1) Logistic
2) Linear hierarchal
3) Duration
4) Ordinary least squares (OLS) method.
Grouping Analysis approach - Grouping methods of analytical approach are

based on classification and grouping of the variables in an experiment based on
their discriminate values and characteristics.
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Multiple Equation Methods - Multiple method is just an extension of
Regression method discussed above. This method explains about the path of
individual elements in an experiment. There are two main types of multiple
equation models – 1) Path analysis 2) SEM-structural equation models.
The distinction between descriptive and analytical research is based on the question it asks.
Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is, while analytical
research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be. The descriptive research
uses description, classification, measurement, and comparison to describe what phenomena
are. The analytical research usually concerns itself with cause-effect relationships.
2) Applied vs. Fundamental:
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problems or answer a specific question.
Applied research is used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group.

This type of research is used in a wide number of fields, including medicine, education,
agriculture and technology.
Examples of applied research include: a) Studying the behavior of children to determine the
effectiveness of various interventions, looking into the relationship between genetics and
cancer. b) Testing the waters of a river to determine what types of contaminants are making
their way into a municipal water supply. c) Research aimed at certain conclusions facing a
concrete social or business problem. d) Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution, marketing research, evaluation research.
 Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed fundamental research.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior
carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples
of fundamental research.
Fundamental research, which is also known as Pure or Basic Research, is conducted

without a specific goal in mind.
3) Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Conceptual research focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the
phenomenon being studied. What causes disease? How can we describe the motions of the
planets? What are the building blocks of matter? The conceptual researcher sits at his desk
with pen in hand and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. He does no
experiments but may make use of observations by others, since this is the mass of data that
he is trying to make sense of. Until fairly recently, conceptual research was considered the
most honorable form of research—it required using the brain, not the hands.
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get facts at firsthand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.
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4) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Table – 1. Key Features Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research.
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Aim - The aim is to count things in an - The aim is a complete, detailed
attempt to explain what is description of what is observed.
observed.
Purpose - Generalize, prediction, causal - Contextualization, interpretation,
explanations understanding perspectives
Tools - Researcher uses tools, such as - Researcher is the data

surveys, to collect numerical gathering instrument.
data.
Data Collection - Structured - Unstructured

Output - Data is in the form of numbers - Data is in the form of words,
and statistics. pictures or objects.
Sample - Usually a large number of cases - Usually a small number of non-

representing the population of representative cases.
interest. Randomly selected Respondents selected on their
respondents experience.
Objective/ - Objective – seeks precise - Subjective - individuals’
Subjective measurement & analysis interpretation of events is
important
Researcher role - Researcher tends to remain - Researcher tends to become

objectively separated from the subjectively immersed in the
subject matter. subject matter.
Analysis - Statistical - Interpretive
 Quantitative research is based on the quantitative measurements of some characteristics.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantities.
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data
or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger
sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns in research.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is especially
important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behavior.
Qualitative research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding

of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or
helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative
Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the
problem.
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Table – 2. Further Comparison on the Key Characteristics of
Qualitative and Quantitative Research.
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
1) Seeks to explore, explain and understand 1) Seeks to confirm a hypothesis about a
phenomena – What? Why? phenomena – How many?
2) Data provided as a narrative, pictures or 2) Data is in the form of numbers and
objects. statistical results.
3) Methods less structures – Data gathered 3) Highly structured methods – Data gathered
through interviews, observations, content through the use of tools, equipment,
analysis, etc. questionnaires, etc.
4) Asks open-ended questions in an effort to 4) Asks closed-ended questions that give
explore quantifiable answers.
5) Research design has flexibility – can 5) Research design is highly structures and
emerge and evolve as study develops. laid out in advance of the study.
6) Results may be presented subjectively – 6) Results are documented using objective
may reveal biases, values or experiences language.
that impact how the results are interpreted.
J) RESEARCH APPROACHES
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two (2) basic
approaches to research, namely:
 Quantitative approach; and,
 Qualitative approach.
1) Quantitative Approach. ─ This type of approach involves the generation of data in quantitative
form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This
approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach is to form a data base to suggest
or conclude characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then reasoned/concluded that the population has the same
characteristics. Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect
on other variables. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of
the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term
‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation
of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of
initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behavior of the process over time”. Simulation approach can also be useful in building models
for understanding future conditions.
 It describes, infers, and resolves problems using numbers. Emphasis is placed on the
collection of numerical data, the summary of those data and the drawing of inferences from
the data.
 Quantitative methods are used to examine the relationship between variables with the
primary goal being to analyze and represent that relationship mathematically through
statistical analysis. This is the type of research approach most commonly used in scientific
research problems.
 Advantages:
1) Observations are used throughout studies;
2) Formulating hypotheses allows for speculation about outcomes; applicable
instrument;
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3) Safeguards used to minimize or eliminate bias;
4) Predicts correlation between objects;
5) Systematic data collection and analysis;
6) Generalizable to other institutions for further research;
7) Recognized criteria for assessment and validity; and,
8) More research conducted by this method.
 Disadvantages:
1) Should only be used if data can be measured by numbers, results quantified;
2) Instrument or method chosen is subjective and research is dependent upon tool
chosen;
3) Lack of independent thought by researcher when dependent on instrument or
mathematics used to extract or evaluate data;
4) Individuals’ decisions not evaluated based on their culture or social interactions;
5) Decisions made without regard to individual human thought or choice to predict
behavior; and,
6) All individuals are measured same way.
 Experiences
 Backgrounds
 Intelligence
 Ability to change decisions at any given point in time
 Independent though
 Four (4) main types of quantitative research:
a) Descriptive Design. It seeks to describe the current status of a variable or

phenomenon. The researcher does not begin with a hypothesis, but typically develops
one after the data is collected. Data collection is mostly observational in nature.
b) Correlational Design. It explores the relationship between variables using statistical

analyses. However, it does not look for cause and effect and therefore, is also mostly
observational in terms of data collection.
c) Quasi-Experimental Design (often referred to as Causal-Comparative). It seeks to

establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. The researcher
does not assign groups and does not manipulate the independent variable. Control
groups are identified and exposed to the variable. Results are compared with results
from groups not exposed to the variable.
d) Experimental Designs, often called true experimentation. It uses the scientific

method to establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables in a research
study. Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except the one being
manipulated (the independent variable). The effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable are collected and analyzed for a relationship.
Table – 3. Quantitative Research – Approaches to Experimental Designs.
Key Focus and

Types of Intervention Common Study
Control of Example
Design Applied Designs
Variables
Descriptive Observational; No A description of Comparative
Describe “What is”; teenagers’ attitudes descriptive design;
Variables not towards smoking. Cross-sectional
controlled. designs; Longitudinal
designs.
Correlational Explores and No A study of the Descriptive correlation
observes relationship between designs; Predictive
relationships among IQ and clinical designs; and Model-
variables; Variables depression. testing designs.
not controlled.
Quasi- Tests for causality Yes A study of the effect of Pre- and Post-test
Experimental with suboptimal an after school designs; Post-test only
variable control; physical activity
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Independent variable program on childhood designs; Interrupted-
not manipulated. obesity rates. times series designs.
Experimental Tests causality with Yes A study of the effects Classic experimental
optimal variable of a new diet treatment designs; Randomized
control; Independent plan on insulin levels designs; Crossover
variable is in diabetics. designs; Nested
manipulated. designs.
2) Qualitative Approach. ─ Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective

assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either
in non-quantitative form or in the form which is not subjected to rigorous quantitative and
analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
 It is based on words, feelings, emotions, sounds and other non-numerical and

unquantifiable elements. It has been noted that “information is considered qualitative in
nature if it cannot be analyzed by means of mathematical techniques. This characteristic
may also mean that an incident does not take place often enough to allow reliable data to
be collected”.
 Advantages:
1) Helps explain relationships in detail; individualistic
2) Can help validate quantitative findings by further investigation
3) Can help close gap between research and practice
 Needs of individuals in institutions
 Study problems more relevant to policy makers
4) Less dependent on instrument

5) Can bring change in institutions and society
 In-depth
 Personalized
 Examines specific issues
 Disadvantages:
1) Strong dependency on sample population
 Access
 Honest and valid information
2) Time and resources needed for collection and analysis is intensive

3) Lack of objectivity and bias by researcher
 Inferences made
 Incorrect conclusions
4) Convenience sampling
5) Lack of training or knowledge about methodology
6) Lack of ability to produce and comprehend research
7) Not recognized
 Five (5) Groups/Categories of Qualitative Methods:
a) Ethnography. Ethnographic research is probably the most familiar and applicable type
of qualitative method to professionals. In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the
target participants’ environment to understand the goals, cultures, challenges,
motivations, and themes that emerge. Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology
where researchers immerse themselves within a culture, often for years! Rather than
relying on interviews or surveys, you experience the environment first hand, and
sometimes as a “participant observer”.
For example, one way of uncovering the unmet needs of customers is to “follow them
home” and observe them as they interact with the product. You do not come armed with
any hypotheses to necessarily test; rather, you are looking to find out how a product is
used.
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b) Narrative. The narrative approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from
just one or two individuals to form a cohesive story. You conduct in-depth interviews,
read documents, and look for themes; in other words, how does an individual story
illustrate the larger life influences that created it. Often interviews are conducted over
weeks, months, or even years, but the final narrative doesn’t need to be in chronological
order. Rather it can be presented as a story (or narrative) with themes, and can reconcile
conflicting stories and highlight tensions and challenges which can be opportunities for
innovation.
For example, a narrative approach can be an appropriate method for building a persona.
While a persona should be built using a mix of methods—including segmentation
analysis from surveys—in-depth interviews with individuals in an identified persona can
provide the details that help describe the culture, whether it’s a person living with
Multiple Sclerosis, a prospective student applying for college, or a working mom.
c) Phenomenological. When you want to describe an event, activity, or phenomenon, the

aptly named phenomenological study is an appropriate qualitative method. In a
phenomenological study, you use a combination of methods, such as conducting
interviews, reading documents, watching videos, or visiting places and events, to
understand the meaning participants place on whatever’s being examined. You rely on
the participants’ own perspectives to provide insight into their motivations.
Like other qualitative methods, you don’t start with a well-formed hypothesis. In a
phenomenological study, you often conduct a lot of interviews, usually between 5 and
25 for common themes, to build a sufficient dataset to look for emerging themes and to
use other participants to validate your findings.
For example, there’s been an explosion in the last 5 years in online courses and training.
But how do students engage with these courses? While you can examine time spent
and content accessed using log data and even assess student achievement vis-a-vis
in-person courses, a phenomenological study would aim to better understand the
students experience and how that may impact comprehension of the material.
d) Grounded Theory. Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence

of an activity or event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind
the events. You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory based
on the data. You go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to identify
themes and build the theory. Sample sizes are often also larger—between 20 to 60—
with these studies to better establish a theory. Grounded theory can help inform design
decisions by better understanding how a community of users currently use a product or
perform tasks.
For example, a grounded theory study could involve understanding how software
developers use portals to communicate and write code or how small retail merchants
approve or decline customers for credit.
e) Case Study. Made famous by the Harvard Business School, even mainly quantitative
researchers can relate to the value of the case study in explaining an organization,
entity, company, or event. A case study involves a deep understanding through multiple
types of data sources. Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an
event. The annual CHI conference has a peer-reviewed track dedicated to case studies.
For example, a case study of how a large multi-national company introduced UX

methods into an agile development environment would be informative to many
organizations.
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Table – 4. Summary on the Differences Between the Five (5) Qualitative Methods.
Method Focus Sample Size Data Collection

Observation &
Ethnography Context or culture —
interviews
Individual experience & Stories from individuals
Narrative 1 to 2
sequence & documents
People who have
Phenomenological experienced a 5 to 25 Interviews
phenomenon
Develop a theory from Interviews, then open
Grounded Theory 20 to 60
grounded in field data and axial coding
Organization, entity, Interviews, documents,
Case Study —
individual, or event reports, observations
K) SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and governance has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational
problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for
governance and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet those needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to
probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can
devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has to chalk out programs for dealing with all facets of the country’s
various operations and most of these are related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The
plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions, trade
union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of defense services are
matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of
nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting
information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is
happening in the economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical
information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems. These
days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on this
work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three (3)
distinct phases of operation:
1) Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
2) Diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them;
and
3) The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research,
are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose
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of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to
the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business
problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization
problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned
with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations
underlying the consumer (market) behavior. All these are of great help to people in business and
industry who are responsible for taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and
market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not
difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected
capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business
budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales
estimates which in turn depend on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient
production and investment programs can be set up around which are grouped as the purchasing
and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical arid
scientific decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing few things
just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the
sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in social sciences
is concerned with:
1) The development of a body of principles that helps in understanding the whole range of
human interactions, and
2) The practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
career or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work: and
e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the development of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of
providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of
formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a better
way.
L) RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY
It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers used in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods
which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed
as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, is to arrive at
a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to
be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can
be put into the following three (3) groups:
1) In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available is not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
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2) The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3) The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of
the results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical
tools of research.
At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods. Research
techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operations such
as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Research
methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research
technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection can
better be understood from the details given in Table – 5.
Table – 5. Difference Between Methods and Techniques of Data Collection.
TYPE METHODS TECHNIQUES

1) Library a) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and
Research records. Film listening and analysis.
b) Analysis of documents Statistical compilations and manipulations,
reference and abstract guides, contents analysis.
2) Field Research a) Non-participant direct Observational behavioral scales, use of score
observation cards, etc.
b) Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape
recorders, photographic techniques.
c) Mass observation Recording mass behavior, interview using
independent observers in public places.
d) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background
of respondents.
e) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use
of socio-metric scales.
f) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open
and closed questions.
g) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given
experience and its effects.
h) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed
simultaneously.
i) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and
for discerning opinion; may also be used as a
follow-up of questionnaire.
j) Case study and life history Cross-sectional collection of data for intensive
analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character.
3) Laboratory a) Small group study of Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of

Research random behavior, play and observers, etc.
role analysis.
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the method
that generates techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and
when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their
compass.
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Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that
are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also
the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how
to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,
are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate.
Let us take for example a subject or a topic, namely, “employment of figures of speech in English
literature”. In this topic if we are to conduct research, then the research methods that are involved
are study of various works of the different poets and the understanding of the employment of figures
of speech in their works.
On the other hand, research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the
techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the study about the tools of
research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques involved in the critical
edition of these manuscripts and the like.
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic then the research
methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of different experiments
performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like.
On the other hand, research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the techniques
regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research, advanced techniques
that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like. Any student or research candidate
is supposed to be good at both research methods and research methodology if he or she is to
succeed in his or her attempt at conducting research into a subject.
Table – 6. Difference Between Research Methods and Research Methodology.
RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1) Research methods are the methods by 1) Research methodology explains the
which you conduct research into a subject methods by which you may proceed with
or a topic. your research.
2) It involves the conduct of experiments, tests, 2) It involves the learning of the various
surveys and the like. techniques that can be used in the conduct
of research and in the conduct of tests,
experiments, surveys and critical studies.
3) It aims at finding solutions to research 3) It aims at the employment of the correct
problems. procedures to find out solutions.
4) Research methods are the end of any 4) Research methodology is the beginning.
scientific or non-scientific research.
M) RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.” On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research
methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is
usually given the name of scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific
method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically
trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man
who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their
sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.” Scientific method is the
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pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of
these three in varying proportions.” In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops
the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable
phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is
most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships, if any, among
variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for
faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty
interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the
experimental design and must state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations
may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for
their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the
demands of logic and objective procedure.” Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective,
logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to
ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the
researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds
in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
N) IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material
and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also training
in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics,
questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out and
interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done
stems from the following considerations:
a) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same
constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training
especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him
to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence,
those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques
and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.
b) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of
research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly
called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.
c) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a
new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging
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everyday experience. Accordingly, it enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to look at things in life objectively.
d) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can
use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which
they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research
results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.
O) CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:
a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
areas objective as possible.
d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a

good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified

by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
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P) TIPS ON WRITING A GOOD RESEARCH TITLE
A good research paper title:

 Condenses the paper’s content in a few words
 Captures the readers’ attention
 Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area
Journal websites and search engines use the words in research paper titles to categorize and
display articles to interested readers, while readers use the title as the first step to determining
whether or not to read an article. This is why it is important to know how to write a good title for a
research paper. Good research paper titles (typically 10–18 words long) use descriptive terms and
phrases that accurately highlight the core content of the paper (e.g., the species studied, the literary
work evaluated, or the technology discussed).
So here are three (3) basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title:
1) Keep it simple, brief and attractive: The primary function of a title is to provide a
precise summary of the paper’s content. So keep the title brief and clear. Use active
verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and avoid unnecessary details.
Moreover, a good title for a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long. A
lengthy title may seem unfocused and take the readers’ attention away from an
important point.
Avoid: Drug XYZ has an effect of muscular contraction for an hour in snails of
Achatinafulcia species
Better: Drug XYZ induces muscular contraction in Achatinafulcia snails
2) Use appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key
words used in the manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about
terms people would use to search for your study and include them in your title.
Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: study of a multicenter mixed group
Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a multicenter

randomized controlled trial
3) Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as AIDS, NATO, and so
on can be used in the title. However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations and
jargon that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out.
Avoid: MMP expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early
osteoarthritic synovial fluid
Better: Matrix metalloproteinase protein expression profiles cannot distinguish between

normal and early osteoarthritic synovial fluid
Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these simple tips. This would
help you in composing the best title for your research paper.
Here are some steps (with examples) you can follow to write an effective title:
1) Answer the questions: What is my paper about? What techniques/designs were used?
Who/what is studied? What were the results?
 My paper studies whether X therapy improves the cognitive function of patients suffering
from dementia.
 It was a randomized trial.
 I studied 40 cases from six cities in Japan.
 There was an improvement in the cognitive function of patients.
2) Use your answers to list key words.

 X therapy
 Randomized trial
Page 24 of 26
--------------------------------
 Dementia
 6 Japanese cities
 40 cases
 Improved cognitive function
3) Build a sentence with these key words.

 This study is a randomized trial that investigates whether X therapy improved cognitive
function in 40 dementia patients from 6 cities in Japan; it reports improved cognitive
function. (28 words)
4) Delete all unnecessary words (e.g., study of, investigates) and repetitive words; link the
remaining.
 This study is a randomized trial that investigates whether X therapy improved cognitive
function in 40 dementia patients from 6 cities in Japan; it reports improved cognitive
function. (28 words)
to:
 Randomized trial of X therapy for improving cognitive function in 40 dementia patients
from 6 cities in Japan. (18 words)
5) Delete non-essential information and reword.

 Randomized trial of X therapy for improving cognitive function in 40 dementia
patients from 6 cities in Japan reports improved cognitive function.
 Randomized trial of X therapy for improving cognitive function in 40 dementia

patients. (13 words)
OR (reworded with subtitle and a focus on the results)
X therapy improves cognitive function in 40 dementia patients: A randomized trial. (12

words)
The Title, Abstract, and Keywords: Why it is important to get them right
The title, abstract, and keywords play a pivotal role in the communication of research. Without
them, most papers may never be read or even found by interested readers. Here’s why:
 Most electronic search engines, databases, or journal websites will use the words found
in your title and abstract, and your list of keywords to decide whether and when to
display your paper to interested readers. Thus, these 3 elements enable the
dissemination of your research; without them, readers would not be able to find or cite
your paper.
 The title and abstract are often the only parts of a paper that are freely available online.
Hence, once readers find your paper, they will read through the title and abstract to
determine whether or not to purchase a full copy of your paper/continue reading.
 Finally, the abstract is the first section of your paper that journal editors and reviewers
read. While busy journal editors may use the abstract to decide whether to send a paper
for peer review or reject it outright, reviewers will form their first impression about your
paper on reading it.
How to write a research paper abstract?
The abstract should work like a marketing tool. It should help the reader decide “whether there is
something in the body of the paper worth reading” by providing a quick and accurate summary of
the entire paper, explaining why the research was conducted, what the aims were, how these were
met, and what the main findings were.
Page 25 of 26
--------------------------------
Types of abstracts
Generally, between 100 and 300 words in length, abstracts are of different types: descriptive,
informative, and structured.
1. Descriptive abstracts, usually used in the social sciences and humanities, do not give
specific information about methods and results.
2. Informative abstracts are commonly used in the sciences and present information on the
background, aim, methods, results, and conclusions.
3. Structured abstracts are essentially informative abstracts divided into a series of headings
(e.g., Objective, Method, Results, Conclusion) and are typically found in medical literature
and clinical trial reports.
Begin writing the abstract after you have finished writing your paper.
a) First answer the questions “What problem are you trying to solve?” and “What motivated
you to do so?” by picking out the major objectives/hypotheses and conclusions from your
Introduction and Conclusion sections.
b) Next, answer the question "How did you go about achieving your objective?" by selecting
key sentences and phrases from your Methods section.
c) Now, reveal your findings by listing the major results from your Results section.
d) Finally, answer the question "What are the implications of your findings?"
e) Arrange the sentences and phrases selected in steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 into a single paragraph
in the following sequence: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Conclusions.
f) Make sure that this paragraph is self-contained and does not include the following:
 Information not present in the paper

 Figures and tables
 Abbreviations
 Literature review or reference citations
g) Now, link your sentences.
h) Ensure that the paragraph is written in the past tense and check that the information flows
well, preferably in the following order: purpose, basic study design/techniques used, major
findings, conclusions, and implications.
i) Check that the final abstract
 Contains information that is consistent with that presented in the paper.

 Meets the guidelines of the targeted journal (word limit, type of abstract, etc.)
 Does not contain typographical errors as these may lead referees and editors to
“conclude that the paper is bad and should be rejected.”
12 points used in the Selection Process
During the abstract selection process the following 12 points are used as a guide. We strongly
recommend that you ensure your abstract satisfies these points.
1. Does the abstract capture the interest of a potential reader of the paper?
2. Is the abstract well written in terms of language, grammar, etc.?
3. Does the abstract engage the reader by telling him or her what the paper is about and
why they should read it?
Page 26 of 26
--------------------------------
4. Does the abstract title describe the subject being written about?
5. Does the abstract make a clear statement of the topic of the paper and the research
question?
6. Does the abstract say how the research was/is being undertaken?
7. Does the abstract indicate the value of the findings and to whom will they be of use?
8. Does the abstract describe the work to be discussed in the paper?
9. Does the abstract give a concise summary of the findings?
10. Does the abstract conform to the word limit of 300 to 500 words?
11. Does the abstract have between 5 and 10 keywords or phrases that closely reflect the
content of the paper?
12. Should the abstract be accepted?
How to choose appropriate keywords in a research paper?
Journals, search engines, and indexing and abstracting services classify papers using
keywords. Thus, an accurate list of keywords will ensure correct indexing and help showcase your
research to interested groups. This in turn will increase the chances of your paper being cited.
A keyword is a key to information. Keywords point researchers to relevant papers—papers that

may not come to a researcher’s attention in the normal course of her or his reading. Relevant
papers may escape notice because they are published in journals that a particular researcher does
not read regularly. And even when such papers are published in journals that the researcher does
read regularly, he or she may not realize that those papers are relevant because their titles may
fail to indicate their relevance. Let us take an example to see why keywords are useful. A paper
titled: ‘New approaches to the treatment of diabetes’, describes how some medicinal herbs can
help in treating the disease. However, the title does not mention this, nor does it mention the names
of those herbs. Suitable keywords for such a paper will include the scientific names of those herbs,
and a search for any of those names will lead other researchers to that paper.
Here’s how you can go about choosing the right keywords for your paper:
 Read through your paper and list down the terms/phrases that are used repeatedly in the
text.
 Ensure that this list includes all your main key terms/phrases and a few additional key
phrases.
 Include variants of a term/phrase (e.g., kidney and renal), drug names, procedures, etc.
 Include common abbreviations of terms (e.g., HIV).
 Now, refer to a common vocabulary/term list or indexing standard in your discipline (e.g.,
GeoRef, ERIC Thesaurus, PsycInfo, ChemWeb, BIOSIS Search Guide, MeSH Thesaurus)
and ensure that the terms you have used match those used in these resources.
 Finally, before you submit your article, type your keywords into a search engine and check
if the results that show up match the subject of your paper. This will help you determine
whether the keywords in your research paper are appropriate for the topic of your article.

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EM 510

MINE RESEARCH AND STUDIES

1. The process is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies

 Philosophies mean approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic

 Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides

3. The process is designed to be unbiased and objective.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

Research Means in search of knowledge. Or, Research is an art of scientific investigation.

 Research is Search for Knowledge;

 It is an Art of Scientific Investigation;

 According to Redman and Mory, Research is a “Systematized effort to gain a new

 Research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

 Does the research cover a particular Objective of research or researcher?

 Does the research cover a particular time period?

 Are all dates of publication to be included?

 Is the research going to cover publications from other countries?

 Are all perspectives to be considered? For example: Philosophical, political, psychological,

b) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

E) QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

F) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

5) Intellectual creativity – a resourceful investigator always creates new researches. He

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

Research can be classified from four (4) perspectives/dimensions:

1) The purpose of doing research;

1) Purpose of Doing Research. If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we

a) Exploratory/Formulative Research. You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order

 Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to

 Goals of Exploratory Research:

1) Experience surveys. As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to

2) Secondary data analysis. Another economical and quick source of background

b) Descriptive Research. Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a

 Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of

 Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

 It is a type of research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a

 Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.

 It is used to describe characteristics of a population (a set of similar items or events

 Goals of Descriptive Research:

1) Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate

 Goals of Explanatory Research:

 Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or counselors of youthful offenders may

1) Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of

The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding

2) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely

3) Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, "Did it work?" The process of

Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation research

 Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research

a) Cross-Sectional Research. In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point

b) Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of

a) Quantitative. The main quantitative techniques are:

b) Qualitative. The major qualitative techniques of research are:

 Comparison of Each Type of Research:

1) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Observation Method - The Observation Method concentrates on observing the

Evaluation and comparison are the central features of analytical writing.

Regression Analysis approach - In Regression Analysis the outcome, or the

Grouping Analysis approach - Grouping methods of analytical approach are

2) Applied vs. Fundamental:

Applied research is used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group.

Fundamental research, which is also known as Pure or Basic Research, is conducted

3) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Table – 1. Key Features Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research.