CHAP T ER O~E

0)) «e

S T R I x G E D I:\' S T R U .\1 E x T S

the comparatively brief history of or chestration the

T
HROCGHOUT
string group-e-violin s. violas, 'cellos, and double-basses-e-lms
maintained its position as domin ant element of the symphony
orchestra: Countless scores from all periods bear evidence that their
composers regarded woodwind and brass rather as accessories and were
hesitant to entrust muc h of their essential musical material to any bur
strin ged instru ments.
Such an att itude is partly justifi able because of the superiority of the
strin gs in so many important respects. Strin gs arc tirel ess and em play
virtuall y any kind of music. They have a greater dyn amic range than
wind instruments and far more expressive capacity. T he tone color
of the string group is fairly homogeneous from top to bottom, varia-
tions in the different registers being much more subtle than in the winds.
At th e same time, stringed instruments arc the most versatile in produc-
ing different kinds of sound. As string tone is rich in overtones all
mann er of close and open spacing is practical. One docs not tire of hear-
ing string tone as soon as one tires of wind tone; in fact, there exists
a sizable literature of compositions written for str ing or chestra with out
wind instruments.
The string section of a typi cal sympho ny orch estra usually consists
of sixteen first violins, fourteen second violins, twelve violas, ten
violoncellos, and eight double-basses. \ .ariations in these propo rtions
may be found. reflecting the predilectio ns of individual conductors, or
perh aps determined by some such circu mstance as the size of the CO ll-
een stage.
 1;-'; 5 T R U .\ \ E ;-'; T 5 5 T R I l" G E D I ~ 5T R U ~I EN T 5 5

Tt::OO;ISG

,a
T he four strings of each of the se instruments arc tuned as follows.
Sc ro ll
'rioliYl ';011 'c ello double-bass

u
IB ua F
i- :> :8
- ""
Fig. 1. Violin
Fig. I

In th e d iagram, note tha t th e sou nding length of the string . to be set

In th e case of the do uble-bass th e actual sound is an oc tave low er than
in moti on by the bow, is th at bet ween th e sto pping finger and the
th e writte n notes.
bridge. T he remaind er of th e string will of course be silent.
The pit ch of a vibrat ing string can be expressed in terms of ~he
Since halving the st ring length raises the pitch an oc tave. the point
freq uency. or rapidit y . of its vibrations. For instan~e. the upper 5t Tln g
at which a string is stopped co sound the octave above its open. or un-
of the viola sounds th e :\ whi ch in pr esent -d ay tumng has a frequen cy
stopped. pitch will be exactly one-half the distance fr om nu t to bridge.
of .HO vibration s per second. . .
If we w ish to raise the pitch another oc tave we w ill find th e po int of
A stretched string can be varie d in pitch by \':1.rymg the tensl?".
stopping one-half th e distance fr om this middle point to the br idge. or
Stri nge d instrument s arc tun ed hy tu rn ing th e tlltlmg pegs to w hich
three-fourths th e total string length fr om the nut.
the strings arc attached . T ightenin g a stri ng inc reases th e frequency
of its vibr ation; hence raises its pitch.
The weight of the string has an important influence 0I1the frequency
of its vibration. Thus the four strings on the same instrument may be
identical in length , but may differ w idely in pitch becau~e t~ey" arc
made to di ffer in weight. Furthermore, by making usc of thi s pnncI I~le,
-
open <l: rin!l'
, . I ..·
Fig. J
th e strings can be tu ned to their various pitches without.th e nece~Slty
of toO great a difference in th eir tensions. T he lower-pitched srrmgs
The principle demonstrated is th at fingering a gi\"en inte rval does
are not only thicker, but they arc made still heavier by winding the gut
not imply cove ring a fixed length of string. but a length that diminishes
or steel with fine wire of copper. silver. aluminum. or other metals.
as the hand moves coward the bridge. \V hen playing a succession of
V ariation in the length of the string produces proportional variation
equal int erv als on one string, th e finge rs measure off not equ al divisi.olls
in pitch . A longer string vibra tes more slow ly th an a shor~e r on e, ot~ er
of string length but pr oportional di visions. For example. on the VIOla
condition s being equal. It is fou nd, for example, that halvin g the stflng
a major second above an open string means a distance of about d~
length doubles the frequency and raises the pitch an oc tave .
inch es. wh ereas the same interval in a "'er y high position measures less
than % inch . A majo r second abov e an ope n string on the violin meas-
F1:'o:GERI S G
ur es abo ut t% inches. on the 'cello about 2% inch es. and on the bass
abo ut -+ % inch es.
The act ion of the left-hand finge rs stopping the string firml y against Another c haracte ristic of string fingerin g is that w hen the hand is in
the fingerb oard shortens the soun ding .lcngt h of th e string, thereby a given po sition on one string th e fingers can readily stop tones on any
raising th e pitch. of the four strings. without the necessity of moving the hand . Each
6 1:-1 S T R U .\ 1 E;-; T S
position is ident ified by a number derived from the number of diatonic
steps between the first finger and the open string. In string technique ,
and also in the fingering of wind instr uments, the index finge r. not the
thumb, is called first finger.
S T R 1:-1 G E D 1 ;-; S T R U .\ 1 E;-; T S 7
A division of a sect ion int o more than two parts would be marked
div . in J (Fr., diu. .i 3; Gcr., dreiiecb geteilt ). necessitating indications
in the ind ividua l play ers' music to show wh ich part each is to play.

viohn
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.
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Sometimes the divided pans are ginn separate lines in the score, for
legibility. If the parts arc complex. better result s may be obtained by
dividing by desks {lt ., da leggii; Fr., psr pupitres; Ger., pultuieise }, the
odd-numbered desks taking the upper part.
A-SUing first posmon second pcemon third position
If only half th e members of a section arc to play, the part is marked
Fig. 4 balf ( Ir., la nms; Fr., 1.1 moitie; Ger.• die H iilfte ) , T he players on the
left at each desk will then remain silent until given the indication all
Detailed description of the fingering systems of the several stringed
(Ir., tutti ; Fr., tollS; Ger., olJJe) ,
instruments will be given in succeeding chapters.

OOUBLE-STOPS VIBRA TO

It is possible to srop notes on two adjacent strings in such a way that
rhe bow can sound bot h nores at once. This is called double-stopping.
T riple- and quadruple-stops (chords) are also feasible, although it
wi ll presen tly be seen that the simultaneous sound of three or four notes
cannot be prolonged by th e bow.
Fig. 5
DI\'IDED STRlSGS
In the playing of stringed instruments the tone is given life and
warmth through the use of vibrato of the left hand. This is a combina-
tion of impulses involving the muscles of the hand . wrist, and arm. and
its effect at the fingertip is an almost imperceptible osci llation in pitch
of th e note. Th e vibrato is emp loyed on all stopped ton es except those
of short du ration and needs no indication for its usc. H owever, there
are times when one prefers the peculiar tone quality obtainable only
by suppressing the vibrato, in which case the direction senza vibrato
should be ginn,
BOWIS'G

In the orchestra, double notes are customarily divided between the

tWO players read ing from the same desk. The part should be marked
divisi, Italian for divided (F r., dhises; Ger., geteilt) , most often ab-
br eviared to div. The right-hand player at each desk takes the upper
note. W hen the part returns to single notes it should be marked unisoni
{F r., unis; G er ., nicbt geteilt ), usually abb reviated unit, If dou ble nores
arc written, and the compose r wishes each player to play all the notes,
using double-stops, he writes a pre cautionary non div. (in German
sco res usually Doppelgriff ) . This ind ication is used only when there
is more than one note, to pr c\'ent dividing.
point halr.s
Fig. 6. Violin Bow
Th e bow-stick is of fine, light wood. generally Pernambuco, which
is rem arkable for its elastic qua lity . T he stick is cu rved inward toward
the hair , and , when th e hair is tigh ten ed by means of the screw at the
heel of the bow, the resu lting tens ion brings int o play the resilience of
th e stick, an important facto r in the various bow strokes. T he hair is
horsehair. although in recent times other materials, such as nylon. have
B'
8 IX S TR U .\I EXT S
STR I XGE D I X S T R U .\I E:" T S 9
been tr ied. There arc ove r a hu ndred hairs in a violin bow. It is the habit
EX. L Franck-Sy1l1phoJl y P: ' 7. cd. Eulcnburg
of string players to rub a specially prepared rosin on the bow hairs to
help in securing the right amount of friction on the str ings.
The bow is held firmly. yet lightly, between the finge rs and thumb ~@ e r
VN. I ,,","'I D I1 ci -
AIkgro ~

"' - · E
=ppo
.. .. ~ ...... -
of the right hand, as shown in Fig. 6. The first finger is in a position .8 Sf1sunltlf1
to exert varying pre ssure on the bow-stick, while the little finger L'\
used mainly to balance the bow, according to its position on the string.
(The so-ca lled Gennan style of bowing fo r the dou ble-b ass will be
described larer.} R~pr i nlffi ."; th the VC'rmi... ;on o f the ""Ie
t ion . :\ew \·ork.
J,gcn~ for E u!cn b l,lrg ~Iin;~lurc Score, C. f . re lcu Corpora -

The bow is drawn at right angles to the str ing. ordinarily at a place
abo ut halfway betwe en the bridge and the end of the finge rboard. For a These changes in the dire ction of the bow arc made by a good player
louder and more brilliant tone, and for the no rmal prod uction of hig h with practically no brea k in the continuity of the tone, by virtue of
notes, the bow is played nearer the bridge. Fo r soft er tones it is moved a supple wrist and a skillful coordination of all muscular movements.
nearer to the fingerboar d. T he hair may be placed flat, so that all the W hen slurs arc marke d, all norcs under one slur arc to be played
hairs arc in contact with th e string; but usually th e bow is tu rned on "in one bow" ; that is, wit h no change in direction of th e Low.
edge. so that only part of the hair is engaged. T his enab les the player
to control the amount of hair being used. For the violin and viola the EX. 2 . Schuberr-Sy 1l1pbon y 710 . 5 p. ' 4. cd. Eulcnhu rg
tilt is :l\vay from the player , for th e 'cello and. bass the opposite is more Andante c on mote
convenient .
The part of the bow near the point is called the upper part of the II : QE ;
p
bow; that nea rer th e heel, the lower part . W hen the bow is drawn start -
ing at th e lower part and proceeding toward th e point, straightening the
elbow joint. the stroke is called down-bow. The opposite is up -bow.
• .'- ": •
-
Both are more clearly expressed by the F rench tire (drawn) for down- Rr p r;n ted .,.-ilh Ihe p<"rnli,...;on
lion. xew Yor k.
01th~ sole ~I;em. lo r Eu len l.>u rg :\h n i 3!u r~ 5<:or" , C. f Perees Corporl-

bow, and pOllSse (pushed) for up-bow. Th e signs M ( down-bow)

and v (up-bow) arc in universal usc. A violinist wou ld instinc tively begin th e phrase shown above with
an up-bow. The up- bow, in string style, is associated with the up-beat.
or anac rusis, whereas the down-beat, as in Ex. I. suggests a down-bow
LEGATO
to the player. It is impossible, and often inadvisable, to app ly this
If no slurs are marked, each note calls for a ch ange in the dir ection p rinciple to every up-beat or down-beat, but the principle is con-
of the bow. rinually in evidence in good bowing.
For a vigorous attack on a long note, to bc followed by a do w n-bow
ch ord or acce nt , it is we ll to begin dow n-bow. changi ng immediately
to up-bow. T his change of bow will not be perceived by the ear if
properly perfor med , and will permit the use of the more energetic
down-bow for both attacks.
10 I N S T R U .\ 1 E N TS S T R I ~ G E D IN S T R U .\ 1 E N T S n
EX, 3. Becrhon n-Coriof.1nus Overture p. I, cd. P hilharmonia as to the best W:lY to bow a given phrase. and are seen even now mark-
ing changes in the bowing of such w ell-establishe d classics as the
An ~ro con brio
~ " Beethoven symphonies.
~ !.
"v "V
~. r E
6 °_ -
5
• EX. + Beethoven-SympbollY no. 4 P' 4' , ed. Kalmus

Th ere is a natural tendency towards crescendo in the up-bow, due to

the increasing leverage of the length of bov..' to the left of the string.
and likewise a tendency tow ards diminuendo in the down-bow. \,"hilc
these tendencies arc guarded against by the player. it is advi sable [0 ;
recognize them when planning the bowing of a passage. ~ • &TtJ&. ,
It is evident that the bow must move up as much as it moves down .
But if the up and do w n m otions arc of un equ al rime value it means th at
the Low must man at:1T1 u ne ve n spee d. thus nuk ing it difficult to main- S OS L E G:\TO

tain an even dynamic level. T he bowing indicated in Fig. 7 will in-
cvirably cause the third and sixth beats to sound louder than the others,
since th e same length of bow must be used to play two sixteenth no tes
in up -bow as was used to play fo ur sixteenths in down-bow.
Perhaps the commonest bow stroke is that which changes direction
for each note. As mentioned above. the change can be nude without
break in the tone. But this stroke, known by the Fr enc h term ditscbe,
is usually perfo rmed so that one hears the articulation of th e bo w
ch anges. T he notes are not so detached from one another that th e effect
co uld be called staccato. The der.:lcbe can be described as nonlegato.

2 •
O rdinarily it is played in the middle or upper third of the bow.

Fig. 7 EX. 5. Schubert-Sy1llphony no. 8 p. 57. ed. Philhar monia

A mo re even tone will be ach ieved by a bowing which resto res the
balance of up and down, both in quantity and rate of motion.

Fig. 8 T his noalegarc bow stroke is sometimes used at the point of the bow
to take advantage of its extreme lightness there , and at the hee l for the
In a legato phrase th e changes in directi on of the bow are de ter mined added weight occasionally want ed.
by combined factors of in tensi ty. dynamic level, tempo, the length of
the bow. fingering, etc. A ny melody can be bowed effectively in ~any
different ways. and it is no wonder that concertmasters often disagree
12 I :"ST R U ,\ 1E :"TS S T R I:" G E D I:" S T R U ~I E:-i T S 1l
At the point (Fr., Ii la pointe; It.. a puma d'arco; Ger., an der Spitu):

EX. 6. Bartok-COl1certo for O rcbestrs p. 79. ed. Boosey & H awkes

Presto

Rt pr in ted w ith U1t ~rmissjon o f , ht copytipt owneB C. F. P t1t n Corporation, ~c'" YOlk.
VlI . II
f)I V.

11j!~"..=n" d"~~~'~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ For vigorous emphasis and equality of stress, a series of down -bows
can be used, near the heel of the bow, the bow being lifted with a swift
up-bow ruc tion betw een the not es.

- EX. 8. Srravinsky-Le Ss cre du I'rintemps

T rnlpo glUsto d = :;0
non JI~'.
n n .., r'l 1"'1 n r'l :"I ~.
P' I I, cd. Russe

,",s. It

~ . m np'' '''a.
"on I N.
Mnr'ln nl"lrln ~.

" 011 Jiv

nMnn nl"'lnn ftM.

COPYT;ghl 1 ~46
..- .. ..
by IIn,·t", & Svn (London ) LId l"K<! by pt"rmwion
r 110 11 drv.
J~r~ Jt,,~c .

rim.
~

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e-a.
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At the heel (Fr., au talon; lt., a/ talloue; Ger., am Frosch) :

f sempre nscc.
Co pyr ight 1921 by E d it ion Ru!o&t de MusiQue. l"oed by permi<sion.
EX. 7. Strauss-Don Qu ixote p. 56, ed. Philhannonia
J =116
A combination of legato and non legato is found in the bo wing
(Jm Froscb] known as loure. This is indicated by a dash over each note, with slurs
• to show the bow changes. The first finger regulates the rather gentle
\'N . I • break in the continuity of the ton e by controlling the pressure on the
stick, aided by a subtle slowing of the bow with the wrist.
( 1l1rI F'ou b)
14 INS T R U ~ I EN T S STR I NG ED I NSTR U ,\ I E N T S 15
E X. 9. Sibclius-S)'1J1pbony no. 2 p. ), ed. Breitkopf EX. 10. Becrhoven.-sympbony no. 1 p. )8, ed. Kalmus
, Allegren c
-- - - A nd~n rc eon mofO

-~
V>< . ,
- - - - - - - -- - - -- -
."
I 0.
V><. , , ~
,~
."
- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -

.. !BE -- ---- -- - -- - - -- - - - -
."

-~- Staccato playin g in fast tempo does not call for a lifting of the bow,

, ~f
••
-- ! ! ! ! •- ...... .
•- - - - •- I! ! ! ......
---
but the shorr, qu ick dow n- and up-bows made by the wrist alone, in
the middle of the bow, cause the stick to bounce. and this in rum causes
the hair to spring off th e string with each stro ke.
-
I
- - ~ - -~ - - - ---- -
~f EX. II. Rossini-O..-erture to Willinn T e// p. 45, ed. Kalmus
Cop)r lcbl 19OJ. rene"'~ 1931, by B", u kopf &; Ib.nd. ~'P"I

STACCA TO

Staccato bowing is of two types-Hoff the string" and "o n the

stri ng." In moderate tempo and at a dynamic len I from piano to mezzo
forte, th e bow is dropped on the string with a sort of semicircular
merion at the middle of the bow . The bow rebounds, alth ough it is
partly lifted by the wrist. The It alian word spiccato ( detached ) is
An other type of bouncing bow is usually called by the French jete
applied by st ring players to bowing that makes use of a springing or
(thrown ). It is played near the point, and the how is not thrown but
bouncing of th e bow-stick. It is also called saltando (jumping). There
dropped up on the string with a slight down-bow motion, and allowed
is much disagreement over the exact application of these term s. But
to boun ce of irs own accord. Groups of two to six not es can be played
fortunately the composer or orchestrator is not called upo n to indicate
in t his way, the indication being dots under a slur, sometimes with the
more preci sely than by dots over t he notes, together with dyn amic
word sstmndo, or saluuo , to make sur e of the bouncing effect .
signs and tempo marks, the quality of music that means to a string
player spiccato, saltando, or off-the-string staccato.
16 IN ST R U M EN T S STR INGED I N S TR D M E N T S 17
p. '42 , ed. Philharmonia
..
EX. r z. Rirnsky-Korsakoff-Capriccio Espagnol p. 7 J. cd. Kalmus EX. 13 . Bruckner-Sy111pbony no. 9
J.66 A
v rvace
· ~ ~,.~ _e
Au u ,
SaLtillO
,
,
~.

.,,--'- ~ -..;...
- .-..:.....:- - -:...-;..-'
-
[OJ .tI" s rcsnssimo

diV.~~• •
~
milt.

I A" • ,
saltau) ,
~
- -i-..;...
Et »: srcatistimo
"~ ..j-";'"
,
salt illO
~ ~ I'!' ...... ~

~ . . II . • u. .
.~ " I~

"
~F.- ~
..j-'--'--- ~ ~ - '-':-':-
- Cop yrlgh t 1924 by rni'-~r~al
1JIJ rC;1UHI1IJ o
Edition A. G . ; ren ew ed 1952 by F. W""s..

,
r.utlto \ Vhen several notes under a slur arc marked with dots, the intended

"f~
~ '-':-":'-
- -..;...
- -..;... ~
staccato may be accomplished with a bouncing bow, usually up-bow.
as in Ex. 14. or with the bow held firml y on the string, sharp stop s
being made by the wrist. as in Ex. IS. The latter bowing is known as
p'= slurre d staccato.
~ P
Cop yri ght by M. P. Bd aid f ; sole ag en ts Boosey & Ua .... kes. l;sffi by permi... ion . EX. '4. Mahler-Sympbony no. 4 P: 3, ed. Philharmonia

The bowing called nrartellato (hammered) is an on- the-string stac-

cato (Fr., martele}, The bow is not permitted to leave the string and
the stroke is very swift, with abrupt start and stop. The sound of the
PP /egg.
note, whether in piano or forte, might be imagined in the shape of an
oblong block with square ends. Although it is usually played with the
upper part of the bow, the martellato stroke may be used at the heel, ' c.
where the added weight of the bow contributes to the vigor of the PP kgg .
staccato.
e- e.

/
18 I N S T R U ~I ENTS S T R 1 N G ED 1 N S T R U ,\ 1EN T S 19
EX . 15. Stravinsky-Orpheus P: 40 , cd. Bocscy & Hawkes EX. 17. \ \'ehcr- Eur.v<1m he Overture
Andantt sosrencro 1'. 96
JIll roinu
~ .,

II .....:-: . -:...-" .-:.....:.-. .....:.-.

v
" " • " v >
? J. ;, "
% I:i : : ;; ~
I"
~

J /,r poillu The various bow strokes desc ribed arc to be found in countless com-
,. binations. T rue knowledge of their appropriate use comes fr om long
p - . ~. -.:.....-- stu dy and experience in playing a stri nge d inst ru ment, to which must
Cop rr lcbl 1 9~ by ~~ I: u ....'l<cs. \:O("d by IKrm i""ion be added real unde rstanding of the music. T he stude nt of orchestration
should begin early th e practice of marking the bowi ng of string pans.
The rhythm of do tte d eighth and sixteent h, in fast tempo, is most
W henever he thinks of a phrase for strings he mu st always imagine
often playe d as slurred staccato, even when not so marke d. Th is bow-
how it would best be bowed, wit hin the limits of his knowledge.
ing is indicated by a slu r, w ith a dot on the sixteent h note. It is the first
Th ro ugh trial and observa tion much can be learned abo ut this most
note th at is shortened, however. T he same bowing is used for the
important :J.spccr of string wri ting.
quarter note follow ed by an eighth in six-eight time.
It sho uld be realized th at bowings mar ked in printed scores are not
always literally followed in performance. Com posers arc seldom care-
EX. 16 . Berlioz-Fantastic Symphony p. '53. ed. Eulcnburg
ful to indicate all bowi ngs. and some markings are the result of editing.
Alk grrn:o non I!Oppo J =7: 'Vhat the composer actually wrote is evidence of his wishes, and this
~ "T"' V v "!"'l v v m."l~
\~S. j , FJ: .,.' J.,.... 9 (-s:-.,. forms th e basis for stu dy by conductor and concertmaster as to the

A' -
..

-'- ~._-
best way to realize th e com poser's intentions. H ere, as in all matters of
art, th ere is plenty of room for differences of opinion and inte rpreta-
tion.

Rt prlnt ed with the pe rm iss ion of th e sole ..gell15 t or Eulenbu, c Minl..lu re Scores : C. f. Peter$ Corpor..-
tion . Ne.. \·ork .
ACCENTS

For a light, crisp effect, this may be done at th e point of the bow, Accents arc made pr incipa lly wit h the Low, but an accent may also
wi th up-bow on the beats. be imparted by the left hand, by means of a sudden quic kening of the
vibrato, by a more fo rceful finger stroke, or by both. It depends on
whether the accented note is made by lifting the finger (Fig. 9a) , or by
d ropping it on the str ing (Fig. 9b). T his left-hand accent is nearly al-
ways combined with the bow accent in vigorous and rhy thmic passages.
 I N ST R U M E N T S STR I N G ED I NSTR U .\ 1ENTS 21
20
In this bowing, care must be taken that too much pressure is not put

fBi Fig. 9
W~~~ upon the bow , lest it strike more than one string. Playing over the
finge rboard is impractical on the E-string of the violin, since the curve
of the body of the instrument interferes with the proper placing of the
bow. It is often indicated, nevertheless, for passages running up to high
Accents are of course relative to the general nuance of a particular
positions on the E-string; although the directive cannot be followed
tone, whether soft or loud. There are different kinds of accents , created
literally. it serves to suggest the tone quality desired.
by different modes of attack. The following figure attempts to show
Playing with the bow vcry close to the bridge, or even upon it (Fr.,
graphically the shape of the tone in the most important of these forms.
au cbeoalet; Ic., sui ponticello; Ger., am St eg) , produces a special kind
of sound, due to the bringing out of upper partials not usually heard.
> A ~:== The sound has been called glassy and metallic. T his effect is generally
combined with the bowed tremolo.
<;=
EX. 19 . Strauss--Symphonia Domestica
Ip C~ P' 67. cd. Associated Music Publishers
<> <=?
Fig. 10

Composers in general seem to have been indifferent to these distinc- pp rul pomic 10
tions. one reason being perhaps that they are impossible to produce on div
".
In )

the pianoforte. T herefore it becomes a responsibility of the conduc-

tor to decide which ty pe of accent is meant by the composer's sign.
and to see that it is properly executed.
EFFECTS OF COLOR
T o obtain a tone of very soft floating quality the strings may be
directed to play on the fingerboard (Fr., sur la touche; It., mila tastiera
or sui tasto; Ger. , am G riiibrett ) , T he bow is placed so far fro m the
bridge that it is actually over the upper part of the fingerboa rd, where
there is greate r amplitude in the vibrat ion of th e str ing.
WIth ..uth or iu tion of th e original pu blis hea Ed . Bote & G. Bock, Bu lin , Wie, baden.
\ Vhen sulia tastiera or sui ponticello is no longer wanted, the part is
marked modo ordinaria, or naturale.
T he bow may be tu rned over, so that the strings are struck with the
wood instead of the hair ( Ir., col legno) , T his is a bowing used for dry
staccato effects, the bow-stick tapping with a kind of off-the-string
staccato.

EX. 18. Debussy- R ondes de Printemps P' 36, ed . Durand

Mod crcmene amrne ) ·:n 6

R"b'W '~" -"-'"'~'~~ - - - 7~

~~; ':·::'w{iUSf r
p--.,.. -~
d : ¥ijFlzp
-- ' - =-
e cec cberme
Perm ission granted by DUfallrl el Cie., Par is, copyright own ers; Elkan·\"ogel , Ph iladelph ia, P..., agen ts.
II I:-':STRUME:-':TS STRINGED INSTRUMENTS lJ
EX. zoo Britt en- Passacaglia from Peter Grimes is to be drawn across the string. The return to normal bowing after
P' 16, ed. Boosey & H awkes cot tegno is indic ated by areo.

PIZZICATO
crete. ../ u m prt creso.
The strin gs are frequ ently plucked, instead of bowed. The direction
pizzicato (abbreviated pizz.) indicates that this manner of playing is to
... u be continued until the word areo signifies that playing with the bow is
to be resumed.
The right first finger plu cks the string, over the fingerboard, and the
... " ( C()1J fOrJA) ::>- ~IC. ~ lemprt crete,
other three fingers hold the bow against the palm of the hand. The
thumb may rest on the edge of the fingerboard to steady the hand , al-
Copyright 1~5 by BO<)!;ey & H u..!...... Ltd. l '..,d by permissi on. though this position is not always necessary or practical. The playing
Obviously, one can expect little sound to come from draw ing the position of 'cello and bass permits pizzicato also with the thumb, es-
wood across t he string. since the amount of friction is vcry small. T here pecially for chords arpeg giared from the bottom not e upw ard.
are, neverth eless, some instances in scores of tremolo and legato bowing Changing from arco to pizzicato requires an appreciable amount of
time, varying according to the position of the bow at the instant. A
collegno. It is interesting that Gustav Mahler felt it necessary to add a
footnot e in the score of his First Symphony to explain that the indica- larger interval must be allow ed if the pizzicato follows a down-bo w at
the point, whereas after an up-bow at the heel the change can be
tion collegno and the bowing marked were no error.
practically instantaneous. -
E X. 1 I. Mahler-Sy111phony no. I p. 9 I, cd. U niversal
EX. 12 . Debu ssy-Pe/leas et Afelisande P' 23 I, ed. Durand
Fcier lich und gcmesscn"
col JtgM
A
..-.'
~
.. .
A
~. A~. A~. A
---. . . ••
A
. . ......
A
Sourdemcnt a~ tt
,. limil t
•c
pp ppp
.-
cel ltrw A A
,
-r-, 0\... A
"--. A A ."--..
....
~. ~.
hz. In'CO simil

pp
pp ~- PJI -=- -~ -
Perm ission granted by Dur..nd et Cle., Pari s, cop yright cw ners ; Elkan ·Vogel, P hiladelphi.., P..., ..gen t•.
colltgno
T he return to arco after pizzicato is slightly more inconvenient, as
Y \i v V it involves the quick adjustment of the bow into playing position. Ac -
ppp
tivity like that in the following example is not uncommon, however.
These effects, although not common, are much better known today.
Some composers write col legno bsttuta (Ger., geschlagen) for the tap-
ping, and col /egno tratto (Ger., gestrichen) to indicate that the woo d
H I :" S T R U ,\ t E N T S ST R 1NG E D I N STR U .\ 1 E:" TS 25
EX. 2 3 . Berlioz-Harold in l tsty P' '+5. cd. Eulcnburg positions the string is so short th at the pizzicato is of a hard. dry qu ality .
which at times may be used [0 advantage.
~~
pi=.
n .
'" EX. 24- Ravel-D.tphnis et Chloe p. 132, ed. Du rand
/ ." / ." Anime ee t res rude

pi=. ~" pi=. ~"

~

"C

/ .., / ." \'N . I

DIV.

pi=. erco pi=. ~"

.... r / ."
."
pi=. ~" pi=. '"~-

/ / /
.., \'S . II
DI \ ',

pm. ~" pi=. ~"

~

/
pi=-
r
r-eo
r ." -
pi=. PCO

/ /
Rc pr in lHl ..dill th., petmiM.i o n of th e so le a len \5 fo r Eu ien bu'l
r
~Iinia.tu'e
."
Sco re" C. f . Peters Corpora-
,~

DI\' .
p

l ion . :"ew Yor k.

T he pizzicato is by its nature a form of staccato. The sound dies •~ "."• p

away qu ite promptly. Differences are to be noted in this respect be- Perm ission In.n lffl b~ Dura nd el Cie_. Pu is, «Ipyr i&ht O"'7Iers; Elk:1.n·\oRt"l. Ph il"dd p h ia. P it.- . all~nta..

(ween small and large instruments, violin and double-bass, for instance.
The longer and heavier strings sustain the to ne mu ch better than th e
shorter ones. O pen str ings arc more resonant than those stopped by the
fingers. T he sound of the fingered notes can be prolonged a littl e by
vibrato.
The quality of tone in pizzicato can be varied by pluck ing at dif-
ferent points on the string, and by the manne r of plucking, from a
gentle stroking with the fleshy part of the fingertip to a twanging of
such violence that the string strikes against the fingerboa rd. There is
also a difference acco rding to the position of the left hand. In higher
The rapidity of passages in pizzicato is necessarily limited by the
difficulty of continued pluck ing by one finger. The trick of alterna ting
first and second fingers in fast pizzicato, acquired by somc players. is
by no mcans universal. Factors affect ing the practicability of fast piz-
zicato playing include the size of the instrument, the dynamic level uf
the music. the amount of continuous pizzicato demanded, and the com-
plications in the passage from the standpoint of changes from one string
to another. T he following is an example of successfu l pizzicato writing
at a rapid tempo.
26 I N S T R U ~I E N T S S T R I N G E D IN S T R U ,\ 1 EN T S 27
EX. 25 . D ukas-c-L' A pprentj ~Sorcier P' 5 I , ed. Ka lmus EX. 2 6 . Stravinsky-Symp hony in C P' 2 I, ed. Schott
Va! .J.= u6 Moder ato alla br cve(d =66)
izz. -zr-:
~ ~ . v r:" one.
"

." dim.
-
P
• ' I~ ~f .
pizzo
- , di".
." f-= ·f
"-
~
-.
unit, M oizz:
vc
p
'N. "Ia!l
." dim. v Il*
Copyright 19% by Schot! & Co. Ltd. \:""d by permission.

Chords of three and four no tes in pizzicato arc arpeggiatcd from the
bottom up. unle ss otherwise marked. A serie s of qui ckly repeated
chords may be more effectively played by alternati ng back -and -forth
movements, using one or several finge rs. The direction of the strokes
may be shown by perpendicular arrows, or by the usual signs for up-
and down -bow. Sometimes quasi guitara is added.

EX. 27. Ravcl- L'Enfanl ct Ies Sortiliges

- p. 38, cd . D urand
Allegro non tJ'oppo
. ., \' r"I I'
/ ZZ.

.. \'N.
'"
0
•
V
V "
, 1

$ $

Pennlssion ll;ranted by D urand et Cle .• Par is, cop yrig ht ownera: Elka.n·\"o gd, P b iladdphi a, Pa,. agenl • .
4'~
P
", " V

Pizzicato may also be performed with the fingers of the left hand
when the notes are so arranged that a finger is fr ee to pluck the str ing,
or when a fing er is so placed that it can pluck as it is raised after stopping
a note, Left-hand pizzicato is indicated by a cross over or under the
notes.
• , •
Permiss ion gr ant ed by Dura nd el Cie., P1.,is, copyrigh t o.... ners : E lhn·\"ogd , Ph iladelp hia, Pa., a&enl.
The arpcggiared effect can be held to a min imum by a sharp, sud-
den finger stroke, T w o notes can be plucked simultaneously with two
fingers. A straight b racket is the accepted indication for this,
2B IN STR U ,\ IEN TS STR INGE D IN STRUM EN T S 29

EX. 28 . Stravinsky-Ragtime P:4. ed. Cheste r H AR.\ lOXI C S

Pl~Pl ofrp t gg.
J. ". v • pr z.z. T he vibration of a string is a composite of a number of separate.
"'S.l simult aneou s vibrations. wh ose frequ encies vary in th e ratio I , 2 , 3, 4. 5.
••'If r ere. These vibrations arc represented in the following diag rams. Points
marked n arc called nodes.

" •• -~ ~ 3 "
Copyright fo r a ll cou ntri" J .t W. Ch6r ~r IJ d _. London.

Although possibilities of new sounds to be obtained by pizzicato have

2
nor been expl ored by composers in general. some new effects have been
used. such as pizzicato sui pomice/lo and sul tasto; pizzicato harmonics;
pic king with the fingernail near the nut; and snapping the string agains t
the finge rboard. The last is indicated by the sign 6.

~... , , - - - - ~ ......~ T \ .#--------_.1\

EX . 29 . Bartok-Violin Concerto P: 5' . ed . Boosey & H aw kes • '",---_.. '-::::::::::::: "'" --- <:::::=:::=>
Vj\·~ ce. J =a . 140
1'=-0 0 0 e ••
• 5
~1\ , -- - --
"',u ' " ~
.., ~1\ . . ._---... , ~
" " __ / "'-:::::::::? ',,__ J
Fig. II

\'N . II
•• • Let us assume t he string to be the G-string of a violin . Fig. I I could
th en be translated into musical sounds, thus:

e
• •• e
!.J ~m vIDmiotts
~ j9J I'" o=nd
"!f U 196

vc .
phz. 6
•• • Fig. 12

It will be noticed that the ratio of the divisions of the string show n
"!f
in Fig. I I is the same as that of the frequencies shown in Fig . 12.
pi=. 6 e • •• • e These sou nds pr esent in a single tone are called harmo nics. Number
one is th e first har monic, or fundamental to ne. The others are calle d
." seco nd, thi rd, fourth, and fift h harmonics, overtones, or f-Jrtials.
CoPl'ri gh t 1946 by Hawk ... & Son (Lolldon) Lt d l: Sfd by pcr mi....ion .
Higher harmonics than these arc present also, in diminishing strength.
The number and comparative strengt h of the harmonics mak ing up a
tone give it irs individua l tone color, or timbre, enabling us to distinguish

I
30 INSTRU~IENTS
th e sound of a clarinet fro m th at of a 'cello playing the same note. We
do no t hear this combination of harm onics as a cho rd. The fundamental
tone is so much stronger than its up per part ials th at we are regularly
deceived int o assuming th at it alone is w hat we hear.
If a vibrating str ing is touched "ery lighdy at one of the dividing
nodes sho wn in Fig. II , it will be preve nte d from sounding its fun da-
menta l. but it will conti nue to vibrate as in the diagr am. according to
the node chose n. and it will sound the co rrespo nding note shown by
Fig. 1 2. For exampl e, the G -stri ng is to uched lightly at a point one-
third of its length fr om the nut, w hile maintained in vibration by th e
bow. T he enti re string vib rates as in no. 3 of Fig . I I . T he note soun ded
is that shown as no. 3 of Fig. 1 2 . T he same result is obtained by tou ch-
ing the other node of the same number, two-thirds of the way fr om
nut to br idge .
T ones produced in this man ner are called by string players harmonics
(Fr., sons barntoniques; Ir., arm onici; Ger., Flsgeotenonev . T heir tim-
bre is quite different from normal stopped tones, since only th ose
part ials are sounding that have a node at the point to uche d. Th ey are
ind icated in not ation by ( a) placing a small circl e over th e note in-
tended to sou nd as a harm oni c. or (b) writing a diamon d-shaped note
at the pitc h wh ere the node producing th e desired note is found on the
string.
~/G
V
IO
Ll!'! F
.. ) .
• M
Fig. 13
The indication sui G means that all is to be play ed on the G-string
(Ger., G-Sait e) . Another means of designating the string to be used,
preferred by the French, is that of R oman num erals, the highest string
being alw ays I (e.g., IV' corde ) .
ARTIFIC IAL H ARMOSI CS
On the violin and viola it is possible to sto p a tone with the first
finger and at the same time tou ch a node wit h th e fourth finger. This
S T R I I' G ED I N S T R U \ 1 E N T S JI
can also be done on the 'ce llo, using th e thumb and th ird finger . The
node whi ch has been found th e most dependable is that of the fourth
harm on ic, one- fou rt h th e new stri ng length, at a point represent ed in
notation by the int erval of a perfect fourt h above th e note sto pped
by the first finger. The resulting to ne is therefor e t wo oct aves above
the sto pped tone. T hese harmonics are called artificial harmon ics, as
differentiated from natural har monics, wh ich have ope n str ings as fun-
dament al tones. Art ificial harmonics are indicated in no tation by ( d)
placing a small circle above the note to be heard as a harmonic, or (b)
wr iting the fundamental ro be stop ped by the first finge r as a norma l
not e and th e node a fourth above as a diamond-shaped note ( Fig, 1+).
The actual pitch of the rone int ended is often adde d above, as (c) .
,..
•. 0
i
b.
I.'i
Fig. 14
Com posers frequent ly usc the notation (.1) fo r all harmo nics, leaving
the meth od of pr odu cti on to the player, wh ether as artifi cial or as na-
tural harm oni cs. The notati on (b) is some times used when the low er
tone is an open string. T his is incorrect but easily understo od.
TRILLS
Trills are perform ed by the motion of one finger , since the finger
stopping th e lower of th e two tones is held down throughout. Both
major and minor tri lls arc good in all range s, th e only exception being
th ose on the lowest note of the instrument, where the alt ernation of
open str ing and stopped note do cs not produce as effective a trill as
those on stop ped not es.
It should be remembered th at a str ing trill in th e or chestra means a
trill played simultaneously by a whol e section. Sixteen first violins
will not likely agree on the rhythmic quantities of a trill on a long note,
and the effect will not have th e clear articu lation of the same trill given
say to the first flute, played by a single player.
c
32 I:" S T R U .\ 1 C :-IT S STR I:"GCD I:-ISTRlJ ,\IC:"TS JJ

TR L\IOLO
one str ing, the two notes arc held as a do uble-sto p; and the tremolo
effect has to be nude by an und ulating motion of th e how. alternately
A trill with a harmoni c inrerval larucr th an a majo r second is a fin- touching the two strings. This ty pe of tremolo is not th e same as th e
g'cred tremolo. If a real tre molo is int~nded. rath er th an an alternation true fingered trem olo, sinc e it lacks th e clear art icu lation of the finger
;If two notes at a stipu lated speed (sometimes culled measured tr emolo) . strokes.
it is advisable to write time values fast enough ( 0 insure a real tremolo,
o r to add the wo rd tremolo, or tremo tando. Slurs are ncccss:uy to show EX. 31 . BrJhms-Sympboll y 110. I P' I O:!, ed. Kalmus
th e legato movement of the bow.
.--...,
EX. 30. Dcbussy-L'Aprcs-11lidi d un Fsune p. : S, cd. Kalm us \'S . I

~
fUr
,- _ -
TJios modere
13 toucbe
........ ...... .
= =

, ~

= - - -
vx. II
- -
div.
In the preceding example some of the g rou pings. such as Violin I.
measure 4. can be played as fingered tremolo (measured), while ot hers
require two st rings. like those in th e first measure . On the other hand,
all are possible as double-stops, with undubting bow.
The bowed tremolo is made with quick up- and down-bow str okes.

...
di....
the left hand holding the note or notes. It is a chara cteristic orchestra l
effect, capable of grc:lt dynamic range and variety of accentuation.

PI' l"P - = =--

P~ rm h..ion gr.nl~d by Edition s j u n ]obcrt. Par is, copy right o.... nns : E lka n ·Vogd. Phila delp hi a, Pa. ,
a,enlS.

The division of the first violins in the first measur e of Ex. 30 would
seem on first glance to be only theoretical, but it is a way of making
sure that both notes of the interval sound at each change of bow.
\ Vhen the interval exceeds the limit of extension of the fingers on
 I N S T R U ,\ 1 E N T S S T R I N G E D IN S T R U ,\ 1E N T S 3S
H

EX. 3'. Debussy-La Aler p. •8, ed. Durand MUTES

Retenu Tempo ( ]1 ' I I 6)
(l
The mute is a three-pronged device made of woo d, metal, bone, or

\I N . ,
"~: .... pi::::.
oth er materials, which can be fitted on ro the bridge for the pur pose of
absorbing some of the vibrations befo re they can be transmitted to the
reson ating body of the instrument. The tone quality of muted strings
is difficult of descrip tion. bur, once heard, its characteristic sound is
easily remembered. \V hile one of the results of muting is to reduce the
•
,, ~ dy namic power of the body of strings, the radical change in tone color
is far more important. ;\Iuting should not be regarded as the primary
... • • w
means of getting the strings to play softly. A fine pianissimo can be
achieved without mutes, and, furthermore , the special effect of forte
.1111'. '
wit h muted strings mar sometimes be just what is wanted.
T ime must be allowed for putting on and taking off mutes, at least
a couple of measures in moderate tempo. T he more time the better, to
avoid confusion and fisturbance. X umerous inventions to [acilirare a

' .. P t' malta dim .

quick change have appearcd, such as mutes with a spring clip, or mutes
permanently installed on the strings back of the bridge, to be pushed
up against the bridge for muti ng. It cannot be said that any of these
have met with comp lete accep tance by string players.

.... A gradual change to muted tone can be managed by directing the

players to put on mutes one by one, or by desks, marking the point at
• -.I~ p t motto dim . which all are to be mute d.
Pumlilion Il'lnled by Dur~nd Cl Cle. , Paris, copyr i~1 o wne Tl: Elk.n ·\'o ~l. rhUldelph ll , Pa., I~na.
The indication to put on the mute is the Italian can sordina, or can
Equa lly idiomat ic in orchest ral writing is the continued repetit ion of sardina-plural sardine, or sordini (Fr., avec sourdines; G er., mit
bow strokes, ditacbe, on a series of notes, CO give more energy and Dampier, or gedii7llpfr).
volume to the strin g tone. T o call for removal of the mutes, th e passage is marked senza sordini
(Fr., sans sourdines; G er., obne Dampfer), or via sordini (Fr., dtez. les
EX. 33. Mozarr-Sylllphony, K. 543 p. 8, ed. Philharmonia sourdines; G er., Dampfer weg ).

SCORDAT L'RA

A change fr om the normal tuning of the strings is called scordatura.

This has been employed to extend th e dow nward range of basses and
'cellos on rare occasions. In Don Q uixote Strauss asks the solo viola to
tun e the C-string to B, and a similar change is asked of the 'cellos in
Casella's Partita for Piano and Orchestra. T he strings do not give th eir
36 I :-; S T R U .11 E :-; T S
best ton e w hen altered more tha n a minor seco nd, and the incon ven -
icncc and disturbance caused by retuning during performance seem to
over balance th e slight advanta ge gained . .
The use of scordatura fo r a c hange of tone color 15 ano ther ma tt er . C H AP TE R T W O

In Mahler's Fourtb Symphony the solo violin in the second .mon rncnt
hJS all fou r strimrs tuned up a whole tone, to make it sound " like a cheap
fiddle." The CC~lCCrrlllaS[er prepares a second instrum ent to usc for
this mov eme nt, so th at retuning is avoided. T HE V IOL IN
Fr., 'I.: iO/Ol1; Ir., 'i,,';0IiI10 ; Ge r., Vi oline

il E over-all length of ~c violin is 23% inc hes. -' Iinoe variations

T in pro portions and size are found in different models . T he

body is 14 inches long. the neck a littl e unde r ; ~ inches , and
th e sounding length of the strings-that is, from nu t to bridge- is
slightly ove r 12% inch es. The length of the bo w is 29 inch es.
The top. or belly. of the instru ment is usually of pine or spruce. the
back of map le in one or tw o pieces. Ebony is used for the tailpiece.
fingerboard, nut. and tuning pCb"S. Inside the body. the arched belly is
reinforced by a strip of wood ca lled the bass-bar, gl ued beneath the
G -string edge of the fingerboard . A wo oden sou nd post is held in place
by te nsion bet we en top and back at a carefully chose n spot ncar the
E-string side of the br idge. having the double function of support and
com municarion of vibrations. T he {-holes arc characteristic openings
of traditional shape at either side of the bridge (Plate on page 38) .

F1S GERLSG

The violin is supported between the ch in and the left shou lder. A
chin rest attach ed at the left of the tailpiece helps hold the instrument
so that the left hand is fr ee to mov e up and down the fingerboard. The
neck of the violin lies between the thu mb and th e palm of the lef t hand,
and the left elbow is held fat to the right, enabling the fingers to fall
almost perpendicu larly upon the strings .
31
 THE V IOLIN 39
An important feature of articulation in string playing is that some
notes arc made by dropp ing the fi nger on the string, whi le ot hers arc
made by lifting th e linger. If the scale fragment in Fig. 15 is played in
one legato bow, the ascending notes are articu lated by striking and the
descendi ng notes by lifting. Also to be noted is that, afte r striking, the
fingers remain on the string until there is necessity for moving them,
as shown in the figure.

j
•

. ,
)--1 •
Ilinn indical~ nng~a hdd do ..n)
.
Fig. ' 5

The manner in whi ch the fingers are lifted or d ropp~ affects the
clarity. rhyt hm. and tone quality of the sounds produced. T he finger
action varies from exceedingly energetic strokes (Ex . H ) to an ex-
trem ely light and fleet articulation ( Ex. 35)'

EX. 34. Schumann-SY111phony no. Z P: 172 , cd. Philharmonia

Alltgro moho vivace
Vl'! . I

EX. 35. Mendelssohn-Ita/ian Symphony p. '40, cd. Eulcnburg

:OJ
4[Sh?''';; tEP e EU:.:: :uk d
Rtprlnltd with the pt'rm h~iQn 1>1 !h t 501t a., en ts for EII!enbll rl lolini. lll r( S<:oru: C. f . P(IUI Corpora.
tk&, Nrw \ "orL
The Violin
40 I :-J S T R U ~l EN T S T ilE VI OLI N 41
Th e following diagram gives the location of the finger s for all the Ex. 36, open G is assumed to be a satisfacto ry equivalent of F double
natural note s in the first position . sharp.

"" EX. 36. \Vagncr- T annlJ.lw er: Baccbsnete p. 20, cd . Kalmus

, I
, ,.
..... 4# '
A.llfgro

ji
~
:' •
G ",
...' J
•• • J
0

0 ",.
o

, , • 2er
A",.
'
•
E "'.
vs . I
; IE

Fig. ,6

X ore th at the first finger is drawn bac k close to th e nut for F on the
E-string. the inter n I being a minor seco nd, instead of a majo r seco nd Open str ing tone s arc usually avoided in expressive melodic phrases.
as on th e other stri ngs. T he diagr am should be studi ed also for relati on- but they arc regularly empl oye d in fast scales and figures. Their sound
ships involving more than one str ing. For example, from first finger on is characteristic of stringed instruments, and mar even be exploited as
one string to second finger on the next higher string is a minor sixth; such (Ex. 37) .
fr om first finger on one string to fou rth finger on the next higher string
is an octave; fr om second finger on one str ing to third finger on the EX. 37. Brahm s-S)'111phonJ no. 4 P: I H, ed . Kalmus
next lower string is a perfect fourth, ere. Perfect fifths lie across the
strings at right angles.
"" ..
OPES STRI~GS

Duplicati on by the fourth finger of th e open string notes A. D, and \'JrI. II

E is an advanta ge peculiar to the first position . There is. however. a
marked difference in tone quality between the opcn su ing tones and
those stopped by the fingers. The former sound clearer and richer in
overtones, because the string vibrates between the bridge and the hard ACCID E XT AL S
wood of the nut rat her th an the flesh of the finger tip. But witho ut th e
A not e affected by an accide nta l is played with th e same finger as
cont rol of th e finger th e ope n to ne is susceptible to little mod ification
the nat ur al norcoO n rhe G -string, the first finger plays Ab , Ab, and A ~ .
by the bow, and it tends to sound wit h undue prominence. Further-
Also th e first finge r must play the sharped open string note G:. The
more, its pitch cannot be ad justed whi le playi ng (conside r the note A as
student should make a diagr am similar to that in Fig. 16, marking the
subdorninanr of E. and then as leading tone of fib). These discrepancies
location of the finger s on the strings for the playi ng of the follow ing
of intonation are generally tolerated as a necessary evil, notably in the
passage.
usc of natural harmonics, whose pitch is dependent on that of the ope n
string fundament al, and also in enharmonically notated passages. In
42 1:-; S T R U ~I E :-; T S TH E VIOLI:-; 43
12 3 4 012' 1 2

44, , "' "17 r

3 4 0 I 2
f
s -4 0 1 -1
CHRO:'\ IATIC PROGRE5SIOS
Fig. '9
T wo notes in ch romatic secp relat ionship are by tradition played
w ith the same finger. Th is requi res a more or less rapid shift of t he fin-
ger on the str ing ; hence, with a legat o bowing. a certa in amount of ISTONATION

p0rt amcnro is unavoidable. . G oo.d in to~ation (th at i.s. play.ing in tune) is a perpetual preoccupa-
n on With all instrumcntalisrs. Wind as well as strin g play ers. It is not
•, b. e,

4t, : e "
j
a 3
t
I
ffi
a
r i" ill
, j•
3 " 3 1 3
an absolute bur a relative value. howeve r. Observation and expe riments
have demonstrated th at in practi ce perf or mers do not adhere to anv of
the scienti fical.l)' codified standards of pitch. such as equal rcmpcrarnenr,
F;g. , 8
Pythagorean, Just. or mean-t on e inton ation. Nor do cs the player accept
Musically. the difference betw een (.J) and (b ) , in Fig. 18 is one of the rones he produces by using the proper fingering, crc., without sub-
ton ality. T he fragmen t (d) is understandable in the key of G , and ( b) jecting them to constant control and correction through th e car (ex-
in th e key of Ab. to mention two possible inte rpretations. T he un - cept, of .course, in the case of instruments like the harp or the piano.
~hose pitch cannot be adjusted while pbying) . It can be said that lead-
ort hodox fingering shown in (c) is enti rely feasible. and the pr inciple
of using a sepa rate finger for each chromati c step has in practice par- tog-ton es a.nd chro.ma ti c~ lIr .rJised nores arc playe d sharp and \'ery
~Ios~ to their melodi c destin ations, whereas flatted notes are played low
tiall y superseded th e time-honored one, as by this means a more distinct
10 pitch, and that th ere operates a co nti nual harm onic ad justment to
arti culation is obt ained, with out sliding or portamenro.
the sounds of othe r instrument s.
There can be no doubt of th e supe riority of fingering (c) for rapid
T~e ~eculi~r \'i?r::m c): noticeable in the tone of a group of strings
passages, but it should be recognized tha t at a slow er tempo the dif -
ferentiation in harmonic meaning suggested by (a) and (b) may be playin g 111 unison IS due In pan ro the minute differences in pitch that
sacrificed, not to mentio n th e elimination of certai n slides firmly estab- occur through out the grou p.
lished in wh at we know as "v iolin sty le." It is true that harmonic de-
vclopm ent s in th e twenti eth cen tury often demand complete accept- PO SITIOS T EC IIS IQIJE
ance of th e enharmonic notation of the tempered scale, but th e ch oice As the hand is moved to higher positions new groups of notes lie
of fingering should be gove rned by musical rath er than by mechanical under the fingers.
co nsiderations.
These two alte rnat ive fingerings are shown in th e following scale.
Obviously th e sound of th e finger slides is eliminated if a dbache bow-
ing is used, but the lower, older fingering remain s awkward even then.
+I I x 5 T R U ~I E ~ T S T HE YI OLl~
e:
Fingering at the top of the fingerboard is difficult not only becau se
[ -un ng
2 , 2 , • 2 , • of th e smallness of the int ervals and the extended position of the hand,
but also because the strings arc spaced fart her apart at the bridge tha n
at th e nut, to facilitate bowin g.
A-wmg T he E m oo octaves above th e open E·string may be recommended as
2
• 2 , 2 , • a good practical upper limit. exclusive of harm onics, for orchestral
violin parts.
D-m ing
2 , - 2
, • 2 , • H AL F POSITIOS

T he hand is said to be in half position when the first finger is a half

G.StriI'Ig
step from the nut and the second finger plavs notes usually played by
1 2 a , 2 a , 2 , • the first finger . Certain combinations of notes arc more conveniently
second position t hir d povincn Io urt b pu'>illon
fingered in this rather cramped position (Ex. 39) .
Fig. : 0
EX. 39. Stra\'insky-Apollon J /usJgete P: 18. ed. Boosey & Hawkes
The series m 3~' be co nt inued upward. wit h the qualification that on
th e lower strings high notes arc increasingly difficult of produ ct ion be-
cause of the shortness of the str ing in proportion to its thick ness. O n
the E-stri ng, tones can be played up to th e end of the fingerboard. and
even beyond. whe re diatonic intervals becom e smaller tha n the thick- Cop)Tilhl 1928 hy Ed ilio n RllS-e d~ "' us iqu~_ R ~n .e d ~dilion copl-ri ct t ."50 by Boost)· & Ih.wk ..._ l:~
h7 permi.iorl.
ness of the fingenips. The G: wri tten by Str auss in the following ex-
ample lies in the thirte enth position , and has a sounding str ing length
FOURT H FI:"GER EXTES SIO:-;
of a littl e more than an inch and three-quarters. It is played by t\V O
desks of violins, doubled at the unison by piccolo. and supported at the In the first position the left hand is capable of a str etch of an aug-
oct ave below by flute, Eb clarinet. and two ot her desks of violins. mented fou rth . and even a perfe ct fifth. from first to fourth finger. In
higher positions. extension of the fo urth finger bey ond the range of
EX. 38. Strauss-A /50 Sprscb Zsrubustra p. st. cd. Aibl the position is common procedure (Fig. 11).

os .' 0
J_

@~ §
Fig. 21
-~g . -
,
~ '
Rep r in led ,,.j Ib tbe pe 'mi......ion of th e copl,il:l,l o,,-nen C. f . Pete,s Corp<l':lt;on. ~e>" York .
46 IX S TR U .\I EXT S T H [ \ '1 0 LI x 47
Su ppression of th e po rtam enro in t he following example w o uld cer-
SHIFT OF POSITIO:S
tainly be inappro priate.
In chan gi ng from one position to anothe r, a slidi ng finger acts as a
guide to the interva l of change. The ha nd m ay Ol(W C to any of th e (-' X . 4 0 . St rauss-Der R oscnlea..'alier P: 330, ed. Boosey & H awk es
positions. but th e commonest shift is that f rom first to third , th ird to
fifth position. erc ., invol ving a slide of a third, usually fo r the first
finger (Fig . 22).
. ..-. ..
.- ,. '.-.
~,. ~
-

~. ,

~ u:,W. r - '"I
#
p-r
At
~ ~,..
I
a
[
eI
•
1 1

e a
l""-
j rd,
I""- ....
,dL \'111. II

Fig. 22

\ ·A.
..
T he gu iding finger is nor necessarily the sto pping finger in the new
position. Fig. 23 (a) is a cha racteristi c position shift. Th e first finger
o
slides fr om B to D , bur th e fo urt h finger stops G befo re D is hear d. ~
-r-:
The slide can be nude so q uickly as to he inaudible. bur it is often
permitted to sound fur expressive intensification . O t her shifts are
Cgpyrlchl 1910 by Adolf FUf'lt "rr, ~",i Kn"" 19H to Boovy &< lIu.-l,u, l.td l'scd b y pocrm i16IOD . ( For
shown in ( b) , ( e) . and (d). Pon....,.l I t.a.ly, Germ~n y, Dan" L l"SS R as 01 19J3: l u ' omer , Lid . Lo ndon.)

h· 2 4
, GLISSA X OO AS D P O R rA:\-{ E ~ T O

I' U A t rue gl issand o is made with one finger, o n one st ring, w ith legato
&.. . - · ' · 41
, lot.
I"'"
4t h .
I"'"
'w .
I"'" ....
5th.
....
. dL bow, and when it is prope rly executed all inter vening stages of pit ch
are so unded between the indicated limits.
F ig , 23
EX. 4 1. Ran l- Dapbnir et Chloe P' ' 97, ed. Durand
\ Vhen taste and t he sty le of the mus ic allow, the finge r t hat is to
play th e secon d note may nu ke a sligh t po rtament o o n t he st ring just
before reaching the note. In a desce ndi ng shif t, th e port:unetlto o n
quitting the uppe r note is kep t to a minimum, the thumb acting as a
guide to the lower position .
T he sliding sounds can be reduced to ncar impercepribiliry, o r they
can be eliminated alt ogether, by skillful manipulatio n of the bow and Th is glissando is sco red as un ison and octaves for first an d seco nd
fingers. H o wever , th ey arc idiomatic in st ring playi ng, and sometimes violins, violas, half t he 'cellos, and basses, all on th eir open A- strings,
a parti cular finge ring th at w ill produce them is deliberately ch osen . sliding up and down two octaves in fast tempo.
a I S S T R U~l E N T S T HE VIO LI N 49

In Ex . 42, G -st ring and A- string are de signated, althou gh the glis- EX. 44 . .\1ahlcr-Sy mpbollY 110. 4 p. 1 19 . ed . Ph ilharmonia
sandos writt en could not be made on any other strings. T u nquillo .~

EX • •,p . Bartuk-D.mce Suite p. 8. ed . Ph ilhannonia \ ' !, . I ~ --=.. F ' - IV'" •

PI' =~~_ PPI'
JI.III/ • • •

-:Wi ! I
Likewise the glissando in the next example cannot be literally exe-
It is evident that composers fail to distinguish between ponemento cuted . After the open E is reached. somcrhing like a rapidly fingered
and gliss.Jlldo, and it is unnecessary that a pedantic dist inction should chromatic scale or parcial glissando on the lower strings must be sub-
be made. Portamcnto seems to imply a manner of connecti ng melodic stituted.
tones, and one thinks of a glissando as cove ring a fairly wide interval,
bu t these conditions are not mutua lly exclusive. Care should be taken in EX. 4 5. Ravel- La V alse P' 39. ed. Durand
the notation to show as accurately as possible the exact effect intended.
A straight line from one note to anothe r is commonly used as a sign
of porramento, although there is often doubt as to how complete a ~, ~ ~ .t-f~
.\ Iouvemcnl de ,·~Il.e vie n nosse

.-
~
P I Z'Z-

slide is wanted. In E-,<. 43 a real glissando with one finger could be made
Po:nn iaNon p~n tffl b}" D u , ~n d
.
f l Cif•• F aris. eopyril(hl ",".-nfl"S; Ella.n-\ 'Oli;fl . P h ilad el p h il , Pa.- . II:MIS
where the lines are marked, but, on the other hand , the lines may be
taken simply as suggesting a musical style in which more than usual
emphasis is ginn to the portamentos associated with position shifts. WIDE SKIPS

Ex. 44 is more problematical. A complete portamento from the C down T o judge the degree of diffi culty in fingering wide leaps one con-
to the E is out of the question . since the upper note is (00 high to take siders the str ings involved and the position displacement necessary . The
on the G -strin g. The most the performer can do is to make a small slide skip of two octaves and a major sixth in Ex. 46 passes from the G-string
at the beginning and end of the descent. to the E-string. and the hand must move from first position (third finger
C) to seventh position ( fourth finger A ). This is equi valent to a slide
EX. 43. M ahler-Sy m phollY 110 . 4 P' I 18, ed. Philharmonia from C up to B for the thi rd finger. an interva l of a major seventh on
one string.

"N . I
EX. 46. Brahms-SY711phony no. 3 p. 49. ed. K almus

""".1
50 IN S T R U ~ 1 E N T S TH E VIO LI N
Similarly. it is necessary to cross over two st rings in the next example, right instant. It must be admitted, however, tha t keen cars arc not de-
bur it happens that the left hand does not have [Q change position to cei ved .
play the two lower notes on the G -string. All are in the sixt h position.
except th at the initial B is better pl ayed on the more brill iant E-string EX. 50. Berg-Lyric Suite P' 36, ed . Universal
in third position.

EX. 47. H olsc- T be Planets p. ' 9. ed, Boosey & H awkes

Open st rings may take part in passages in which t he hand remains in

a high position.
l 'sed hy P<'rmlulon 01 J. Curw on & Sons, Ltd .

Skips made on one st ring arc apt to dema nd more displa cement of the EX, 51. Hindemith-Sym phony ill E Flat p. 126, ed. Schott
hand . In t he following exam ple, the leap of a tenth from F~ to A mean s a
shift from first to seventh position, just as ~for the much greate r interval
in Ex. 46.

EX. 48. ,\ Iahler-Sy mp bony no. 9 p. 11 8, ed. Boosey & H awk es

. ~ ~ CH Oi CE OF F1 XGERIS GS
All",. ~ ' r-::-.. v~ i~
v
~ ~~.;"""' .e,"'~
~. , N ,
. ,.,
==:
'.
.-.... .
S UIii2Ei
...

"~ "
_ . . " _ "
I
---= r-
Copyr ichl 1911; ree ewed 19-10. by C"ivu...... Edition A.. G . l·..w, by permission.
I =
_-
l\fore than one fingering is possible for any succession of notes, and
the one selected is not always tha t which is most convenient for the
fingers. Simplifi cation of bowing. by eliminating suing changes. is
sometimes a predominant consideration. O ften a fingering with more
If the 1\v0 notes are to be slurred, th e interval must be arranged so position shifts is adop ted in orde r to presene the unity of tone color
th at either a single string, or two adjacent strings, can be employed, and special quality of a single string, or to give a part icular expressive
since the bow cou ld not play legato and at the same time jump over tum to a melody. The stu dent's att ention is called to the importance
intervening strings, of developing an appreciation of these differences in the sounds pro-
duced by stringed instrum ents.
EX. 49. Reger-A Romantic Suire, op. 1Z 5 P' 48, ed . Bore & Bock In recent years one not es a strong tend ency to ward a liberation of
violin fingering techniqu e from the traditional system of positions. It
cannot be denied that many forced and unnatural fi nger positions are
the result of "correct" fingering, and that these produce bad intonation.
W ith au U1orizatfon of th e orici n ai pu blish t B Ed . Bol t .. C . Bod< . Ikrlin . Wi~baden. Accomplished and experienced players find that they prefer to discover
fingerings most suited to the shape of the hand , of th eir own individua l
A ski llful player can give a fairly good imp ression of a legato skip hand, without reference to con ventional patterns and positions, so that
across intervening strings by light ening and slowing the bow at the the notes to be played lie convenient ly unde r the fingers that are to
 1;-'; 5 T R U .\ 1 E;-'; T 5 T ilE VI O Ll ;-'; 53
52
play them. Doubtless these principles will one dar be incorporated into The A- string is fairly strong in the first position . losing some bril-
the teaching of violin playing. liance and power as the string becomes shorter in upper positions. For
a soft, expressive phra se in that range, it is generally preferable to move
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STRISGS up the A-string rather than pass over to the E ( Ex. 53) .

While there is much more unity of timbre in a stringed instrument

EX. 5) . Brahms-Symphony no. J P' 6], ed. Kalmus
than in a woodwind, there exists in this respect within the homogeneity
of the violin a striking variety and even contrast of colors and dynamic
range . This is largely because of the differences in sound between the
VS . I
four strings. Since the pitch ranges of the strings overlap, the possibili-
ties for variety are multiplied, and we cannot designate characteristics of

-
low, medium, and high registers, as we do for wind instruments.
The E-str ing is made of steel. T he radical change to t his material fr om
gut, in the int erests of g reater brilliance and durability, occur red in ,
th e first quart er of the present century and was felt by many to be a The least powe rfu l str ing is the D-string. It has a quie t, subdued
disaster because of th e loss of a certain silky and mellow quality. quality in contrast to the G, and is especially suited to certain calm
A-strings are of gut, although some orchestra players now use a metal types of expression (Ex . 54).
A . The Dvsrring iseither of gut or gut wound with aluminum wire. Th e
Gcsrring is always a wound string, silver or copper wire over gut being EX. 54. Beethonn-Piano Concerto no. 4 P' a, ed. Philharmonia
the commonest material . D- and G-strings entirely of metal are also
used.
n •. I
T he tu ning pegs to which the st rings are attached are held in position
by the friction of a good fit. A knot or a loop attaches the other end of
the string to the tailpiece. Metal strings require a special screw device
on the tailpiece for tuning fine differences.
T he E-string has the most carrying power. Forceful and even stri-
w ! B ig
dent at times, it is also capable of an ethe real quality, luminous and
clear, when played softly (Ex. 52). The G -string is next to th e E-string in sonorous strength. It is excel-
lent for broad melodies rising as high as th e seventh or eighth position,
EX. 51 . Milhaud-Second Symphonic Suire P: 69, ed. Durand although it has a ten dency to hoarseness in the extreme high ron es. A
cautious limit for melodies on th e G- string would be an octav e and a

~
fourth above th e open string (Ex. 55) .
n ". 1

~;g
Pennissl OD ....rued by DlIt.nd ct Cie., Puis. cop yt iant ow ners ; Elkp-VOSCI, Ph ill.dclph iJ,. PL • • sc nb.
54 I:\' S T R U ~I E:\' T S TilE VIOLl:\, H
E X. 55. hl ahlcr-SYlllpl!oIlY 110. 3 P' 213. cd. Boosey & Hawkes Most violin music will req uire the use of more than one string for
a given phrase. Th e passing from one string to anot her is don e in a way
to reconcile thei r di ff erences and as far as possible to pr esen'e con-
\ v. I
• .1 tinuity of colo r and intensity.

Rne n v

".
DOt:nLE-sTOPS ASD CHORDS
';l' •• _
~
11Ior rn J o
l· ....d b}" prrm iu ion o r l"n in rs.al E d;! ,,," .,. G.

T he next example illust rates a way of avoidi ng loss of volu me and

fo rce by using the G-string instead of the weaker D. QD
EX . 56. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra P' ;6, ed. Boose)' & H awkes
Anda nte \\ ••.•••••.

'~". " , I :'£Z 7 __ '_ _ S: • OM 0 , :: .,- :'fi Fig, 24

f -=; umpuf
The above representa tion of bridge. strings, and bow shows how
COPl riJ h t 19"6 "b y H ~ .. -k~ &: Son ( Lo n d on) t .ld. l""" b y pr rm iu 'on .
little ch ance in the elevation of the rinhr
~ 0
lund is ncccssarv.
fo r the bo w
Loud accented notes on the G-string can be for ceful to th e degree of to play on different stri ngs. Th e Low can be drawn in a plane to engag e
ferocity. two strings at once. w hatever the posit ion of the left hand ( Fig. 2sa) ,
It cann ot be draw n acros s three str ings at once, unless enough pr essure
EX . 57. ROllsscl-Sympbony in G Minor P: 39, ed . Durand is pur upon it to depress the midd le string of the three int o the same
plane with the ot her two. T his is done in three -parr cho rds that arc
loud and of short du ration ( Fig. 2Sb ) . O therwise, in both three-part
and four-parr chord s. eithe r th e top note or the two to p notes are held
after play ing the low er no tes as grace note s (Fi g . 2SC and d). It is the
Custom ro play th e lower notes before the beat. If suc h anticipation is
not desired, a notation like rhnr show n in ( e) should be employed.

Pu mlulon llrantcd by Durand rt Cie. , Pari s, cop yright ownr u ; Elk Jn ·'·oJ:rl , Philadelphia. Pa ., a grn ts.
played

To signify that a passage is to be played on a certa in string, the pas-

sage may be marked sui G (o r D or A ), with a dortcd line cont inuing
i f O' iN
as far as necessary. O ne should realize. however, th at a violinist selects
his finge ring acco rding to the mu sical and techn ical dema nds of the
moment, and ordinarily such indication s are need ed only w hen a special ' '/ '/ "V
effect is inten ded, Fig. ' ;
56 1:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E:-: T 5
The notation in Fig. 25 (c) makes fo r fussiness in the sco re, and co m-
posers generally h:1XC been content to w rite the phi" chord, rely ing on
the musical intelligence of performer and conducto r for a proper
rhythmic execution. In the opening tutti chords of the Eroica, t he first
violins must sound the four strings as nea rly simultaneously as t hey
can, to match the staccato of the other instruments. (T he example is
ginn in condensed score. All inst rumen ts ar c not ated at actu al pirch.)
T HE VIOLl:-: 57
One finger can stop t w o adjacent stri ngs at once (the interva l of a
perfect fifth), but it cannot Stop three or four.
Th e less awkw ard and strained the hand position the Letter the chord
will sound, and the less likely that it will be Out of tunc . One good
rul e is to try to have th e higher-numbered fingers on higher strings.
The following two contrasting cases will illust rate th is.

EX. 58. Bccth o\'cn-SY111phou y no . 3 P' I, ed. K almus

Alit gro ~on boo
.l" .~
," 'i • ~",S§§§~
c tr
I~"
"". --
"'. '"
Fig. 26

The hand position for (.1 ), with its outward slant. is practically th at
of th e relaxed hand when the fo rearm is held upwards. In (b), not only
m ust the hand be forced into a t w isted position. hut also th e free vibra-
tion of the E- an d A-strings is ap t to be inter fered w it h. It is not th at
t he chord is un playable but that ( a) is mu ch mo re cert ain and effective.
r Com plex and awkward finger combinations need more time to set in
I place t han simple and convenient ones.
H '"-f~
"'* ~
O pen strings arc frequently used in chords and double-stops. T hey
may be com bined with stopped notes in higher positions (Fig. 27).

I ~'S _ II t 1 4 t
.~ --- ......... ,

"'". II ~ \ 'II,. ,.. \,, 'd .

P
D·
~
(Jrdpos.)
r:
2
• • •

~
" ..
vc
Fig. ' 7
D-8 , . .
- The un ison of stopped ton e and open string is very resonant , es-
T he student can bcsr determine t he practicability of any mu ltiple pecially in t remolo.
stopping by the method of making diagrams showing rhe location of rhe
fingers, at least until he gains enough experience to be ab le to picture EX, 59' Prokofiefl-c-Coc nr P: 11 J. cd. Guthcil
t hese positions in his imagination. T he practice of making suc h dia-
grams will go far toward giving him that expe rience. T he foll ow ing
points will be found usef ul in writing chords for t he violin.
58 INSTR UM ENT S TH E VIOLIN 59
The finger positions for thre e- and four-part chords arc often the The upper limit for natura l harmonics on the violin is generally
basis for arpeggio figures across the st rings. The bow may play legato placed at the fifth harmonic; that is, t\VO octaves and a major thi rd
back and fo rt h ( Ex. 60 ) , or it may bounce lightly by its 0\1/0 elasticity above the open st ring. In practice. the higher ha rmonics would pr ob-
(Ex. 6,) . ably be taken as art ificial harmonics. up to t he fourt h O[ fift h position
on the E-string. although still higher harmonics have been wri tt en
EX. 60. \Vagner-Die lValk iire: Siegnnmds L iebeslied
(Ex. 6).
P' '5. ed. Eulcnbu rg
EX. 6 ). Cop land-Sympbony no. 3 p. ' 5' . ed. Boosey & H awkes

Examples arc nu merous of high pedal nores in harmonics, frequently

with bowed trem olo. Their effect is enhanced by mutes; and in soft
nuances cho rds in harmonics for divided violins, muted, make an at-
EX. 61. Rimsky-K orsakoff-c-Cspn coc Espegnol P: 9. ed. Kalmus tractive background of atmospheric color.
Artificial harmonics in quick succession, with either legato or de-
tache bow , involve-continual shifting. much like playing a melody with
one finger.

EX. 64. ,\ filhaud-SympbollY no. 2 P: z t , ed. Heuge!

Copyrllhl by M. P. Belli.!!"; aole Icenu Boosey & Ib..... l<u . t: aed by permission .

HARMONICS Rep rod uced by pet mi Mion of Ile ugel el Cle., Paris, o.... ners of lhe copyright.

Although harmonics are primarily a coloristic resour ce, the octave The glissando in natura l harmoni cs is effective with a body of strings.
harmoni c is frequentl y employed as a normal (One in the melodic line, The upper half of the srring is brushed lightly wirh the third or fourrh
whether or not the composer has so indicated. finger , the harmonics sound ing at the nodes. There is no sound of
portament o between the notes.
EX. 6,. Schuberr-Sy mphony no. 5 P' 44. ed. £ ulenburg
1 •
2,..--,0
p~
3_
, ~ .
F :(1 Sr i 1t If
C. F. Peten Corporl-
60 rx S T R U ,\ 1EN T S THE Vl OLl :" 61

EX. 65- Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu P' 12 , ed. Broude Bros. for instance, as opposed to one player to a part in the case of wo odwind
or brass. Th e two sections of violins far outnumber any other gro up,
Moho moderato 0
co.n n/nl . kg.uo o...o ~ while presentin g on the printed page a look of equali ty .
glm. nU D .. o~
0 _ T he parr for second violins, in a symphony orc hestra, differs little in
technical difficulty fro m that of the first violins. Indeed. one of the
commonest functions of th e second violins is to do uble th e firsts at the
unison or octa ve. T his was necessary in the classical perio d because of
the comp aratively small number of violins available to balance horn s
and trumpets. But also in mode rn times we find that over tw ice as m:lny
Rcp rod un d by ~rmission of }. &: W. Chestn Ltd ., London . violins are still not adeq uate to cope with the sonority of an enormously
expand ed brass section.
An unusual, delicate effect is obtained with an arpeggio across the:
The first violin part is usually th e to p voice of the strings and carries
strings, in harm onics .
the largest share of promi nent the matic material. Scared on th e left of
the conductor, at the edge of the stage, the first violins play with thei r
EX. 66. Ranl-L'Hwre Espagnole p. 12 I , ed. D urand
instruments in th e most advan tageous position relative to th e audience.
If the second violins arc seated on the right, in tr aditional fashion, their
instruments are turned away fro m the audience and some sound is
lost. If they are massed with the first violins. as some conductors prefer.
",1'1 . I p
~" they are still domin ated by the first violins who are between them an d
the listeners, and the effect of independence and antiphony often
imagined by the composer is much redu ced. This is one of th e many
"
Pc rm ia.sion p-I nt«! b)' Du rand ( 1 Cir .• PiUi~. copy r i~1 o.. ners; E!kan ·\'ogt'l. Ph l1" delphia . P I , .~ nu.. acoustical probl ems standing in the way of an exact science of orches-
tration.
T he artificial harmonic created by touching a perfect fifth above
The second violins may have a secondary melodic part, or they may,
the sto pping first finger sounds a twelfth above th at fundamental. It
for variety, be substituted for th e first violins. They may engage in ac-
is rare ly used in orchestral scores, bur some instances arc foun d in
com paniment figures of e\'cry sort, either by themselves or associated
m8dcrn music.
, with first violins or other strings. In Ex. 68, in the first and third mcas-
ures, the two sections alternately play figures from a single line, giving
EX. 67. Bartok-Dance Suite P' J I, ed. Philh arm onia
it more secu rity and energy thro ugh the simplification of each part and
the overlapp ing unisons at the joints.

Cop yr ilht 1924 by u e tve..... l Ed ition. Cop yr igh t a»i gned 1939 to 800s<'y .. Jb ...kn Ltd. UOl'd by
roc rmiu ion.

F I RST AXD SECOXD HOUSS

In score reading it is essential to bear in mind that a string part is

played by a number of playe rs. a wh ole section of sixteen first violins,
62 I N S T R U ,\ 1E N T S T HE VI O LI N 63
E X, 68. Brahms-Symph olly 110. 4 P: 1J5, ed. Kalmus
Alkg~o
, ,.*, •
energico
.
n< . •

Vll', II

, Re pr i n l ~d ".-it h the pe rmiss ion of th e sole agen ts for E ulcn l> urg l>l: nlature Sco res: C, F , Pe ters Corpo ra-
li on, :-;.w \ 'o r l<.

SOLO VIOLI N
D ivided vio lins playing in parts may be employed unaccompanied by
other instruments. In the following excerpt, the strings are reduce d to Many sco res of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries contain parts
four first violins, soli. for solo violin. to be played by the concertmaster. These solo parts
vary in importance from the oc casional phrases in " ~agncr and .\tahler
EX. 69. Liszt-A Faust Symphony p. 148, ed. E ulen burg to a de velop ed obbligato of concertolike proportion s and virtu osity, as

Andanre soave
in Ein H cldcnleben, by R ichard Strauss. T he reason for choosing t he
sound of a solo violin is not merely that a reduction in volume is sought.
A single instrument possesses an intimate intensity in its tone quality
p
sempr~ tegltto e dola and expression; by comparison the complete section sounds formal and
impersonal. This is one of the motivating factors in t he trend toward
the small orchestra in t he twentieth cent ury .
4 p dolce espras. A n acoustic ph eno menon to be noted when the solo violin plays in
'"u t he mid st of a large orchestra is its surprising abi lity to make itself
. .. 1
heard . It is well known that two instruments playing the same parr do

----. not create twice the sonority of one. T heir overtones are dulled by
minute pitch differences and, moreover, their individual expressiveness
is canceled in favo r of a composite level. The solo vio lin, playing an

p
-- ind ependent part, ca n in no way be looked upon as merely the sixteenth
part of th e first vio lin section.
Performers are cognizant of th ree attitudes. or approaches. adopted
in the playing of music. These are the orchestral style, the chambe r
D
64 I :-.: 5 T R U ~ I EN T 5
music style. and the solo style. Playing in an orchestra , the ind ividual
allows himself to be absorbed in the mass. In c hambe r music style. the
C HAPTER THREE
performer retains his individuality wh ile sh:u ing it on an equal basis
with his associates. The soloist is properly assertive and aggressive.
striving to project rhe music vvirh all the vigor and authori ty at his
command . T his atti tude contributes to the distinction of the solo violin
pact. TH E V IO LA
Fr., a/to,' It., . . ';0/'1; C er., Brssscbe

pr op ortions of the viola cannot be as nearly defin ed as th ose

T
HE
of the violin. which can be said to h J \ ' C a sta nda rd size within
quite sma ll limits of variation. Fin e violas exist, and are being
played. whose measurem ents show variati ons of I ;~ to 2 inches in body
lengt h, and comparable differences in sounding string lengrh s. It seems
that every imaginable combination of measurements has been tried in
th e as ye r unfinished evolutionary process. the goal of wh ich is to
achieve an instrumental design that will answe r to a common ideal of
the viola's sound and capabilities. T his common ideal is being delayed
in its crystallizing by an unusual diverge nce of opi nion among per-
formers, composers. and listeners, borh as to what kind of tone rhe viola
should produ ce and what kind of music it should be expected to play.
The viola presents an especially marked example of the con tinuity of
the evoluti onary process, w hich we canno t assume to be com plered in
the case of any of our instruments.
A hypothetical norm or average may be given for the principal
measurements: length of body 16% inch es; length of neck 6 Yt 6 inc hes;
over-all length 27 ~ inch es; sounding length of strings 15'Y4 inc hes.
Even the largest violas are not big enough in comparison wit h the violin
to correspond to the pitch a perfect fifth lower, and this discrepancy 15
doubtless responsible in large part for the unique tone qua lity of th e
viola. The larger the instru ment the more difficult it is to handle, es-
pecially when playing in upper positions.
The bow is somewhat rhicker than the violin bow, and hence heavier.
•5
66 1:-; S T R U .\ 1 E:-; T S T HE VIO L A 67
The viola's heavier strings speak with more relu ct ance. and tone pro- The harmonic obtainable by extension of the fourth finger in the
du ction requires a certain amo unt of "digging in." Light and airy types seventh position is sho w n in the diagr am. as it represents a pr act ical
of bowi ng arc t herefore less natural to the viola than [0 t he violin. upper Jimit for orchestral writing . Except as harmonics, notes higher
Thev are nor to be shunne d. but one sho uld realize that on ly skillful tha n this are rarely written, and nearly always they are doubled by
players with good instruments can make them sou nd effect ively. violins.
The two lower strings arc wound with wire, the others being plain
gut. Some players usc wound strings for all four, and metal A-strings EX. 7 0 . Prokofi eff- ChoU! p. 53, ed. Gutheil
are also used.

FI:"GF:RISG

The fingering system of the viola is identical with th at of the violin .

V4~~' / l' / - 1' /
Copyri l!:hl 1924 b)" Br(itkopf t: H irtd ( A Cuth.il). Co p) ri &bl assi&ll~ 19047 10 ~)" .. U. ~Ir. ... Cltd
Since there is a difference of some 2 % inches in the two str ing lengths, b)" pum iaioft.

th e ma jor and minor seco nd int ervals bet ween the finge rs arc propor-
tionately large r. Playi ng the viola requires a Luge lund and strong fin- CLEFS
gers. particularly the fourth finger. whi ch is held in a more extended
The normal clef for the viola is the alto clef (middle C on the third
position than on th e violin . The extension of the left for earm in the first
line) . The treble def (G def) is employed when the part lies sub-
position prons tiring after long pl<l.ying. Positions above the third are
stanti ally above the range of the alto clef for a length of time. Too
inconven ienced by the awkwardness of getting around the shoulder of
many clef changes shou ld be avoided. A violist is quite accustomed
the viola with the left hand.
to reading two or three leger lines above the staff, and he would pr efer
to do so rather tha n change clef for just a few notes.
PO SITIOSS

lim posirioI\

• ~ . - ~
- HALF POSITlOS

0
• 2 , • •
• 2 , • I 2 , • •
Because of the wider spa ces between fingers. the half position is more
co nvenient on the viola than on the violin and is more frequent ly used.

D-string
0 I 2 a • I 2
-•
a
•
I 2 ,• •
0

EX. 7 1. Brahms-Symphony no. 2

Allegro con spirirc
p. 97, cd. Kalmus

C- ~tring
-,. ~ V4~r§J~ J1P Z .fo 8 2 1 Z .fo 2 1 2 8 2 I ==--

0 I 2 , • I 2 , • I 2 , • •
CHAR..\CTERISTICS OF THE STRI~GS
0

Cstring - Ad jectives used to describe the tone of the viola, or of any other
•o instrument, cannot do more than direct the-stu dent' s attention to cer-
tain admitt edly general and " agu e attributes. There is no way other
 I N S T R U ~I EN T S T HE V IO LA 69
68
tha n actua l hear ing to stor e up the memory imp ressions that make pos- While th e G-stri ng is subd ued in comparison with the A- and
sible t he mental hearing abi lity indispensable for the practice of the art C-strings. it gives a riche r and warmer tone than the violin's G.
of orchestration. O ne must develop the capacity to call to mind the
EX . 74. Debussy- N oct1lrJIes: N uages P' 10, cd. j obcrr
sound of each instrument, comparing it to other instruments, but it
is also important to distinguish differences in tone qual ity present in
each sing le instr ument.
The top string of the viola presents a striking contrast to the other
Perml q lon for .., pri nt Ilran ted b~' Edition< J ea n Jobert, Pa ris. F ranc e, cop yriliht o wners " Elkan-Vogel
three strings. Its timbre has been described as nasal, piercing, penetrat- Co.. Inc" Philade:p hia. Pa . ag ent. . •
ing. and sandy. It has a tendency to sound unduly prominent, but it
The C-st ring of the viola is the only one bevo nd the ranvc of the
goes without say ing that a goo d performer kee ps a smooth balance in
violin. It is powe rf ul and distinctive i~ timbre: Although c~inciding
passing from the D~srring to the A. The Acsmng's individuality is well
with part of the range of the 'cello, its tones arc in sharp contrast to
exhibited in the following example.
the sound of th e D -string of the 'cello. Those who look for subjective
P: ed. n..I usicu s qualities find it foreb oding and menacing . III the following examp le,
EX. 72. Shostakovich-Sympl.lOuy no. 5 12 ,
with vigorous de tac hc bowing, in the lower half of the how , it gives
mu ch solidity and encrgy to rho string unison.

EX. 75. Bart(',k- COl1certo for Orcbestm P' 89, cd. Booscy & H awk es
Pr esto
IV -
\'N . I

~
Copyright 1945 by Lre ds Music Corporation. :\ew York . Card by perm i, sion.
H
. "
T he D -string is unobtrusive and gentle, although it has more rone-
weight than the D of the violin. It is, w ith the G -string, the best part \ ·N. II

of the viola for the many kinds of accompaniment figure commonly H ==-'
allotted to it, and it is excellent fo r melodies like the follow ing. H ere
the violas play in octaves w ith the oboe for two measures, and w ith the \ ·A_

flut e for the rest of the phrase.

EX. 73. Brahm s-SY1Jlphon y no. 3 p. 9, cd. Kal mu s

Allegro
11/n:u f ) o u . --=--. -. ~

,. 'H~¢ l t a ~!£!i~I!§!J~f'~~r~
I' grazioso The Osrring is also capab le of soft. delicat e tones, as m this ac-
companim en t figure for divided violas.

~ -- F r~-
I
Pl' ~
70 [:-;STR U~t EN T S
TH E VIOLA 71
EX. 76. St rauss- Tod und Vcrlcldrung p. .p , ed. Kalmus tremolo on t he low er strings. H eld chords fo r w inds are om itted from
the example.

EX . 78. Beethoven-Violin Concerto P' 8, cd. Eulcnburg

Allegro rna non troppo
Repr int ed with th e pcrmi..ion of the (opy,igh t owllNS C, F . l'ttOfS CorpuratiQ o , !'ew York.

MELOD IC lJSES

The situation of the viola in the middle of the pitch range of the
strings seems [0 I\ave made it the busiest member of the group. It is not
only appropriate for melodies of its own, but it is constantly called upon
to double violins at the octave or unison, or it may double the 'cellos or
even the basses. T he character and the sound of the viola arc more
suited co singing melody than to the performance of agile figuration .

IXH.:llLE SOTES

It has always fallen to the viola to perform a great deal of harmonic

filling up. V iola pans in scores of the classical period and later abound Rep ri nted ..d th the per mi ssi on of th e sole agents for Eul enburg Min ia.ture Scores: C. F. Peters Co rpora-
lIon . Ne w York.
with passages in double notes, often without indication as to whether
or not these are to be play ed divisi . The fac t that the y are nea rly always When two not es lie both on the C-string, as in measure 2 of th e next
practicable as double-stops, by good players, suggests that this may example, thcy must of course be play ed divisi.
have bee n optional, but it is certain that the result is neater and the in-
tonation more secure w hen th e part is divided. Example 77 shows that EX. 79. Wagner-Prelude to Parrifal p. 'j, cd. Eulenburg
M ozart considered violas entirely adequate and suitable for thc im- Sehr 13 n~m

portant accompanim ent at t he beginning of the G M inor Symphony. 'LIl,!,'1 1 "l

,~ i I~ >'i ~ 1 1; g 1===8
~
f1<I&O/ "
EX. 77. Mozart- Sy mphony in G Minor, K. 550 P: I, ed. Ph ilharmonia R.ep rl nted ..ith th e Il«m usion of th e sole a.gents for Eulenburlt Miniature Scores ' C. F. Pet ers Corpora..
tion , Ne.. Yor k.

In a modern orchestra there are usually twelve violas, In th e per iod

of H aydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the number w as at most five, with
six to ten first violins and six to ten second violins. V iolas have a heavier
tone than violins, and in classical sco res the re is go od evidence th at the
T he absence of double notes in the viola part contributes to the
divided violas were th ough t a sufficient balance for the combined first
transparency and fleetness of the orchestration of the Overture to T he
and second violin s.
Magic FJUle, whereas on the other hand the massive vibrancy of the
Also, there are numerous instances in which the se divided violas are
Beethoven tutti shown in Ex. 78 is largely due to the violas' three-part
combined with wind instruments , like the foll owing.

D"
 INSTRUMENTS THE VIOLA 73
72
EX. 80. \j lozart-Symphony in C Afajor, K. 200 P' 3. ed . Philharmonia The practice of dividing violas remains widespread to the present
day, alrhough one cannot say it is consistent eno ugh to become the
Allegro spiritOSO
rule. There arc many scores (e .g., Ravel's Dapbnis et Chloe) in wh ich
the violas are given regularly two lines in th e score. There are likewise
p scores in which divided violas are a rarity (e.g., Stravinsky's Symp hony
in C ). It is now mandato ry to mark clearly eith er div. or non diu. wh en
there are double notes.
p
VIOLA S AS BASS

A light bass situa ted in the octave below middl e C is sometimes bet-
. =. .. -
~
p
ter given to violas than to 'ce llos, in eith er areo or pizzicato.

EX. 8, . Mahler-Symphony no. 7 p. 236, ed . Bore & Bock

". ~

"c.
, ,
Do'. ,'L "'f
P + 3 OB.
/,
~

"'f

VN . ,

PI'
pizz.
VA.

P d~tl;(:b
piz.z.

PI'
With authoriution of the oxlainal publishers Ed . Bote &: G. Bod.., Berli n, W ies~ den.

DOUBLE-STOPS AND CHORDS

It is wise to adhere to the principle that the maximum stretch from

first to fourth finger is the equivalent of a perfect fourth on one string,
M INSTRUMENTS T HE V IOLA 71
for chords and double-stops in th e lower positions. The playability of EX. 84. Strav insky-Le Sacre du Printemps P' 10, ed . Ru sse
any combination can be judged by making diagrams similar to tho se
advised for the violin. Three-part chords will be found more generall y
usefu l than four-part chords unless a fairly heavy effect is want ed, and
open-spaced chords sound better than those in close position .
In the following example of a viola passage in a full tutti, the double-
stops and chords arc skillfully chosen (0 give the maximum sonority.
Notice the large number of open string notes employed.
Copyrlaht 1921 by Ed ition Ru ese de Mus iQue. r""d by pennission.

EX. 82 . D'Indy-Symphony on a French Mountain Air

p. 5) . ed. D ur and PI ZZICATO

J: H ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~
It is not iceable between the variou s stringed instruments that the

... B ! I. JY~
greater the str ing length the more resonant are the tones played piz-
zicato . The viola pizzicato is slightly rounder, less dry and short, than
~~
th at of the vio lin in comparable register. H igh notes on the A-string
A A A ~A'"
tend to sound hard and wooden above E or F. This quality may be
l!u! , l !,~, ~
turned to advantage in appropriate musical circumstances. In the next
examp le th e viola doubles the first oboe at the unison, the first flut e
Perm imon grankd by Dur and el Cie., Par is. copy righ t own ers ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia. Pa., a gents.
playin g an octave above.
H ARM O'S ICS
EX. 85. Roussel-Suite en Fa p. )0. ed. D urand
All harmon ics are good. as on the violin. Artificial harmonics are
seldom w ritten above the th ird position D on the A-st ring.

p. 40, ed. H ansen

4 pip P '0 '0 ~ J , I I

Perm ls5ion gr anted by D ur and et Cie.• Paris. copyrigh t own ers ; Elkan-\'ogel, P hiladelph ia. Pa.• agents.
U loI:d by pe rml.sion.
A n example of extreme high pizzicato is fou nd in Alban Berg's Vio-
Several notes above this D are perfectly playable as artificial har- lin Co ncerto, w here it is emp loyed in unison with harp, two flut es,
monics, but there is little occas ion for th eir assignment to violas rather and tw o clarinets. It is interesting to note that w hereas these instruments
than to violins. The lower-pitched harmonics of the viola are in a more are playing If, the violas arc marked {.
generally usefu l range.
For the glissando in harm onics, the longer string makes possible the
extension of the natural series as far as the nimh partial. Notice the
inclusion of the seventh harmon ic in the follow ing example.
 INSTRUMENTS THE VIOLA 77
76
EX, 86. Berg-Violin Concerto p. 70, ed. Universal EX. 89. Debussy-Gi!{lleS P' 33. cd. Durand
Mooed

V~

Copyr ight 19JO b)" L'niver. al Edition A. G . t:~ d by ~r m ission .

At another place in this work, Berg indicates pizzicato to be played
over the fingerboard (Griffbrett) and then at the bridge (St eg). These
differences in the manner of plucking the string have been little studied
by composers, although used by players to obtain variations of tone
quality. The score also contains the following example of left-hand
pizzicato on the open C- and D-srrings, while the bow plays on the
G-string.
.'"
Permbslon &ranted b y D ur a nd et Cle. , Pa ris. copyright ownelll~ El k..n·\'ogel. I'hiladelphia , P a., agen ts.
The bow is frequently moved near to the bridge in the course of
normal playing, in order to obtain more bite in the tone and a crisper
rhythmic attack. This is doubtless the purpose of some uses of the in-
dication sul ponticelio. The mute is a practical obstacle to the proper
position of the bow for a real ponticello effect.

EX. 87. Berg-Violin Concerto P' 66, cd. Universal EX. 90. Strauss-Der Rosenlavatier P' 109, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
.1.280
tnDnuillo
ttri(j"-.- rsprns.
-/ --= -== ..-s- ~~ ~nJ P~ri:d_I
~ ' : . ,- ___ ___ .:
v~m,t:f\ n~qt\Aj~
~ "e¥~ ~~.'*
v~BU#;i -=~~ -----===
con S07d. PP .' . .
(+ ~ with the kit hand)· • • • • Cop)·rig ht 1910 by Adolf F " rst n er , aSlli gm d 1~~3 to Boosey & Haw ke s. Ltd . C!led b y p erm isaion ( Fo r
Port"ga.l, Italy, Ge rm an y, D a n, ig, USS R as of 1935: f" rstller, L td. , London.)
Copyright 1936 by l 'ni vcnal E d it ion A. G. l'"!led by permission.

SOLO VIOLA
PO~TI CELLO

The tone quality of the viola lends itself especially well to the effect The solo viola is not as frequently used in the orchestra as the solo
of bowing close to the bridge. Examples are numerous, most often in violin, perhaps because its pitch and tone quality are such that it is
easily covered by accompanying sounds. Nevertheless, there are many
bowed tremolo (Ex. 88) or fingered tremolo (Ex. 89)·

MOI<om_
fine examples of successful writing for solo viola in symphonic scores.
EX . 88. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu P' 14, ed. Broude Bros. Example 91 is interesting for the rather lively type of melody given to
the viola, in contrast to the more usual flowing, expressive kind of
phrase, like that in Ex. 74. The ver y light accompaniment consists
v~ln I of a held D in the strings, the rhythm marked by staccato clarinets,
PI' M powtiullD harp, and two solo violins.
Re p ro duced by pe rm iss ion o f] . & W. Chestn Ltd ., Lon d on .
78 IN STR U ,\IEN T S THE VI O L.' 79
EX, 91. Enesco-Roumi1llian Rhapsody no. 2 p. ,6, ed. Enoch Division of the violas reaches its ult imate stage in the following ex-
amp le. Parts JfC written fo r six desks, all diiisi, making twelve parts, or
souo
one for each player.
VIO L A

EX. 93. Str auss-Don Q uixote P: 53. cd. Phil harm onic

~
.~ ,

Property of En oc h d Cleo All ri gh t.< reser ,"cd . DESK J

This str iking passage for six solo violas occurs in Le Sacre du Prin- 1'1'1"
temps, accompanied by har mon ics and pizzicato in 'cellos and basses. "._----+-----+--- -
EX , 92 . Stravinsky- Le Sacre du Printemps p. 80, ed . Russe "
PI'
VA. CUJI sor d.
• rv,
flo
Andante con mow
.~ ~
~ ----+-----+----
'~4
~
PI'
molto cmr. l1lil 1l0n f
•
t•

• DUll 5

DESir.: 6

6
VIOlE
w e<
PP, ----------------
Re p r in ted ,,;j l h th e pe rmi~.ion o f the copyright owners C. F . I' d o," C{)rporation, .'\ ew York

Cop yr ight 1'121 1..» Edition Ru>St d e "l us iq u e. l:scd b)' perm i..ion.
 THE 'CELLO 81

thi rd . In (a) the minor third is made up of a major second followed by

a minor second; hence the third finger for E. In (b), t he minor second
CHAPTER FOUR comes first, so Eb is taken by the second finger. A ll four fingers fall into
a sequence of half steps in (c). T he pattern in (d) includes an extension
based on the principle that a major second stretch is possible between
first and second fingers.
T ransposition of these patterns upwards by fifths will give the notes
T HE V IOLONCELLO
obtainable on the other three strings.
Fr., violoncelle; It., violoncello; Ger., Violoncell
POSITlOSS

The traditional diatonic basis for the numbering of the left-hand

positions on stringed instruments becomes somewhat illogical when
HE violoncello is commonly known as the 'cello. It is pitched an appl ied to the 'cello, since the spacing of the fingers \v-ould seem to sug-

T octave below the viola, and although its general measurements

are not proportionately large enough for its pitch, compensa-
tion for this is found in the greatly increased thickness from top to
gest a progression by half steps. The following figure gives the pattern
(a) from Fig. 29, as the hand moves diatonically in the direction of the
bridge,
back. The main dimensions of the 'ce llo are approximately as follows:
over-all length, 48 inches; lengt h of body, 29 to 30 inches; length of
neck, I I inches; sounding string length, 27 inc hes; thickness at sides,
47'2 inches; height of bridge, 3% inches. In playing position, between
the player's knees, the neck pointing over his left shoulder, the instru-
positions'

.
I
first

SoII
..
second

34.1
rhifd

8011
fourth

:1' JJUkg;;~ .IMIJ;JI .# Jrl .iiri

Fig, 30
3
fifm

011 8
sinh

011 3
seventh

011 S4.

ment is supported on the floor by means of an adjustable peg that slides

out just below the end of the tailpiece.
Usually the A- and D-srrings are of plain gut, the G and C being
wire-wound. In recent times, however, there is a noticeable increase in
the use of metal for all four strings.
Fl~GE RI ~G
As in violin fingering, these designations are retained even when the
pattern is raised or lowered by chromatic alteration, involving on the
'cello a displacement of the entire hand. Some 'cellists have sought a
mor e accurate terminology, using such terms as raised first position ,
low ered second position, intermediate position, and one-and-a-half
position, the last tw o being applied enharmonically. The half position
is used as on the violin.

Fig. 29

The patterns shown are the basic forms in the first position, on the
C-string. The normal compass from first to fourth finger is a minor
80
Bl 1:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E:-.1 T 5 THE ' C E L L O 83

EX. 94. Tchaikovsky-SY1Jlpbony no. 6 P: 8: , ed. Kalmus

!I Half position
~g #J ;

p
. ,. :
"
First position ; lowered first
posm on

First position; raised first posi-

~
. er : I ~ .- --,...
r~
.+
•
:a: ,. ,. nun; one-and-a-ha lf position;
~. in termediate position
Seco nd position; lowe red sec-
!I' & nn d position ; one-and-a-half
; • position ; int er mediate position
Chromatic scales are finge red by repetition of the pattern r 2. 3.
Fig. )1

Because the compass of a th ird docs not fill the int erval of a fifth
between strings . the 'cellist must shift position ofte ner than the violinist
or violist. A few scales can be play ed in th e first positio n with the ad-
Fig. JJ
vantage of open strings. while oth ers call for several shifts.

fi rsr position _ _ - - - --- -. TH U~ lB POSI Tt OS

JJ,--
01
..-- 340134
;a I""
=t:' ~~~~§
0
u:Pi
1 2 4 0 1 2
T he 'ce llist's left hand has th e advan tage of grqt fr eedom of move-
ment. The neck of th e instrument being at th e playe r's sho ulder, all
parts of th e fingerboard are v•-ithin easy reach. and since th e we ight of

,'*b j ; J ,I ; JJ gggg;
-Y- : I S 4 : 1 Z 4 : 1 2 40 1
c@
2 :1 Z
the 'cello rests on the peg the left hand is not called up on to assist in its
support.
III f"'S-:j rd po$- : and po$- : I ~ pos.. ; )td pol- \ Vhen the hand is advanced to the seventh position. an oc tave abo ve
Fig. )2 th e open string, it reache s the body of the instrument, and the thumb
has to leave its position undernea th the neck . The outer edge of the
The glide of th e finger in shifti ng position is made in such a way that thumb may then be placed on th e string , serving to stop the string as a
th e slide is barely perceptible, althou gh some portamento is purposely kind of movable nut . \ Vith the hand in this position , th e third finger
used w hen ap pro pr iate. T he longer distance s to be covered on the w ill be found to reach a greater distance than the fou rth finger, with the
suing lead easily [Q an exaggeration of port amente, the more pro- con sequence that the latter is little used in the thu mb positions. Oc-
nounced when participate d in by the enti re grou p of ten 'ce llos (Ex. casionally the thumb position is employed at lowe r pitch es wh en the
94)· longer stret ch of th e third finge r is needed. Thumb notes cannot be
suddenly int roduced in a continuous passage of norm al playing. A n
84 IN STRUMENTS THE ' CEL L O 85
appreciable amount of time is necessary to place the thumb in its new exceeded by a fourth or a fifth in parts for solo 'c ello, hut instances like
. . '
posmon. the following, for the 'cello sect ion, are exceptional.
It is important to remember that the string length of a given interval
diminishes as the hand moves to higher positions. On the 'cello, the EX. 95. Britten-Four Sea Int erludes from Peter G rim es
span fro m thumb to third finger is easily equal to a quarter of an entire P' 65, ed. Boosey & H awk es
string length. This would he a diminished fifth in the half position.
whereas in the sevent h position it makes possible the stretch of an oc-
rave.The possibilities for extended finger patterns in the upper positions
arc num erous.
In Fig. 34 are show n a few combinations using the thumb.

93 Q 3 Q3Q 3~
c 3 Q 3 0 3 Q 3 Q 2 I 3 2 I Q ~
,...-;;; .....

~ iliJ=f'~rrrrrj¥#·re

-
~ ~ ? ~ ! :-- =-
'. l
' ~"I1r-==
Cop yr igh t \ 945 b y Boosc y 5< ll aw hs Lt d . l'sed b y ~rmissioll .

HAR :\iQ:\ICS
Fig. 14
The follo wing glissando, up to th e twelfth harmonic on th e D -string,
can be taken as reaching th e upper limit in the production of natural
CLEFS harmonics on any stri ng.
The normal clef for rhe 'cello is the bass clef. The tenor clef (middle
F:X. 96. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu P' 12 , ed. Broude Bros.
C on the fourth line) is extensively employed to reduce the number
of leger lines in high passages, and the treble clef is used when the notes con fOrd
j{liss.suI D 0 8 - -- • • •• - - . -, 0 0
are too high to be easily read in the tenor clef. jf "g~r. oOb
~ ~ i~~I !~
Formerly, parts for the 'cello in the treble clef were habitually
written an octave too high, except when the treble clef followed the
v c,

o 0 0 0 0
t:;1 F
r
~
tenor clef. This practice has been abandoned, and today all notes are o o o o o o . 0 0 0 0 <>0

written at their proper pitch. It is necessary to know that the custom

was once pre valent , since examples of it may still be found in nine-
,~" ~
5 - ~

Reprod uced by pennission of ] &: \\" Ch ester LId . Londo n.

teenth-century editions .
RANGE
Orchestral parts may go as high as two octaves above the open
A-string, without recourse to harmonics. This practical upper limit is
This is intended as a coloristic effect, the success of whi ch does not
require that everyone of the note s shall be sounded by each indi vidual
player. The series is possible because of the progre ssive approach to
the high notes. Ordinarily the eighth harmonic is rarel y exceeded, and
the 'cellist may prefer to play even that as an art ificial harmonic from
 l :-l S T R U .\ 1 E:-: T S
THE ' C E L L O 87
86
the fun damen tal t wo octaves below. The sevent h harmoni c is usually
EX. 99. Casclla-Pupazzetti P: 19, ed. Philharmonia
avoi de d as being too flat . Andamino
um ford.
"
E X. 97. •\ tahlcr-Sympbony no. I P: ). ed. Universal
La n~ o..-
F~g . g ~~~
gli
0,"
Jt'mf"~ ppp

. e.
diY, in J
Fl.J~. ~

• stnJp,( I'PJI
e - e
---
Fl.t!t; . .z. "'~ ,, ~ ,,-
",or~o
Copyr i&h! (Of all (CN n tr ~ J. • W . Ch~t(I U<l . l.<>ndon
O n the 'cello, the urcarcr string length of the upper partials allow s
t hem to sound with ~morc security than can be had on the violin or The artifi cial harmonic from the node a perfect fifth above the
viola. The harmonic node a minor t hird above th e nu t can be used , al- thumb can be sounded on t he 'cello bur is infrequently used, tha t of
though few instances of its notation arc to be found. t he fou rt h being easier [0 produce and of better q uality.
T his chord is for 'cellos and basses in harmonics, eac h sectio n divided
EX. 98. Ranl-I'i.l1lo Concerto p. '9, ed. Durand in four pans.

EX. 100. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagno/e P: I I, ed . Du rand

p T res moocrc
drll .
erco ,ff
It
• . •,
1 _
_1
~ '='
R avel's in dication of t he actual pitch of the tone produced is an
oc tave to o low. The E sounded is the sixth ha rmoni c, two octaves and . e. pp
di'V. div .
a fifth abo ve th e fu nd amental A. if1"CO I
Artificial harmonics ar c played with the th umb and t hird fing er
th rourrhou
e t the ra nzc
0
of the 'ce llo, upward s fr om t hc low D b on the
Ostring . The third finge r tou ches th e node a perfect fourt h above
the fun damental sto ppe d by th e thumb. The harm oni c sounded is two
oc tav es high er th an t he t hu mb note.
pp
88 INSTR U hI ENTS
BOWI:"JG
The 'cello bow is a little shorrer (2 8 ~ inch es) than the violin and
viola bows, thi cker and somewhat less springy. However , all the types
of bowing previously men tioned arc available to the 'cellist and are
of excellent effect . The bow is held in th e same way as for the other
two instruments, except that it is turned so that the edge of the hair
nearest the player is the first to engage the string. Another difference
to be borne in mind is that th e lower-pitched strings are nearest to the
bow arm, on account of the playing position of the 'cello. The terms
up-bou: and do-am-bon» contin ue to be used in the same sense as hereto-
for e. although less accurately descriptive.
Bowing over the fingerboard. near the bridge, and \vith. the wo?d,
are effects in common use, as are all kinds of trem olo. Special mennon
should be made of the bowed tr emolo sur fa touch e on the two lower
strings of the ' cello. It has a my sterious quality unlike any other
tr emolo.
EX . 101. Debussy-La Mer
Amme
$1l7 la toucb'
vc, ~t!'2~hg!j!·~!~~!·~ii~lq~
~ , dim. molto PPP
P( rm ission grant(d by Durand et Ck.• Pa ri•• COpytlght owne~; E lka n-Vogd . Philadelphia. Pl.., agtnls.
A fingered tremolo with an int erval larger than a major third ca~ be
played by using the thumb position . The. amount of stretch possible
varies according to th e position on th e string.
EX. 102 . Schmitt-Antoine et Cteopstre
P (:"1(: .
Pe rm is. ion grante d by D ur and et Cie,. Par i, . co pyr igh t own ers: Elko.n-Vog el, Philadelph ia, Pl." a genU.
THE ' C E L L O 89
DOUBLE-STOPS AND CHORDS
Excepting seconds, all intervals within the octave are playable as
do uble-stops in the lower positions without using the thumb. The ma jor
second can be reached, first to fourth finger, from the third position
up, and the minor second from the fourth position up . T he thumb is
of course an additional resource, but one cannot usually introduce the
thumb without a break in the music . Moreover, tones stopped with the
thumb are comparatively less expr essive in quality.
Chords found in scor es should be studied by means of diagrams like
those made for violin chords. In this \vay the mech anical problems in
placing the fingers can be judged, and knowledge of writing chords
for the 'cello acquired.
Chords containing one or more open strings are the most sonorous.
The thumb, as well as the other fingers, can stop a perfect fifth across
two adjacent strings.
Three-pan chords are more frequently used than four-part chords.
The four-part chords are gene rally too heavy, but are sometimes ap-
P' 10 5, ed. Durand
propriate. Arpeggio figur es across the strings are best arranged to be
fingered like four-part chords.
EX. 10 3 . Straus~ymphonia Domestica
p. 106, ed. Associated Music Publishers
p. 78, ed. Durand
With authorization ot the or iginal p ublishcrs Ed . BOle & G. 1k>ck, Berlin , Wiel;b..de n.
 [N 5 T R U xt EN T 5 THE ' C E L L O 91
90
Harm~ni~ s , when plucked , sound not un like tho se of the harp. They
Bowing of chords follows the convent ions of violin chords, the low er
not es being sounded first when no oth er indication is given. The direc- are best limited to th e natural harmonics of the octave and the octave
tion may be reversed, shown by an arrow placed before the chord, in and fifth .
or der to give emphasis to the bass.
EX. 10 7 . Moussorgsky-A Night on Bald M ountain
EX. 104. Bart6k-Secolld R bapsod y fo r Vi olin and Or chestra P' 81, ed. International Music Co.
P' 6, ed. Boosey & Hawkes . ..
"
Mcderaro
." =--
fI01I dN.J' I. u

' I~
ci..
Copyriltht 1931 by \ln l~ er~ l Edi tion. Copyright "'5Sigmd 1939 to Hawkn & Son (London) Ltd. t:.ed
by permission.
in B
#
pp
3- V # #~
~

PI Z ZI CATO I
~

The 'cello pizzicato is especially sonorous and vibrant, and it finds

pp
frequent and varied employme nt in th e orchestra. It is an every day
medi um for the harm onic bass. The plucked bass tones give both body
and tra nspar ency to the accompaniment. An other common use of • ,"0
i,

'cello pizzicato is in acco mpaniment figure s like the following. I"

P: 80, ed. Kalmus ~zz .
p --------

g ndD 5l
-------- s
EX. 105. Brahms-Symphony no. 2

p
By pe rm iu ion of the copyright o wners W. Bessel et Cie.• Puis.

~ot all '~ellis ts. have acquired the trick, borrowed from harp and
gmtar technique, 10 which the right hand touches the node and plucks
For the high notes, the tone quality in pizzicato remains good well
the string simultaneously, allowing the left to stop tones other than
over an octa ve above the open A . Then it begins to take on a rather open ones.
wo oden sound, suitable for special effects. High 'cello pizzicato is used Chords in pizzicato may be arpeggiated upwards by using the thumb,
effectively in thi s example. or downwards with one or more fingers. The first way will be followed
p. 72, ed. Musicus unless downward pizzicato is indicated by an arrow. Con siderable va-
EX. 106. Shostakovich-Sy111phony no. 5
riety of effect is to be had, from softly rolled four-part chords to short ,
abrupt chords on the three upper strings. The following example is
taken from a passage in whi ch the entire string section joins in an evoca-
tion of guit ar playing.

- P
Cop yrtlhl I9'lS by L«<b Mu sic Cor pont lon . N e... York . UW<! by permluioll..
92 INSTR U ,\IENTS THE 'C E L L O oj
EX. 108. Dcbussy- lberja P: 104, ed . Durand EX. 110. W agner-Siegf ried Idyll P' 46, ed. Eulenburg
Moo VI. de marche
pizz. ,

' c. / -=
~~E~
(~C E §ijr tc~
div.
pjzz. e:
piu. p
Reprln~ed with th e permission of the ..,Ie agents for Elllenburl Miniatllle Scores: C. F. Peter. Corpora'
tlon. r-;ew York .
Perm ission gr anted by Durand et Cie., Pari" copyr ight cwee rs ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia, Fa. , agent '.

There is litt le differenc e in timbre between the two lower str ings.
M ELODIC USE S Their tone is full and rich in overtones, th e C being slightly mor e pon-
The A-string of th e 'cello is characterized by much expressive derous th an the G, in for te . In soft nuances. melodi es lying in th is range
warmth and intensity, as well as dynamic power. Countless examples must be very lightl y accompanied if th ey are not to be covered up.
show how often the 'cellos arc given melodie s in this register . The fol-
EX . I I I . Fr anck- Variations Svmpboniques P' 38, ed. Eno ch
lowing excerpt gives only parr of a remarkable passage for unaccom-
Lento
panied 'cellos; the entire melody extends over sixty-six measures.

EX. 109. Charpentier-Impressions of Italy p. 3. ed. Hengel

Assa vire
,.~ l
vc. ~i
.tI'f
J~_
- - - - - - ~-.
J •
-- -
I r.ll~ dim.
:Pali ll ¥? WII,j HhH j
poco crac.
~
Prope rty of Enoch et Cie. All rlgh ... reserved,

In the score the only accompaniment is a delicate figuration in the

solo piano part , marked pianissimo.
It is a regu lar duty of the 'cellos to play bass parts. either alone or
ruhwro nt. km
with the doubl e-basses. A common procedure is to write the same notes
~.II~-
P '==~~~d--~ ~.

Reproduced by prrmlSo'ion of Heug.! et Cie. , Par i&, owners of th e copyright.

The D-string is smooth and unobtrusive, less nasal than the A.
for 'cellos and basses. Since th e latter soun d an octave lower than writ-
ten . the result is a bass part in octaves, in w hich the 'cellos act as rein-
forcement of th e octave overtone of the double-basses. The 'c ellos
may occasionally be placed an oc tave lower so as to sound in unison
with the basses. giving a more con centrated sonority.

ACCO MPANIM E NT F IGU RE S

'Cello parts contain mu ch passage work either of an accornpanimenral

nature or designed to contribute animation to the general orchestral
94 IN S T R U .\ 1E N T S THE ' C ELLO 95

texture. A wid e range may be covered, and elaborate figur ation often It takes good players to perform figures like the followin g without
calls for techni cal virtuosity. The student should look th rough num er - scratchi ness.
ous scores to observe th e great variety in th is kind of writing for the
'cello. Some examples are given here. EX. I I S . Stravinsky- Le Ss cre du I'rintentps P: 67, ed. Russe

EX. 1 I 2 . Becthovcn-Sym pbony 110. 8 p. 64, ed. Kalmus

T empo di Mencen c
(Jt4~Clttf) )

f p

EX. 113. R avel-Rapsodie Espagnole P: 57, ed. Durand

Cop yright 1921 by Ed ition RI,l~ de Mus iql,le . Us~d b y pen n is.ion.

,c~ DIVID ED 'CELLOS

The powerful sonority of th e 'c ello section and the int ensity of the
Umm 'cello A-st ring combine to justif y the fr equent procedure of dividing
the group so thar half play the melody. The other half play the bass
or a subordinate part, or t hey may even be divided furt her.
Purn lsslon vant~d by Dl,lran d el Cle., Paris, cop yr ight o...neB; El kan· Vogel, Ph iladelphia, Pa. , u ent.o

EX. 116. Mahler-SY1l1phony no. 4 P: Irs , ed. U niversal

EX. I 1+ Dukas-La Peri P' 46, ed. Durand
Ruhevoll
iit!.

w --=:==-- I' --= =-

erpress. olto c tilbile efpr H.
,c dill. "due PD" egtUli
d ....-.- :-.1. .0.
:P~lli,i~ spres
Pe rmission en .nl ed by D urand et Cie.• Pari s. copyright o...ners ; E lkan · \' ogel. Ph iladelphia . Pa ., agent.o.
(Jizz.
Rapid passages in the low register, with staccato or detache bowing,
are difficult to make clear because of the inertia of the lower strings. p
96 INSTRUMENTS THE 'CELLO 97

Th is Strauss example shows the division of the 'cellos carried to the

SOLo 'CEL LO
point whe re each player at the four desks has a different part, eight in
all. One might descr ibe the preced ing excerpt as an instance of the use
of eight solo 'ce llos. although it is th e result of progressive division of
EX, I 17. Strauss-Also Sprach Zsrstbustm p. 7. ed. Aib l the str ings to he noted in the scores of Strauss. In Rossini's Overture
to William T ell, the open ing is scored for five solo 'cellos in additio n
[0 a regubr part for the remainder of the section. T chaikovsky. in the

Ou vertm e Sotennelle, / 8 J2 , calls for four soli in conjunction with t wo

solo violas. T he most frequent and characteristic use of the solo 'cello
is that in which a single playe r is given an ouesranding melodic role.

EX. I 18. BrJhms-PjJ'llo Concerto 110. 2 P' IZ 5. ed. Simrock

\irr-

Uad by penni_ Io n of \b e ori ..in al l>\I blisher. :-0. Sim rod' . H anlburg.

Repr in ted _,-jlh the pcn ni..iOD 01 the cop)'ri gh t O"naa C. F. Pete.. Corporatio n, New YOrL

CHAPT ER FIVE
+» «-Eo
TH E DO UBLE-BASS
Fr., contrebasse; It., c071tT.:zbbdSSO; Ger.• Kontrabass
H l ER English names for the double-bass are bass viol, cont ra-
O bass, string bass. and bass. T he last is the most common.
The double -bass presents a differen t appearance from the
other members of the string group because of its sloping shoulders
tapering into the neck. a characte ristic of its ancestor the viol. Also
noticeable are the cogwheel tuning devices on the pcgbox. replacing
th e friction- held pegs of th e othe r stringed instr uments.
The bass stands on an adjustable peg. and is suppo rted in playing
position by th e body and left knee of the player. Bass players sometimes
sit on a high stoo l while playin g.
Basses arc of different sizes. For general orchestral usc the size known
as thr ee-quart ers is preferred to the rath er unwieldy full-sized bass.
Ave rage dimensions of the three-quarter size doubl e-bass are as follows :
over -all length, 73 to 74 inches; length of body, 44 inches; length of
neck, 17% inches; thickness at sides, 7 ~ inches; height of bridge, 6%
inches; sounding length of strings, 42. % inches; lengt h of bow, 2.6 to
2. 7 inches.
The G- and D-strings are normally of gut, the A and E of gut wound
with wire, but complete sets of metal strings are being ado pted increas-
ingly by bass players . Although they bring some modification in the
tun c quality of the instrument, the metal strings seem certainl y to be
superior to others in durability and dependability, and th ey respond
to the bow much more readily.
A-:. previously mentioned , the doubl e-bass sounds an octave below
9ll
TilE nOUBLE-BASS 99
the written notes. Aw areness of this fact shou ld become a habit in read-
ing or writing bass parts or playing them on the piano. In the examples
of this book, all notes for doub le-basses sound an ocrave lower than
printed. unless otherwise indicated.
N otes as low as C. below the E of the fourth string, are to be found
in the scores of practically all compose rs. T his is even more remarkable
in the scores of Beethoven's time, when the rhree-string bass. now ob-
solete, was in common usc. The lowest string of that instrum ent was
tuned to A or Gabon the E of the modern four-string bass.
In performance the player simply plays an octave higher wh at lies
below his range. tru sting, no doubt, that the change of oct ave matters
little at such low pitches. Granting that the octave difference will be
noticed only by atte ntive and discerning ears, especially when the
change is covered by doubli ng in the 'cellos, it must be realized that ~his
procedure sometimes results in seriou~ disfigu rem~nt . of the musical
idea. Compare. for instance, the following phrase with Its shape as per-
formed on the four-stri ng bass.
EX. 11 9. Strauss-Also Spracb Zarubustra p. J'. ed. Aibl
(.....y~)
4-IUinB
\
~
"
tti] 12#J r pH :41
/'J'.
./1" ,J
~
~_
J .-- J
"I
-
~
_
Reprinted _llh the pctmi Mion 01 the eop}"righl ownen C. F. Pele", Corptlf;ol'un. New York.
There are three ways to extend the range of th e bass below E. These
are the temporary tuning (scordatura) of the E-string ro a lower pitch,
the use of the five-string bass, and the adoption of a mechanical appara-
tus for extending the E-string to C. All thr ee are employed..
The first of these is rhe least satisfactory because of the disturbance
to the instru ment by the change in tuning, and even more because a
proper tone cannot b e produ ced with a string w hose tension has been
reduced to the point of fl abbiness. It is entirel y pract~cal, howe\'~r, to
tune to E b or even D. Such alterations are more easily accomphshed
with the tunin g mechanism of the double-bass than with the pegs of
other stringed instru ments.
100 1 :-;'S T R U .\1 F.:-;'T S TH E D OU B LE-BASS 101

The fin -string bass is not a commo n instrument, and some orches-
FISGERISG
tras do nor possess even one. Its fifth stri ng is tuned ro the low C. the
body heing co rrespo ndingly larger to favor the low pitch es. The compass of the hand. from first ro fourth finger, is a major
A ma rked increase in rhe use of the E -strin g ex tension attnchrncnr second in t he lowe r positions. The third finger is not used independ-
is appJfCIH today. In some orchest ras th e w hole b3SSsection is equipped en tly bur is placed on t he strin g toget her wit h the fourt h finger, until
w ith t he dcvice. Jr consists of an a rm acting as an extension of th e fincc r- the sixth position is rea ched. Then the position of the hand and rhe
board upward past the pegbox on the E=stcing side. and an inrrcnio us
~ ~ ~
lesser st ring length of the half step make it co nvenient to use th e third
arr angement wh ereb y the nores C :::. D . D:::. and E ar e stopped by re- and fourth fingers separately.
more com col. as it w ere, by mean s of key s at th e side of the fing erboard. Some players devel op a wider use of the t hird finger and of the ex-
ncar the nut. In normal position th e E remains sto pped. Operation of ten ded position. stretc hing a wh ole rone fr om first to second finger;
th e mec hanism presents some fing ering probl ems for the player, but but the above are t he basic principles of double-bass fingering.
the results on th e w ho le are satisfacto ry.
Since there seems little doubt of th e cscablishrncnr of t he four-stri ng
double-bass as th e normal instrument, it fo llow s tha t bass parts shou ld
be design cd accordingly. If not es below E arc fe lt to be indispensable,
t hey should be regarded as exceptional, and it shou ld be fully realized
that they may he played by only one or t wo basses, or even not ar
all. The best procedure is to write the part in octaves where th ese low
nores occur, showing clearly what is to be done by t he player whose
lowest nore is E.
Fig. 35 gives the notes playable in the positions of the first octave
EX. 120. 1\ loussorgsk y -Ravel- T ableaux dnne Exposition on th e G-string. It will be seen that there are really twelve positions
p. IlJ, ed. Boosey & H awkes to th e octave, one for each half step . but that the numbering rsr, and.
All~ro aUa brese j rd, erc., follows the diatonic steps on which the first finger is located.

0-0. ~f7;;g; £J Ge m;:::{%

Perrn i$$ion anntt'd by Durud er Cie.• Pu is. co pyright own.n; Elk an. Vogol, Philadelphil., P" .. " Rent..
the positions in between being half positions. J ust as in the case of the
'cello, t here are ot her systems of designating the positions.
The t humb is brought into play abo ve the sevent h position.
T o find th e notes playable on th e othe r three strings. the student
T o preVent transposition of the low tones up an octave, a remark
should write out th e transpositions of Fig. 35 down by fourt hs.
must be added, suc h <IS "five-string basses on ly," or "not an octave
Scales co ntaining open string notes can be played with fewer position
higher."
shifts, as demonst rated by the foll owing comparison of the scales of
EX . 111. Mahler-c-Dsr Lied 'Von der Erde p. 116, ed. U niversal G major and B ma jor.
102 INSTRUMENTS THE DOUBLE-BASS 103

range. They arc easily produced, because of the long strings, and are
01' 014141t"

:> J " ~Etf a

of excellent qua lity. Those availab le on the G-string arc shown in Fig.
37. Transposition down by fourths will gi\'c the series on the orhcr
wtG
strings. Note that harmonics in the treble clef are notated at actual
pitch . to save leger lines.
:r ~ ~ 0 j 'I"
~j;;.ti '#~ i~ t.'
4,1424
.
1 , 1 4 0 1 2 __ ~nu .l pitch
sul D sul G o '
~ i=.0000
Fig, 36 EEE~oJr~
Chromatic scales are fingered by repeating the pattern 2 4 2 4 or from middle of ming toward bridge from middle of string lOwUJ nUl
f' (p i
12 412 + ~... ::J r• ~ r a

L L iI f~ rJ ::J ~
i
FA
CLEFS Fig. 37

The clefs employed arc the same as for the 'cello; namely, bass, tenor The harmonic from the node located a minor third from the nut
(middle C on the fourth line) , and treble (G clef). sounds more clearly on the bass than on any other stringed instrument.

EX. 1 2 3 . Ravel- Le Tombeau de Couperin P' 38. ed. Dur and

RANGE

High notes for double-basses arc very effective, and not of great
difficulty except for intonation. They are safer when approached by
step or by small intervals. The D an octave and fifth above the open G
may be taken as a practical upper limit, exclusive of harmonics. This
limit is exceeded in the following unusual example, in which the basses
play in unison with violas, 'cellos, and bassoons.
Permi&~ion gralll ed bj· D u rand et Ck . P~ri~, co py r ight o wners; E lka n -Vogel . P hiladelp hia, Pa.. agent•.

EX. 122 . Shostakovich-Symphony no. 5 p. 23 . cd. l\1usicus In th e following chord of harmonics, one 'cello contributes the Cq,
Allegro non tr0PPO
~ :> ::> ;:- ::> ::>~
unobtainable on the bass at that pitch. The fourt h bass part calls for a

.:~'~i~~;~rt~ff'~Y~'~~~­
double-sto p in harmonics.

D-B.~rll~
.tr
Copyright 19<1S by Led. M\Uic Corporat ioft, N ew Yorl<. Used by permission.

HARMO:-O ICS

Artificial harmonics are possible on the bass only in high positions

and are impractical for orchestral purposes. Natural harmonics, on
the other hand, are especia lly useful because of their medium pitch
E'
104 T ilE DO UBL E - B A S S 105
EX. 1l4. Stravin sky-Concerto ell R tf P: 17. cd. Buusey & H awkes
Bm\' I~G

There arc tWO distinct types of doubl e-bass how, usually referr ed to
as th e German bow and the French bow. T he German bow is held with
the thumb on top of the stick, th e frog being shape d so that the finge rs
~
o can grasp it as they might gras p a saw . Th e French bow is like a large
'ce llo bow and is held in the same way . exce pt that some playe rs plac e
the th umb undern eath the frog for ce rta in stro kes. It can be seen that
the action of the wri st is qu ite differe nt in the tw o hand positions, and
that wi th the German bow the thumb exerts downward pressure on
the stick. as opposed to the finger prDsure with the French bow. T here
-'-p are advantages in both methods. and the choice depends upon the
o schooling and personal prefe rence of the bass plavcr.
~

All bow strokes employed on the other stringed instruments may be

used on the bass, with [he qualification that these must be thought of
in terms of a sho rte r. heavier bow, thicke r, heavie r strings, and a much
more cum bersome instrument-all facto rs in greater inert ia to be ove r-
-. ~ come in th e production of tones. llence. (00 long slurs in legato bowing
p
Cop yr la hl I'M' by Booeey I: 1I~ ...tea, Inc. l:sed by ~rmp.IOll. should be guarded against. The stude nt wi ll have to rely on obse rva -
tion and experience in th is respect. It wi ll help to rememb er th at the
D01:BLE- STOPS ASD CHO RDS aggregate sono rity of the w ho le bass section to lerates a slower moving
bow than docs the to ne of a single solo bass. and that longer to nes are
The intervals playable on th e bass as double-stops are thirds, fourt hs,
possible in soft nu ances th an in loud one s.
and fifth s, and any interval in w hich one of the notes can be tak en on
an open st ring . Double-stops, and cho rds of three and four notes, are
EX. 12 6 . \ V agncr- T ristan und Isolde p. 19. ed. Breitknpf
rarely found in orchestral music, ho wever. In ge neral. sma ll harmonic
intervals do not sound well in low pit ches because of th e conflict of
overtones, and even when used for special effect, bett er results are ob -
tained by dividing the notes among two or more playe rs. T he follow-
ing sequence of fifths is unu sual.
For the long held pedal notes, somet imes lasting for man y measures
EX. 11 5 . Kodaly- Galt:inta Dances p. 53. cd. Boosey & H awkes and often seen in nin et eent h-c entury sco res, the basses arc expecte d to
change direction of the bow as oft en as necessary . Cont inu ity of t~ne
Allegro vivace is preserved by seeing to it that all do not cha nge bo w at th e same tim e.
:)' I J Double-bass staccato is preferab ly of the on- the-s tring type, but the
> co nt rolled boun cing bow is entirely feasible and of ten used . T he mod -
~ ==:~--==-- .d
Copy rlpl 19J;t by L:ni'-erul Edition A. G. Coed by ptrmi~.ion. ern bass sec tion is capable of consi dera ble delicacy in pas..'iages like th e
follow ing .
 106 IN S T R U ~ l E 1'1 T S T HE DO UB L E- B A S S 107
EX. 1 2 7 _ Strauss-Don Juan p. 58, ed . Kalmus
P IZZICATO

~L
GiOOJ6O
..,...,...m a ~~
?!¥ & 3 @Fg 4', jj , !#r~
... . Il, Ii. ~ The bass player plays pizzicato much oftener than the other string
play ers. T his is not only becau se of the superior resonance of th e bass
P grrzWso J =~'<.::= pizzicato but also becaus e it brings welcome relief and variety to the
Rep, illted with th e p er mi ", ion of th e cop yr igh t owne,," C. F . P eters Co rpo ration , roo,... York.
bass line, imparting lightness and transparency to the whole orchestral
A n example of fast detached bowing in a long. gradual crescendo: texture. Sometimes the basses dou ble in pizzicato the part played areo
by rhe 'ce llos.
EX. 12 8 . R imsky -K orsak o ff-Scheberazade p. 2 2I, ed. Kalmus The str ing is usually plucked with the first finger, the other fingers
holding the bow . T he German bow hanbrs downward, held by the little
H I' · .. g• •• finger hooked in the frog. V ariations in tone quality and dynamic range
.tr can be obtained by plucking at different places on the string. T he low
tones in pizzicato demand care in th eir execution, to avoid a booming or
dull , th udlike sound.
Ii _ • :.t··:-I
":::" : : As for th e high notes, one rarely exceeds the B shown in the follow-
ing examp le.

EX. 1 30 . Strauss-Also Spracb Zarstbustm P: 57, ed. Aibl

J d' _ € ¢~ #/"' #~
Sui tasto and sui pontice/lo are regularly emp loyed on th e double-
H :n~r","1 1 ar.~ I J
~ .--;
r--====
j ~==
f
t=
ll
ern/;.
bass. T he bass col legno staccato may be said to be mor e musical than Rep r in ted with th e pe r m i..i,m of th e cop yr ight o wnen. C. F. P et. n. Co rporation, New York.

on the other instruments beca use of the grea ter resonance of the bass.
In the fo llowing example the bass pizzicato is not doubled by th e
Bowed tremolo is very common in bass par ts and is fr equ entl y called
fo r sul tasto or sui ponticelJo. 'cellos, bur the bass clari net underlines the accented measures.
Th e fingered tremo lo is not pr actical in the lower positions. For EX. 1 3 I. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagnole P' 12, ed. Durand
most hands the mino r third stretch becomes feasible above th e second
, Asset vif
position. All major and minor tr ills are excellent, however.

EX. 129. M ahler-Sy111pbony no . 9 p. 63, ed. Boosey & H awkes

(Lindler)
r'l-..I'] \
" ~ .. J.14
3- :
M
J t~
~.. ~ E ~ •.~ !; ; • ;oj
4J
~ dim.'

.'~I ' -
"'"
i,r- t "
. .
~;-' I-. : ' ~'"
l!'!O s '. ~
.~ : !i~.'~
, ..',I , R==:ti
~
MUTES

The double-bass mute has to be a heavy affair to be effective, since

p dim. - - _ . - pp PPli
Cop yrilht 1912; r~n ~w ed 1940, by l:ni\"enal Edition A. G. l'.~d b y pon mssion. the vibrations of the large bridge are not easily damped out. Mut es are
108 INSTRUMENTS THE DOUBLE-BASS 109
used for homogeneity of tone color when the rest of the string group overtonts from hns

is muted, and also for the peculiar veiled sonority they give to the
vx. II 'I
basses. The mysterious measures at the beginning of Ravel's La Va/se
arc scored for muted basses with no other instruments. v....

EX. 132. Ravel-La Valse P: I. ed. Durand c. = (act ual =

e-a . "0 sound) U
Mou\·t de Valse viennoise
tota-iiner F;g. ) 8

The above dilemma can be resolved only by reducing the dynamic

pp
level of the basses and strengthening tha t of the second violins.
The double-bass pan is occasionally treated as an independent voice,
o-e.
[It v. 1:<; 3 without octave doubling. but it issignificant that in the practice of com-
posers this procedure is clearly exceptional.
l QurditU'1 (Jizz..
EX. 133. Beethoven-Sy11lphony no. 9 P' ,65. ed. Kalmus
p~

hrmi<slon gra nt ed by Dur and et Cie., Paris. copyri gh t owners; Elkan-Vogel, Philadelpbia, Pa., agents.
-..
Allegro assai_ _
-...:--..-.- ..
THE HARMO:S-IC BASS

Thc commonest duty the basses have to perform is naturally that of

supplying the harmonic foundation. This is accomplished in more than
ninety per cent of all orchestral music by the double-basses playing in
octaves with the 'cellos. When the latter arc otherwise occupied, the ..~

function of octave doubling may be taken over by other instruments,

such as bassoons or horns, or the violas. The clarity of the bass part
seems to benefit greatly by this reinforcement, or confirmation, of the
ocravc overtone of rhe deep fundamental of the basses, and the ear may
also receive the impression of an even deeper octave by reason of the p
acoustic phenomenon known as the difference tone. The upper partials
of this octave bass are an important source of enrichment of the entire It is not out of place to caution the student that a common fault in
orchestral sonority, although it must be added that they arc very often writing for basses is excessive use of the lowest tones, a habit that tends
in conflict with upper notes and may cause damage, to make the whole orchestra sound heavy and overponderous.
A common example of such damage is heard in a softly played minor
triad, placed in such a way that the major third overtone from the bass MELODIC USES

may compete in strength with the minor third (Fig. 38). The harmonic bass may be a real melodic bass. Fine examples like
the following are numerous.
Ito 1 ~ S T R U ,\ 1 E:-: T S T HE DOUIlLE·IlASS III
EX. 134. Franck--SY1nphony p. I I7, ed. Eulenburg EX. 136. Prokofi eff- V iolin Concerto no. 2 P: 74, ed. Ilaron
Allegro non troppo Allegro, ben marcaro
~

"ffP? ~~f r
moho leg.no .
{d !,
pp
d; 13G ; Ht
I
rI
poco CTf!SC. p

,
p ~
Repr in ted .... ith the perm ission of the sole agents for Eulenburg Min iat u re Scores: C F. Peln . Corpor a-
tion. :\"cw York.
,Ill G
Modern composers have exploited the possibilities of melodies in the
high register for basses without doubling. In the following exposition
of a fugue subject, the double-basses deliver the ope ning phrase quite
unaccompanied, except for the group of eighth-notes at the start.

EX. 1 35 . R iegger-SY1J1phony no. 3

P' 8 I , ed. Associated Music Publishers The dexter ity of bass players has reached a very high degree of
Meno mosso (Allegro molro) vir tu osity . T he scores of Mahler. Strauss, R avel, Stravinsky, and ot her
modern composers should be studied to observe the demands made
upo n the basses for agility of bowing and fingering, wide skips, and
complex rhythms.

p -=/=- EX. J 37. Strauss-Ein H e/den/eben P' 20, ed. Eule nburg
Cop yrig ht 1949 b y Assoc ia ted Music Publish eR, In c. , :': cw Yo rk. U~d b y pe rml ..ion.
Lebhaf bewegt ~
Prokofieff has suggested new possibilities for the double-basses, using
them as melodic doubling of the solo violin (Ex. 136). The entire scor- .... tJ §I rIff ~F1:J E 07': ~
, I I
ing of the six measures is given here. T he clarinets arc notated at actual .ff
pitch.

With th e ~rm i ... ion of the p ubla her F.

1921, by F. E. C. Leudtart.
III INSTRUMENTS THE D OU BLE -BASS III
EX. 140. Dvorak-Sympbol1Y no. 5 P: 72 , cd. Kalmus
DIVIDED BASSES

!).• Ppu~o~~~
T he double-b asses are fr equ ently divided in two parts. This pra cti ce DIV.

is consistent with the tendency of mode rn French co mposers to divid e 0.1 . "
pp
each string section. The division in oct aves furnishes the bass octaves Ulltd by perml.lon of th~ Olillin:. l publisher. N . S imrock, H lm b......
with in the do uble-bass part . Interv als smaller th an fifths or founhs arc
less satisfactory in low pit ches. A limitation in th e number of basses ( Ula m eta," " 4 bassi," " I desk
only," etc .) is sometimes called for to secure a better balance.
EX. I )8. Debussy-a-La Mer p. 8) . ed. Durand
THE SOLO BASS

The usc of a sing le double-bass, solo, is not frequ ent . It is of novel

effect because not often heard . T he bass solo is sur prising ly deficie nt in
carrying power, consideri ng the size of the instrument, and its accom-
paniment must be delicately ad justed. The following solo is writt en as
for five-string bass but can be played using the E-string extension. lr
Pum lN lon C".... ted by DW"and el Cie ., Pari_, cop yrip\l ,"" nr... ; Elk .... -Vocrl. Ph ilade lph ia.. Pa. . a ,,"n~ is un accompanied.
C lose intervals in the basses help to provide the dr amatic, for eboding
EX. 14 1. R avcl-L'En fant et les SortiIeges p. "4. ed. Dur and
sugg estion in the passage from which the next example is taken.

EX. I 19. Debussy- Pelle" et AWira1tde p. )46. ed. Durand

Pum l..lon granted by Durand et Cie .• P u i. , copyri gh t o wnera ; El l an .Vogd, Philadelph ia.. Fa.• agenu.

Basses are divided so that half can participate in a melody whi le half
rema in on the bass; and so that half can play pizzicato and half play
arco on the same figure. Chords of three and four parts in low register
are likely to have a percuss ive sound, espec ially if plucked (see th e G
minor chords in the Marcbe au Supplie e of the Symphonie Fantastique,
by Berlioz). To sound clearly, chords should be in open positio n, or lo-
cated in the upper part of the range of the bass.
The following chord for basses ends an adagio mov ement, and is en-
tirely un acco mpanied. Although the notation indi cates double-stops, in
performance the chord is divided in four.
 W O ODWI ND IN STR UM E N T S lIS
Iclarinets
bassoons
2.
( b) W oodwind by threes:
C HAPTER SIX
1 fl utes and piccolo
2. oboes and English horn
2. clarinets and bass clarinet

2 bassoo ns and contrabassoon

WOODWIl"D Il" S T R UM E:-ITS ( c) Woodwind by fours :
3 flutes and piccolo
3 oboes and English hom
3 cl ari nets and bass clarinet
3 bassoons and contrabassoon
and co nvincing definition of th e category we all know

A
LOGIC.-\L
as -isood-uind is difficult to propose. It is easier to say which
instruments are brass instruments. W oodwind instruments have
been construct ed of materials other than wood, and flut es are regularly
made of metal at the prese nt time. Rather than att empt to justify a
nomen clat ure accepted by cu stom, let us distin guish the bra ss instru-
ments as being those w hose tones are produced by vib ration of t he
lips held against a cup-shaped mouthpiece. Other orchestral wind in-
struments are wood winds.
The w ood win d sectio n of the symphony orchestra is divisible into
four family g roups, as follows :
Flutes, piccolo, (alto flute)
Oboes, English horn, (oboe d' amore , heckelphone)
C larine ts, bass clarinet, (Eb and D cla rinets, basset horn)
Bassoons, contrabassoon
The instruments named in parentheses are only occasion ally em-
ployed, while the others are standard equipment. This cla ssification
coin cide s with differences of tone color r eadily distinguishable by ear,
brought abo ut by differences of construction and method of ton e pro-
du cti on .
In t he make-up of the w oodwind sec tio n, three basic formulas. or
ty pes, exist:
It will be found useful to regard departures from these three types
as vari ati ons from th e norm. The second type, w oodwind by threes.
is used so co nsistently in the twentieth cenrury that it has become estab-
lished as the normal woodwind section of the present day.
T OS E saooccnox
The vibr ation of air enclosed in a pipe may be compa re d to the vibra-
tion of a string st retche d be tween rwo points. One important diffe re nce
is that w hereas th e pitch of a string is affected by length, de nsity of
materials, and amount of tension , t he pitch of a vib rating air column
depends upon its length alone. This rule is not perfectly accurate in a
scientific sense, but it is t he basis for the cu stom of spea king of pi tc hes
in terms of length. For exa mp le, the note prod uced by t he C-st ring of
the 'cello is identi fied as 8-foot C, being the note sounded by an open
organ pipe 8 feet lon g. It is understood th at th is is a length adopted for
convenience, and that a fractional correction would have to be made
to bring it into agr eement with whatever standard of pitch is being
used.
Doubling th e length of the air column lowers the pitch an octave,
and halving th e length raises th e pitch an octave.
,,,-

..
16k. S f!. d < ' IL
..
~I
-
: j"
(a ) W oodwind by tw os:
2 flutes
v
2 oboes Fig. 39
"'
116 INS T R U ~l E N T 5 WOODWI N D [NSTR U ~l E NTS 117

These lengths will give the same pitches in all wind instruments, The entire scale is obtained by success ively raising the fingers, open-
brass as we ll as woodwind, with one notable exception-the clarinet. ing the holes from right to left, as shown here.
The clarinet is a cylindrical tub e, closed at one end by the mouth-
piece. Oboes and bassoons are conical, larger at one end than at the
2" 2 "
other. Flutes arc in part cylindrical. but th e open embouchure makes • • •• • • g'1
them open pipes. N ow the stopped cylindrical pipe has properties un- ... - . . _-- -._ ---_ .. - - - ._- -- -- -_ . _. - - - ._. ~
o

like those of the ope n cylind rical pipe or th e c onical pipe, and one of o ""' 0
th ese is that for a given pitch it requires but half as much lengt h. In 10- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->j
other words, if a flute and a clarinet employ the same amount of cylin-
drica l cube length , the clarinet sounds an octave below th e flute, on ly
fundamental tones being blown.
. . .._ • •
__ .. __ . - - - - ---
• • 0
--- ~
o

o o
I • • • 0

~- - - - - - --- - - --- - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -~
THE SHORTEXISG-HOLE SYSTEM

,-----------------------_. __
• •
.,
0
o o o
I
Let us consider a primitive flutelike wooden pipe with six finger
holes for the first, second, and third fingcrs of both hands. The fou rt h
fingers are not used, since they do not naturally fall into a stra ight line
o .

Io- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~
0 0 o o o
t¥3
with the ot hers . T he thumbs support th e instru ment in a horizontal
position to the righ t of th e player, and the left hand will be nea rest to
0 0 0 o o o ~I
10- -._ - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - ;Jj
the embouchure, in this case a hole to be blown across. The left end Fig. 4 1
of the pipe is tightly closed with a stopper. This six-hole rube is the
basis for the fingering systems of all woodwind instruments. FORK FI SG ERI~G

All six holes must be closed by the fingertips to enable the pipe to
If the next hole to the right of the soundi ng hole is closed, the sound-
vib rate through its entire length and sound its fundam enta l tone. For
ing notc will be flattened by a half step. This is the procedu re called
the sake of further similarity to the flute, let us say the lengt h is a little
fork fingering, or forked fingering, and by its means th e following in-
over 21 inches, which is the length of the flute's low D.
between notes become available.
Lh ... h .
, 3 2 3 0 • • • • 0
• $, II B J I
o • • • • • •
. ----- -- --- -- -- 21" - - - - - - - - - - - - - • .1 0
• • • 0
• 0
t pe I
Fig. 40

If now the rig ht third finger is raised, uncovering its hole, the sound- 0
• • 0
• 0 0
j Ie i
ing length of th e pipe is shortened by t he distance from th e hole to th e
open end of the tube, much as though the tube were cut off at that 0 • 0
• 0 0 0
jB&R
point ; and if the holes have been spaced for the intervals of a majo r
scale, the note soun ded will be E. All th e rema ining five holes must be 0 0
• 0 0 0 0
~I ja il
kept closed. Fig. 42
liB I~STRU~lENTS
There arc now two ways to finger Ft:, but Eb cannot be obt ained by
fork fingerin g since the re is no furth er hole to close.
K EYS
Th e acqu isition of add itiona l fundamental tones req uires th e boring
of new holes and the invention of key mechanis m. T he left thumb is
able [0 control a tone hole, leaving the supporting functio n to th e right
th umb. Both fourrh fingers. however, need the help o f keys in order
to control properly located holes conve niently . T he history of the de-
velopment of key mecha nism is one of increasing ingenuity in finding
ways by which the fingers may cove r and uncover holes beyond their
reach through the use of keys, levers. axles, and springs. T hese also
perm it an extension in the length of the tube, with the added lower
holes ope rated by keys.
T he key systems of the various woodwind instruments will be de-
scribed in succeeding chap ters.
on:RBLOWISG
In Chapter One, th e harmonic attributes of a vibratin g str ing were
discussed. A vibrati ng colu mn of air possesses these same characteris-
tics, the over-all cu rve of the fund amental , and the subsidiary vibrations
of the partials or harmonics that are pr csent in the formant of the tone
of the individual instr ument. JUSt as a str ing harm onic is made to sound
by lightly touching a node, so in a woodwind instrument .a ha~onic
is produced by opening a hole located at or ncar a node. ThIS hole IS re-
ferred to as a vent. It may be one of the holes regularly used to sound
fundamental tones, or a hole especially designee for the purpose and
equipped with a key called a speaker key, register key, or octa~e key.
On the flute, and with certain tones on the oboe , some hanTIOOlCS can
be produced without opening vent holes, by direction and shape of the
air stream from the lips.
The production of harmonics in all wind instruments is called , rather
loosely, overblowing. The tones so obt ained arc not usually called
harm onics, as in string technique. They are regarded as norm al tones,
being the only tones possible above the rang e of the fundamental series.
WOODWJ~D I~STR U ,\IE~TS 119
Th e following figure shows how the octave D is obta ined. by finger-
ing for D and opening as a vent the hole from whi ch C: normally
sound s. X orc that th is hole is situated at a point m:uk ing one- half th e
rube length of th e fund ament al D, just wh ere we know th e node for
the octave harm onic will be found.
WMI
o o • • • • •
,- ----- 10." - --- ---+- - _ loi·- - - - -- ~
Fig. 43
Again th e clarinet is except ional. in the matte r of overblowing. The
physical properties of the stopped cylindrical pipe arc such that the
harm onics tha t divide the air column int o even-numbered sections , re-
quiring a node at the open end. cannot be sounded. T he first overblown
note on the clarinet is therefore the third harmonic, an octave and
a fifth above the fundamental, vented by means of a register key.
E:'\I BOl:CHt:RE
The term embouchure refers to the appa ratus for ind ucing sy m-
path etic vibrat ions by reson ance in the air column, and to th e met hod
of blowi ng. In play ing th e flute, the lips dir ect a concentrated stream of
air to the opposite edge of an ani-shaped hole in the rube . For th e oboe,
two thin ly scraped reeds are bound tog eth er and fixed to a small rub e
which in rum fits into a hole in the end of the instrument. Th is double
reed is held gently betwee n the lips, so as to avoid closing th e tin y aper-
ture betwe en th e reeds. The bassoon empl oys a similar do uble reed,
larger than that of the oboe. It fits onto a curved metal pipe that leads
to the smaller end of the wing joint. The clarin et has a single reed, held
by a meta l ligature to the open side of a mouthpiece fitting the end of
the instrument. The reed is held against the lower lip, whi ch covers the
lower teeth , and th e upp er teeth rest on th e ben led top of th e mouth-
pIece.
Doubtless the prin cipal factor in creating th e ch aracteristic ton e
color of a wind instr ument is the embouchure, but it should not be
forg onen th at there arc ot her importa nt influences, such as the propor-
tions between lenurh and diameter of the bore. size and position of the
120 IN ST R U.\ 1EN T S W O O D W IND I N S TR UM ENT S 121
tone holes. materials of construction, and of course the sound ideal and Wh en no slur, or other mark of art iculation, appears over t he notes,
art istry of the player. each note is art iculated by the tongue w ith tu.
T one quality varies with the player, and can be varied by him for
expressive purposes. I Iuruan clements such as sensitivity, warmt h, and EX. 14 2 . Brahms-Variations on a T heme by H ayd n
natural vibrato are mysterious factors in musical performance that can- p. 5, ed. Eulenburg
not be produced by mechanica l means. T he condition of th e reed, its
degree of pliability, has an effect on the tone of th e reed instruments.
fl.. I
,,
f
--,
Andanre
'"'f' ~ ,. f' ..J •

PITCH
-: - ,.....
\Vind players arc fully as much concerned wit h playing in tu nc as 011.
,,
r "
are string players. The pitch of the instruments can be altered slightly
by modif ying their rorallcngr h through various man ipulations of joints
t! r I L..! r I
c.r
, -: ,...,
"
and fitti ngs, but since the tone holes have been located with reference
to fixed pipe lengths, any change in the latter will cause trouble. T he
contro l of intonation is managed by the lips. T he wind playe r has not
only to correct the pitch in terms of his own instru ment (F~ and G b
t!
f
~~

_ . f!!:_
•
f' _
,
-
I~
I

!
.''"-
W

have the same finger ing, to mention one example), but he must con-
tinually ad just his pitc h to the sounds of th e other instruments of the
BN. I

" f -
orchestra. With good players, this is for the most part an instinctive
and unconscious process.
,
I -
All wind instruments arc sensitive to changes in temperature. A cold
instrum ent will be flat until warmed by playing, and a tem perature
COBS

r
omitted hll~.,
-
Itpl., v( ., d-b.
Reprint ed with th e penni.,.iOll 01 the wle a.8ent~ lor EulCllburg ~ljlli,,"lUre Scores, C. F. Pete rs Co rpora-
above norma l will cause a sharpness in pitch. tion . Xew York

TONGCISG

The tongue is held forward in a position to prevent the air, under

pressure from the lungs, from striking the reed or passing through th e
lips until it is wanted. A tone is starre d by a sudden drawing back of the
tongue, exactly as in speaking the syllab le tu, This sudd en actio n is
necessary to overcome the inert ia of the reed or air column. A wind
to ne cannot have an imperceptible beginning, like the gradual engag-
ing of a string by the bow hairs, bur cert ain variations in the attack can
be made, such as du for tu, or even btu. The tone is ended by the return
of the tongue to its original position.
122 INSTRU~IENTS
Wirh practice these strokes can be repeated with considerable ra-
pidity, although not for long periods of time without a chance to rest
the tongue. If staccato is wanted. dots arc placed over the notes, and
the strokes are made as sharply as possible.
BX. 143. Berlioz-Symphonie Fantastique
Allegro
WOODWIND INSTRU .\IENTS 123
\Vhen the arti culations demanded arc too fast for the tongue to re-
peat the tu stroke, the formula tu ku tu ku is used. This is called double-
tonguing. It is easily done on the flute, but while oboe, clarinet, and
bassoon players employ it through necessity. it is not for them a wholly
satisfactory tonguing because the k is formed back in the mouth, out of
P' 2Z2, cd. Eulcnburg contact with the reed. An unevenness between the notes is sometimes
to be defected.

EX. 144. Mozart-The iUarriage of Figaro: Overture

P: 22, ed. Kalmus
Presto
~~ ~ .... Sa_
'a . ~ a I"
FL. I
r , -
/
,. "e. ~ ~
, / ~
t
0'.
~

,
, " ".
n
~
/
...........

as . ,,, '£§
" i !l" · .I I I

omitted. hns., trps., timp., strings

P I"gg. In fast triple rhythm, still another formula may be used: ttl tu ku, tu
R ~r;nltd wi th th. pe rm ission of fhe sole ag ents for Eulenburg Min ia.tu re Score9: C. F. Pete", Corpora_
t Ion, x ew Yorl<.
tu ku, or sometimes ttl ku tu, tl/ leu ttl, called triple-tonguing. Mcsr
play ers prefer the first way, The re is also muc h to be said for the prac-
tice of applying double-tonguing to triple rhythms, so that the t and the
k alternately begin the group of three notes-e-rn ku tu, ku tu ku.
12-1 I x S T R U ~ l EN T S WOO D W I x D 1:-1S T R U ,\ \ E N T S 125

EX.

.... . .. .. ., .
'45. \Vagncr-Lo!Jengrin: Prelude to Act HI
Sehr Lebhafr

. ' ;' -
~
'
,
,;,
II : II ;'" • .•:
. . . .- . .....:
- ....:
-t-
~.
p. 20, cd. Kalmus

: 4: ~:
__ •
~:
EX. 147. Berg-Violill Concerto

,
0.., ,
Orazi osc
F JoltteTZIlllg e
P' 12, ed. Universal

, , p ~ -..- :>~ .. ~ ~~ ~ i
~;'i
.d

'.'
Fl. t'TZW'Ige
l.
, . .
,"" u
on
aos CL.
. =
•• • • p

, . . .' ,
' ~' e:
Cop yr ight 1936 by Uni~~ru.l EdI tIOn A. G . Coed b) pe"Ill~SlOn

PHRASIN G

Two or more notes covered by a slur arc played with an uninter-

As a specia l effect, the tremolo made by rolling the tongu e, as in the
Ita lian or Spa nish r, has been asked for by some co mposers. It is usually
given the German name Flatte rzunge, translated flutter-tonguing. and
it is more pra c ticabl e on the flute than on reed instruments. The whir-
ring effect of a rapidly fingered chromatic scale, with flutter-to ng uing,
has a certain picturesque quality.
EX. 146. Ravel-La Valse p. 8, ed. D uran d
~ T~~,~ va,, ~
FL.DI JI ! dft
p
Pennission granted by Durand et Cie " Paris, cOPYlight own ers; Llkan-\"ogel. Ph ila delph ia, Pa. , a gen15.
F lutter-tongu ing is of rat her poor effect on the oboe and bassoon,
but somew hat better on the clarinet. In (he score from which the fo l-
low ing excerpt is taken , the clar inets arc doubled by the harp, and also
by bassoons and saxophone using ordinary tonguing. The cla rinet pa rts
are notated at actua l pitch.
rupted flow of air. It is important to realize that during the flow of
thi s co ntinuous air st ream the length of t he vibrating air column is
contin ually changing with the fing ering. Some notes are harmonics
and some funda mentals, some are more brilliant than ot hers, so that
t he em bouchure has to be adapted to each new sit uation in order to pre-
serv e continuity of tone and intensity.
T o slur a wide interval upwards, which involves increasing th e ten-
sion of th e embouchure, is easier than to slur the same interval down-
war ds. A certain amo unt of reluctance has to be overcome when the
air co lumn is suddenly length en ed or asked to return to its fundamental
after vibrating in partials. T he inertia is more secur ely ove rcome by
tongu ing . A t remolo between tw o notes a sixth or more apart runs the
risk of failur e of the low er note to sound on repetition .
Phrases normally co ntain several slurs, or a mixture of slurs and single
notes. T he player maintains a full and steady flow of air until a new
breath needs to be taken, and meanwhile the to ngue articulates the
rhy thmic pattern of t he music. In the following phrase, t he oboist will
probably not take a new breath unt il after the Bb in the fifth fu ll
me asure.
126 INS T R U ,\ 1E N T S WOODW IND INSTRUMENTS 127
EX. 148. Bcctho\'cn-Sympbony 110. 3 P' ' 55, ed. Kalmus piccolo
flutes
oboes
En glish hom
clarinets
r . ....-----
,."- 7

:: : E
~~
The function of the breath is to set up vibrations at the embouchure.
not to blow into or through the instrument. Breathing indications are
not written into the part, bur good writing for wind instruments re-
qui res a sensitivity to this essential physical :1spccr of wind pLJ.ying.
Even though one doesn't ph}' a wind instrument, one can learn much
U\" alert observation and listening to good players. T he art of breath
c~ntrol is :1 fine art of distribution of wind power according to the
respective needs, both musical and mechanical . of rhe tones of the
phrase. The dynamic design of the phrase has to be taken into account.
Sometimes a new breath is taken to give sharper definition to a motive.
T he compose r is advised to culti vate a feeling for the natural breathing
quality in instrume ntal music, like that of singing. In fast passages it
is better to sacrifice nores than to force th e performer to snatch fran-
rically at minute opportunities to replenish his wind supply,
REGI STER S
bass clarinet
bassoons
contrabassoon
First and second parts for identical instrum ents, as rwo flutes, are
written on one staff, except in cases w here differences in rhyt hm and
other complicat ions might cause confusion in reading the rwo parts.
T hen a second staff is used tempo rarily for the second player,
" 'hen two parts arc on t he same staff, stems for the first part point
up, those for the second pan, dow n. Dots and accents are placed at the
ends of the stems ( Fig. 44' ) ·
If both first and second players are to play the same part, double
stems may be used (Fig. 44 b ), or the part may be written as for one
player and marked a 2 (Fig. 44e).
If the first player is to play alone, the second pan may be repr esent ed
by rests (Fig. 44d ), or th e single pm may be marked "I, r " , or l " (Fig.
44 e).
If the second player is to play alone, the first part may be represented
by rests (Fig, 44f), or the single part may be marked 2 , II, 2 0 , or II"
(Fig. 44g) .

T he woodwi nd instruments present a rema rkable contrast to the ~ ~ ~

strings, in that they possess far more pronounced individual sound

characteristics; also each one has its peculiar variations within itself
in tone color, inten sity, carr ying power, and tone-weight, depending
'L :'~~
. ' .- -........
on the part of its range being employed. Knowled ge of these registers tl. _ .- . , - " " 'I f· g' l1

and their effect is an indispensable part of the technique of orchestra-

tion.
4 ·~bW g- ~
Fig. 44

SCORE ~ t AR K I SGS The indications diuisi and unis. are peculiar to string parts and are not
used for wind s,
The woodwinds are placed at the top of the score in this order:

F

CHAPTER S EVEN
THE FLUTE
Fr., flut e, grande {lute; It., flauto, flauto grande;
Ger. Flore, grosse Flote
HE pre sent century has seen the adoption of meta l flut es and
T the virtual obsolescence of the w ooden flute as an orchestral
instrument , an event which cannot be reported w ithout some
regret over the loss of th e w ooden flute's mellowness and beauty of
tone. It was to be anti cipated th at the evolution of musica l taste toward
a pre dilection for orches tral br illiance and virtuosity woul d bring abo ut
this radical change. j\ lodern flutes are made of silver, go ld, and even
platinum, and they surpass those of wood in ease of speaking, agility,
brilliance of tone, and secur ity in the up per register . Their tone is pure,
clear, and serene, possessing beauty of a different qu ality from that of
th eir predecessors. Some wooden flutes with silver-lined head joint.
now in usc, arc evidence of a lingering wish to pr eserve qualities of
both types.
The over-all length of the flute is about 26% inche s. A cork stopper
with a screw tuning device is inserted in the end ncar th e embouchur e.
so th at the sou nding length of the tube is in the neighborhood of 24
inches, The lowest tone is a-foot C. Some flutes arc made with a low
B, necessitatin g lengthening of th e instrument by abo ut 2 inches. T he
bo re is cylindrical, with a diameter of % inch, narrowed slightly at
the embouchure end in a parabolic curve.
The flut e is made in three sec tio ns, th e head joint, th e body joint, and
the foot joint, T he foot joint represent s an extension to the six-hole
pipe en visaged in the preceding chapter. and it furnishes the additional
118
T HE FLUTE l lY
ton es C: and C. A longer foot joint may be attached, giving the low B,
for those rare occasions when that note is called for.
F I~GERISG SYSTE:\{
> T he modern flute embodies the revolutionary con structive prin ciples
introduced by Theobald Boehm in the middle of th e nineteenth cen-
tury. with a few subsequent improvements. \\ 'hat is kn own as the
"Boehm system" is based on th ree main principles. First. holes were to
be bored for all c hroma tic tones, and these holes were to be located in
their acoustically correct positions. Second, th e ho les were to be as
large as possible, for better tone and int onation, and they we re to stand
open. Formerly, the size of the holes depended on the ability of the
fingers to cover them. and also on corrections in pitch necessitated by a
compromise in the loca tion of the holes. T hird. the mecha nism w as to
be arranged so th at th e fingers could contro l all of the holes, by means
of keys. hole cove rs, axles, and springs. The follo win g main features of
this arrangement should be con sidered in relation to the basic six-hole
pIpe.
The righ t hand first finger now play s F:: w hen depressed, instead of
F:. the second and third playing E and 0 , as before. By mean s of a
rotat ing axle, the f: hole is clo sed wh en either the first or the third
finger key is depressed. The righ t-hand first finger key also closes the
B~ hole above . providing an alternative fingering for Bb.
F or the left hand , a finger p late enables the first finger to close the
C# hole from a position an inc h below the hole . A combinati on key
and plate for the thumb allows closing either the Cq hole or both C~
and Bq holes.
It was found inconvenient to kee p t wo of th e holes open, th e G ~
and the low D~. The G ~ hole is ope ned by the lef t lit tle finge r lever.
A duplicate hole is bored, however, and this stands open unless th e
third .finger is depressed for G~ . T he right little finger opens the D~
hole III th e foot joint. and keeps it open for pra ctically all notes above.
The same finger controls a split key to play eit her C or C:;:, the lowest
not es,
The rem aining keys arc the high 0 and D :: trill keys, op erated by
the right third and second fingers, respectively, and an added B ~ trill
130 I N S T R U ~I E N T S TH E FL U T E IJI

"~.~~Q a
key for the right first finger, duplicating the action of the thumb plate.

<c:c:x==c:r:::::;;;;
... , Keys are named for the nore sounding when th e key is depr essed.
It is co be recognized, however, that wherea s G ~ comes from the hole
opened when th e G: key is depre ssed, the effect of depre ssing the G~
1 ~ 7 &,
key is to close the hole from which A comes, th e G hole being two
letters and numbers indic ate keys to be depressed
holes farther down . The low C hole is the end of the flute.
Fingering a note involv es not only pressing the key, but also closing
all higher-pitched holes. The entire tub e down to the note being fin-
gered has to be tightly closed, except when vents are opened to pro-
duce upp er partial ton es.
(,~~",

'''''. • ,, e z z , z e , , , ,, , --, , , z s In playing position. the flute is sup ported by the right thu mb, the
- - -
[= •• , • • • •t, ,• ,• ,• ,• L• • •
L L L - - --• •- -- , L
•, • •
L , first joint of the left forefinger, and the player 's chin. The lower lip
lrit
• • • • • • • • - -- - • • • • •
- - - - - - - - ,
• - -- - - - - - - - - partially cove rs the embouc hure hole.
'" • r• ,• • ,• -• - - - - •- - - - x x • x -
It is understood that enh armonic equivalents are fingered alike; e.g.,
- - - , , , -
I.
- - - -- the fingering for G ~ and fur A b is exactly the same.
- - - z ,
-
",I,t ;;: •z z z z - - y -
- -- - -
[ , , z - -
, -r r , , r r - r , , z
"" • - r r r r r
on:R8LOWISG

~~G~ QiD
• .0
--
0 to
-
5!'
-
S-
~-~ ~~ ~ ~~
_ The fingering chart shows how the upper notes of the flute are ob-
_ O*Q .e- . - -- - - - - -
tained by fingering a fundament al and. except for the chromatic tones
~ i' ~1 I from E to C:. inclusive. in the second octave, opening one or more

Il1'I

[
,....., , , z , •
,.. ,• ,• • - -
1st

- --
L
.. -•, --
- -
- - - H H - H HH
, , , , ,, - - , , , - - ,
• - - • • •- •- •-
,,, ,• -, ,- -- •- ,• -, --
- -
holes as vents for the production of harmonics . This process is summed
up in Fig. 46.
- , - - - , , -
-
,~

- , - --
H H
, H H H H H
,~

,'". - - - . - - - - - - --
- - - - - x x --
- - - - - - y• y - y -
-
- -- •-- ,
x
- - -•
• .. \iOi~m
. # .. J.
, '= ,'.. " ,
.J'' 6
- #
.~, .~,
r iSht
['" 3r'd
- - -
-, -, -, , 1 -- - - - - z - - - z
1 1 1 ,,,,, 1 ,- r 1
-
- •- -- -, ,-
I
y

h. rmoruc ItO., , no. J ' no.. ,no.

( • • fundt.lll"nul )
j I no.• I no. j , no. 6 I no. 6 ' no. 7
(shup )(sharp)
Fig. 45. Fingering Chart for the Flute (Boehm System) Fig. 46

TO~ E QUALITIES OF THE REGIST ERS

The tones of the first half-octave, especially the foot joint notes, have
a wann velvety quality of their own. T he sound is deceptively heavy
wh en heard alone, but it is easily covered by othe r instruments and by
strong overtones from low bass notes, This is due, no doubt. to the
weakness of the upper partials in the formant of the low register of
the flute.
 I N S T R U ~l E N T 5 THE FLUTE 133
132
In the following example, the low C sounds clearly because it is the The third octave is brilliant , with much carrying power, wit hout
lowest of the three voices. shrillness at least as far as A, or even li b.

EX, 149- Stravin sky-5'ympbony of Psalms EX. 15 1. Schumann--Symphony no. J p. 140, ed. Philbarm onia
p. 16, ed. Booscy & H awk es

F L. I
- $- •. ••• ••• ••••

~
- -

,~,

fl.. III
..."r--
The highest C # and D should be con sidered as extremely exceptional
extensions of the flut e's range . They can be included on ly in loud
oa . I
passages and it is advisable to double them with the picco lo. Insta nces
C('pyr i~h t by Edition Rus"", "de M u s i'l u e Re,-i", d version cOPF ;gh t IOJl\ by Boo sey & Ha.w k.es. Used
of their use are quite rare.
by P<'rmissin n.

EX. 152. Strauss--Sy mphonia Domestics

A gradual brightening of the tone takes place as the sounding length
P: 18, ed. Associated Music Pub lishers
decreases through the first octave, although these fundamenta l tones
do not achieve the clarit y and serenity characteristic of the overbl own
notes of th e second octave. T his comparison can be note d in the next
example, fo r two flutes.

EX. 150. Ravel-Ma .Here C O y e P' I, ed. Durand

In the prod uction of notes above the staff, various harmonics are
employed (Fig. 46) . The fi rst C~ is harmonic no . 2 (ocrave) , the D
J ) ::12 .J no. 3 (octave and fift h), th e D;; no. 4 (do uble octave) . Th ese har-
monics tend to differ in tone and brillianc e. T he top Bb is a cleare r,
more manageable tone th an th e B ~ , mostly because it is a harm on ic no.
4 as opposed to a no. 5. T he finger combination fo r high A sometimes
proves awkward in passages. T he reconciliation of the se diversiti es is
pp an essential part of th e art of flute playing , and melodies may cove r
the entire range of the instrument, alt hough it shou ld be add ed th at the

-
Pnmi5'ion gra n ted by D u ra.n d er Cit.• Paris, cop)',ight owners; Elkan·\'ogd, Philade lphi a. P a., agents
dynamic range of the flute is not wide.
The following is a famou s exampl e of a modern solo for the flute.
134 I I' S T R U M E N T S TH E F L U T E 135
EX. '5 3. Ravel-Daphnir et Chloe p. 228. ed. Durand EX. 154. Srrauss--EJek tra p. , 86. ed. Booscy & H awk es

Copyright 1916 by Adolf Fur5tnu, ilSsigned 19<1J \0 BooS(y & ll. ,.-kt., L td . Used by p.,rm iu ion . ( F or
P ortllp l, l td )', Germany. Danzig, USSR u of 1935: t "ursln e r, Lt d ., Lon d on ,)

- j-I
I
'Vide skips between registers are idiomatic for the instrument.

EX. '55. Srrauss-Ein H e/den /eben P' " 3. ed. Eulenburg

. --~
,··~r=g§J
'~
,
5C'hr Icb/u ft
".

' ~~ ..
~ .
• II ~
::: I. '
.. ~ I.. '
[. ,.....

j--
- -n E-
n
p p

=--- -- - -
--,-,.,-
KeI('1l u U g} , n nm t

",..
n..
•
.-z. : ;
lUl l. . '
; ' "::.
c- ..... _ ;:: _'.
- -A
=:3
p
With the ~nniMlon o f t he publish er F . E . C. Leuclr.:ln. Mue n ch en , Le ipziK. Co p yri ghl 1899, renu.,W
1927, by F. E. C. Leuckart.

Loud passages in th e high register req uire more wind. Opportunities

should be provided for taking at least a quick breath, either in the
phrasing or with a rest.
T wo flutes may divide a passage in alternate motives, overlapping
Pennlnion IlUlU<.! by Duran d ct Cic ., Pu;'. copyriaht ow nUI ; Elk u '\'Q&el , Philadel phia, Pa. , __ nlS .
on th e accent ed notes. T his proced ure makes breathing easier for both ,
and th e result is a more rhy thmic performance tha n if bot h flutes playe d
AGILITY the whole phrase in unison.
No wind instrument surpasses the flute in agility, fleetness, and gen-
EX. 156. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu p. ao, ed. Bra ude Bros.
eral virtuosity . Flu te part s contain all manne r of rapid scales, arpeggios,
Vivo~
and brilliant passage work. ~!~t*.A

n..

~U«d by pumluloll of } . &: W.

F'
136 INSTRUMENTS THE FLUTE 137

Double-tonguing (Ex. 157) and triple-tonguing (Ex. ISS) are both
effective and efficient for fast staccato playing.
EX. 157. T chaik c)\'sk y-NutcrackerSuite no. 1 p. J 5, ed. Kalmus
fr om low C up to open C~, inclusive. They are marked 'w ith a small
circle, like string harmonics. \ Vhilc they possess a certain veiled quality,
it is generall y admitted th at the y are inferior to nonnal flute (Ones
both in clearness and intonation. In Ex. 159 is an extraordinary example
of flute harmonics.

EX. 159. Ravel-Daphnis et Chloe P' 60, ed. Durand

T resleN.o''--;;::
0 0 0 ~
0-0.... 0 0 0 0 ..
b.... lIl .

EX. 158. Debussy-La Aler

p
P erm ission granl~d by Du rand ~ t Ci~. , Pa ris, ropyri gh t o wn~rs: Fl l<an -Vog ~J. Phi ladelphia, Pa ., a g~ n 15 .

Harmonics are usefu l as an added resource in the fingering of diffi-

HARMO:"ICS
W e have seen that on the flute all normal tones above th e first open
C~ are harmonics. But th e term harmonic , in woodwind parlance, is
used to denote a tone produced by using a harmonic different fro m
that normally used.
cul t passages. Sometimes the inclusion of on e or two notes in " harmonic
fingering " will simplify the execution without appreciably affecting
the over-all sono rity.
T RILL S Ai"J D TREMOLOS

The rapid alternation of two tones may present difficulties of finger-

~
• D
0
U 0
0 b.

~
0

Fig. 47
r"
0
0

I
0

IT F'LL
In Fig. 47 ( a) arc shown thr ee ways to play the high D. First, the
normal D as harmonic no. 3 from the fundamental G, with left first
finger raised, opening th e C~ hole as a vent (see fingering chart};
second, the same played wit h the vent closed; and third, the D as har-
monic no. 4 from th e low D, without vents.
Some fiurisrs are able to produce the entire harmonic series (Fig.
~ib ) up to the sevent h or eighth harmonic from low C, without open-
Ing ven ts.
N otes usually designated to be played as harmonics are those ob-
tain ed unvented as harmonic no. 3 of the fourteen chromatic tones
ing and also of embouchure. A trill may involve an exchange of finger
combinations requ iring the movement of several fingers, toge ther with
a qui ck adjustment of the embouchure to different harmonics. These
difficulties can be smoothed out by the use of harmonic fingering or by
th e addition of extra keys to the instrument. The D and D ~ trill keys
are examples of th e latter expedie nt . In any case, the effectiveness of a
given trill , or tr emolo, depends upon th e expertness of the performer.
Practi cabi lity is a matter of deg ree rather than a subject for classifica-
tion int o possible and impossible.
The three keys in the foot joint being controlled by the right fourt h
finger alone, the trills C-C~ and C~-D~, and the tremolo C-D::, are no t
playable except rather slowly. The little finger has to glide from one
key to the other.
The wo od wind version of the bowed tr emolo is the reiteration of
138 I N ST R U M E N T S TH E FLUTE IJ9
a single note by means of flutter-tonguing, an effect not ofte n used. In the next example, an imaginative use is made of two flutes to
The more usual tremolo is like the fingered tremolo of strings. a trill supply two inner voices of a four -part texture, in which soprano and
with an inter val larger than a second. If the interval is toO wide the bass are played by strings in octaves.
low er note may fail to speak, owing to the inert ia of the air column;
and if harmonics are involved there is a risk that the fundamental may EX. 162. Mendelssohn-Italian Symphony P: 77. ed. Eulenburg
sound where it is not wanted. W ithin the first octave, tremolos having AndaOlcc~
......, - ~
an interval greater than a perfect fifth arc uncertain, whereas in higher
registers a safer limit is the major third. p ~ ~

n.
THE SECOSD FLUTE
n
For added tone-weight. the second flute often doubles the first in p ~ ::;;:.../
unison. Less often it doubles at th e octave below, in w hich case its oc-
tave overtone reinforces th e first flute. T he lower instrument is at a
VA.OB. ~ ..
slight disadvantage, since the octave difference places it in a less bril- \'N. II

liant register. P
It is wise to assign some of the d uties of the first playe r to th e second VC BN. 'C.

player when both are not neede d. T his allows the first to rest, and tends
to make the second part more int eresting to play.

--
e- •. o..B.(8vA)
T he two flute pans may be melodies of equal importance.
• .~ - =---..
EX. 160. Stravinsky-c-Orpoear P' I I. ed. Boosey & H awkes ~

kggieTO fig' cret e. p ~ OB. I VA.

~ II IN". 8Woof.
Copyr ight 1948 by Boos.:y & H awk es . U""d by perm is<;ion.

Light accompaniment figures may be arranged for two flutes.

Reprinted wi th th e permiss ion of th e sole ~genta f,.>r Eulenbu rg Min iatur e S<;Qrea : C. F. Peter s Corpora-
Debussy-Premiere Rb apsodie

'f
EX. 161 . P' 28, ed. Durand t loa. New Yo rk..

I /'~
' ~ -. ~ ~ !-§~~~
fL. I
II
j f f''; ~l~'i~
n '; '. ; ' ;
"7ig~ ~ . - . -' ~ . - . -' - .
Perm is~ion granted bv Durand et Cie .• Par is, copyrigh t owners; Elkan ·Vogel, Philadelphia. Pa. , agents
140 IN STR UM ENTS T HE FLU TE 141

Another instance of inspired orche stration is the followin g cho rd

fr om ,\ lahler's Fourth Symphony. To be noted arc t he sudden change
of moue in the harmonic progression. th e unusual spacing of th e c hord
in measure 5. and the placing of the perfect fou rth in th e two flut es.
Th e effect is qui te unexpected and magical.
MORE THAN TWO F LUTES
T he grouping of woodwi nds by th rees qui te ofren incl udes three
flut es instead of two flutes and piccolo. Th e more homogeneous colo r
is preferred for purp oses like th e following.

EX. 163. J\ lahlcr-S)'111pbony no. 4 p. 148. ed . Philharmonia EX. 16+ Verdi-Aida

," •
Sclu zart un d innig
- .
I"
4 H~.
u
p ~
~
u
1'1' _ ~
u
_n<i, n.. I' dolo ss.
- - n o_

I~ ~ u ~~L --...--
-
P., I
or'\" . ~--...a ___
- - ea- • . - • A larger orchestra may call for four flutes. T he foll owing illustration

I~
• • - - /

is taken from th e final measure s of Berg's If ' o: : eck , In the score, the
I , , flut es are doubled at the un ison by the celesta.
p ~ ~
-~ dim.
IS S.
n a n
EX. 165. Berg- lV ozzeck (E nd of A ct Ill ) ed . Un iversal
vc,
'"
,6 __ ____
~ •• u
ppp l.us CL.

n..
- I. • ----
i I I I I I I I I I
~ . . . . . " --,
--- -
Cnp yrl,ht 19lO by l'nl ~taa l Edi t ion A. G. l'std b)' p."mi.. ion

TilE PICCOLO
Fr., petite {bite; Ir., flauto piccolo, on-nino; Ge r., kleine Flote
In each of the four fam ilies of woodwind, there is one instrument
vc.~~ e _
O-I. 8"" blSs,
_:e: _
- that is regarded as the standard or normal instrument of the type.
T hese four arc flute, oboe, fib clarinet, and bassoon . T hey represcnt
in each case the size and proportions found ro gi\·c the most nearly
Combinations of £lures w ith other Instr ume nts shou ld be studied
through perusal of scores. characteristic tone color, as well as other features, answering to a more
142 I NSTR U ,\1ENTS T HE FLUTE 143
or less universal, albeit transitory, conception of how th ese instru ment s EX. 166. Shostakovich-Symphony no. 7 p. 1 J, ed. Leeds
should sound. The other instruments in each group arc auxiliary instru-
ment s, ad juncts to th e normal types.
The auxiliary instruments have as their first faison d' etTe the exten-
sion of the pitch range of the families to wh ich they belong. The pic-
colo exte nds th e range of the flute family up to another octave C, the
last nore on the pianoforte keyboard. H owever, the top Bq and Care
quite difficult of production.
An auxiliary instrument, made for the purpose of playing higher
notes than the normal instrument, is of smaller size, favoring the up per
parr of its range. The lowe r notes tend to be of less good quality. T his
is illustrated by the piccolo, w hose low tones arc decidedly inferior to 'U . "£::"-
..;'.':. u - __
those of the flute. Furthermore, the foot joint is lacking altogether, so
that the lowest note of the piccolo is D.
Another pri nciple of auxiliary instruments is exemplified in the pic-
colo, the principle of transposing instru ments. The mechanism of the
flute being reproduced in miniature (except for the missing foot joint),
a flutist plays the piccolo with the same fingering to which he is ac-
customed. Since the instrument is but half the size of the flute ( 12 %
inc hes), the notes sound an octave higher. The piccolo parr in th e
score must be read as sounding an octave higher th an written.
T he int erest of composers in the auxiliary instru ments has given them
Copyrl&ht 1945 by Leeds Music Corparal,on, l' ew Yorl<, L~d by permi.osion.
posit ions of importance nearly equal to that of the standard types in
each fam ily. This development has been strengthened by advances, to The upper tones of th e piccolo arc bright and piercing, easily heard
th e point of specialization, in the tech nique of play ing these instru- above the maximum sonority of the full orchestra. The instrument is
ments, and still more by the realization that what we re once cons idered here unsurpassed in penetrating power. Its highest octave should there-
defects are really qualities, to be studied for their advantages, and to for e be used sparingly. In high-pitched chords, the three upper notes
be recognized as additions to the coloristic resources of the various may be given to two flutes with the piccolo on .top. T he piccolo adds
families of woodwind. T he peculiar hollow sound of low tones of the highlights to the orchestral tutti, strengthen ing the upper partials of
piccolo can be very effective in the right surroundings. the harmo ny.
The piccolo will be foun d most usefu l in its med ium range. H ere it
combines mo re flexibly with other instruments, and contributes less
edginess to th e sonority. It is often bett er, w hen doubling the flute with
piccolo, to w rite the latt er an octave below, so th at the two will sound
in un ison, especia lly when the flute is in its upper octave. Solo parrs for
th e piccolo in th is register are nume rous.
144 INSTR UMENTS THE FLUTE 145
EX. 16 7 .

.,," :,
Milhaud-Sy1llphony no. 2
.h63~

p
~i
.'. ~
ri - ~
i F ' 4<'
-
[I
p. I, ed. Heuge! but the upper half-o ctave is lacking in brilli ance, and su ffers by com-
par ison with the flute at the same pitch . The lower to nes, on the oth er
han d. are extremely rich and warm. and stronge r th an the 10\1,' notes of
th e flute. The instrument is responsive even co ac tive doubl e- and
triple-tonguing. It req uires a little mo re breath t han the regula r flute.
~~~,
~t: L FG~
.·~P;f;" In a grou ping of four flut es, the alto flut e is usef ul in extending the
range down ward .
Rep rod uu d by po.rm i....ion of Heuld et Cie, PM i~ _ne ~ 01 t be cop) ,i&!> t.

Com mo n errors in writing for the piccolo arc the roo consisten t plac- EX. 16 8 . Holst-The Planets P' 13 I, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
ing of the part in the highest octave, and the miscon ception that it is Andan~

an inst rument for loud music only. T he piccolo is effective in inverse

proportion to the amount of its use. It is capable of delicac y. an d it can
cont ribute much with a few notes skill fully placed.
Sometimes tw o piccolos are employed for th e duration of a move-
menr, or for a special passage. On the se occasions, one of the picco los
is played by t he seco nd or third flut ist.

The most individual parr of t he alto flute 's range is. of course. its
THE ALTO FLUTE lower octave . T o be heard to the best advantage, _ it should be lightly
0

Fr .. fiiite ell sol; Ir., fi;llito contralt o; Ger. A lt fiot e accom panied, or. better still, nor at all, as in the following example.

Th e alto flute is an auxiliary instrument that has not yet become P' ' 43, ed. Durand
established as a regular orchest ral instrument , Many orc hest ras do not
evert possess one . It is found in \'cry few scores, bur the sign ificance of
such works as DJplm is et Chlo e and the Ss cre du Printemps give the
alto flute a certain standing and importance. Ph ib d f lph ia , PL . Ilfnll .
\Vith a lengt h of H ~<t in ches, the alto flute is pitched a pe rfect fourrh
below the; sta ndard flut e. It is t heref ore a tra nspus ing instrument, all In the medium register, the alto flute differ s from the flure more
notes soun ding a perfect fourth low er th an w ritten. If the fingering for subtly. in timbre. The comparison must be experienced by ear to be
C on th e flut e is tak en, the resultant sound will be G. It is also call ed the appreci ated .
Fl ute in G , and som etimes called , erroneo usly, the Bass Flute.
T he mec hanis m of th e alto flut e is the same as t hat of the regular
EX. 17 0 . Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Prim em ps P: 18, ed . Ru sse
flute. exce pt for modifi cations du e to its size. T he left hand is placed
so t hat it has to reach no farther to th e right than on the regular flute, FL . II

th e holes being controlled by finger p lates and axles. First and th ird
fingers of th e right hand ar e enabled to reach the ir key covers by means
of discs place d at th e ncar edges of the covers .
T he r;lOge of the flute . up to t he high C, is available on the alto flute . r
Copyrl p t 1921 by Edition Ruu.: d. M\l~Qu, l" $fd by ...= i",lon "
 TH E O B OE 147

C H A P TER E IG H T

TH E O BO E let ters and numbers indicate key s to be depressed

I ~ ,, ! •.!o'.. 1 ! '·I" ~

rr
Fr., bautbois; It., oboe; Ge r., Ob oe, Hoboe , I
'i"fe~' ~ ro t'U' ~
.Q-

- ,- ,- ,- ,- -• ,- -, -- ,- ~ I~ ~ ,- - - ,- ,,-
- -- - -- - - - .- -
,• , , , , , , , " , , , - - -, ;-11: ,-, " - ,• ,-•
K I~ ~ K M

w,
•
•,
• -• -• •- -"" "oo
• , , , , , -1-
"- •- •- ""
7
,
", - - "- - - - -- "- - MM
- -- - - -- -- - --- - .-- 7
u- ,-, x ,
body of the oboe is a gently tapering conica l rube. made in
,• , , , , , " - -- -- -rr -- -x-x -- ,.-
T [
HE x
t hree sec tions, called upper, low er, and bell joints. T he diam-
"I .. , 'r 7- - -- , - - ,, Y - 12
~ z : z z z z z - az - - - - - -- - ---
eter of the bore measures %8 inch at the top. and % inch at t he
beginning of the bell joint. The bell is flared a little and finished with a
P'ijlrt
K K K - K-
" -I--
- - -- - -s- - - --
,- ..... ......
~
z- - z- - z Z
IS- - -- - - ..
3 JoI'~
metal ring . In the sma ll end is inserted the reed cube, or "staple," fitt ed
_ J.o. Q 1D ~~.e
with cork and the doub le reed, ~ inc h wide, bound to it by winding £II
- - -- --
--
wit h thread. The length of th e instrument, including th e reed, is about I l! m
25 X! inches, the reed and staple protruding 2 y:! inches, more or less. The , I , 1 I - ;I; - - - - - - - I I I 1 I
• • I: •, ,I I: I: ••, -I ., I •, , , ..
- ..
-. --
I I

•, , ,• ,• ,, ,,
I I I
pitch of the oboe can be varied but very slightly. only by pushing in
- ,, ,, -• -, --
or pull ing out the reed t ube.
O boes arc usually made of wood. Favarice woods are grenadilla,
• ."
I I - -
- -- - - M- M- M
- - - "- - •, "- - - - - - - - - - • ""
,
•
-
-- - --
q; ,I: - "- - -
, ,• -x - -- -- - -- "- - -- ,- -x -• - x -'t - - --
rosew ood , and cocu s w ood. Som e are of eb onite, which has at least the , II ,,, ,
,
- " I - -- - -- - - - - - - - --"- Z "I I zz -- -- .-
advant age of freedom from warping. r v

- - - - - - - - - - "- ,,- - Ib - ,- " - - -

Fig. 48. Fingering Chart for the Ob oe (Conservato ry System)
"
FINGERING SYSTEM

The fingerin g system of the oboe is based on the fundamental six-

hole D major scale, described in Chapter Six. U nlike the flute, the oboe
sounds F::: wh en the right first finger is depressed. but the two instru-
ments are similar in th at the right fourth finger co nt rols keys for low
C, C: . and D:. The left fourth finger operates keys for G :::. a dupli cate
low Ca. Iow B~ , an d Bb. the lowest note on the oboe. Th e right thumb
supportS t he instrument, w hile the lef t thu mb works an octave key
and a Bb plate.
146
148 I ;\' S T R U ~1 EN T S
Th e ton e holes are quite small compa red (0 those of the flute . A
feature of earlier typ es is still seen in some oboes. the tone hole under
t he lef t thi rd fing er co nsisting of t wo small holes bored close to gether.
W hen one hole is closed the note sounded is A b. " 'irh both closed, the
note is G.
This half-hole principle is made pcnl1ancm in the perforated key-
cover on the C: hole, for th e left first finger. :\ tab is provided onto
which th e finger may slide, leaving the kCY-CO\"C f down and the small
perforation ope n for venting ce rtai n notes. Levers for up per Bo and C::,
pressed with th e side of the right first finger, a c ross F:: key. and the
upper D and 0 ::: trill keys, arc sta ndard equipme nt. Furth er key w ork
varies with different models. The French Conscrvat cire sys tem, gen -
erally regarded as the best, has from thirteen to sixteen key s, in addi-
tion to plates or ring keys on the fund amental six holes. Spec ial keys
are added ro individual instruments to facilitate the execution of t his
or th at trill or figure. In consequence, a great many alt ernative finger-
ings exist. Only common fing erings arc given in the ch an , which can-
not record all the variants in use, and hen ce m ust remain incomplete.
It is intend ed to present a general view of oboe finge ring.
OVERBLOWISG
K evs I and 2 on the chart are called first and second octave keys.
L ike ~he half -hole dev ice, their function is to induce the sounding of
upper harmonics by venting. Some instruments have an automatic
second octave key t hat goes into action when the first octave key is
depressed and the fingering is taken for t he A above t he staff and up-
w ard.
lnd ha.!f-h I 1St oC[a v~
f;l nr~
h, lf-ho', octave "r---::-:-' ~:
" ., ,
harmonic no. I
. , fundamenta.!
,no.) me. S' no. 4
Fig _49
THE OBOE 149
Figu re 4-9 sho ws th e scheme of har moni cs employed for the higher
notes. T he last six harmonics are all sharp, relative to th eir funda-
mentals, by at least a half tone, high F being a whole to ne sha rp . Th e
harm onics, num bers 3, 4, an d 5. requi re furt her \'enting besides the
half-hole and octave key s, and th is ven tin g is b rgely responsible fo r
th e sharpness of t he har monics, wh ich necessitates the adoption of
lower-p itch ed fu ndamentals to sound the no tes wanted.
The oc ta ve and fifth harmonic (no. 3) can be produced from the
o.
notes of th e first octave, up to and includ ing B F:: and G arc norma lly
so overblown. Composers have not t hus far made a practice of indicat-
ing these harmoni cs. bu t oboists sometimes use th em as a means of
achieving an especially fine pianissimo.
THE DOCBLE REED
An accepted parr of oboe playing is the preparat ion of the reeds. A
selected piece of cane is folded double when wet, the ends bound
around a tube, t he double reed cut to the desired lengt h, and the n the
new ends arc scraped w it h special tools to the req uired t hinn ess.
T he reed must be \'ef Y thin to vibrate freel y , but if too t hin t he tone
is of poor quality. If t he reed is too thi ck it is di fficul t to play staccato
and the low tones do not speak easily. A stiff reed causes the tone to be
harsh and strident .
T he reed p lays such a viral pa rt in th e tone quality of a reed instru-
ment t hat the fact of the performer's preparing the reed ma kes of t he
oboe a pecu liarly per son al instru ment. The sound refl ects to a high
degree th e individ ual taste of th e player.
key
EMROl..:CHURE
•
• no. J
Before playin g, the reed s must be moistened. In playing po sitio n, the
end s are held betwee n the lips, which gently control the vib rations and
preve nt th e teeth fr om touching the reeds. Because of the flexibility of
the reeds, considerable variation in pitch can be obtain ed by t he lips
alone .
150 INSTR UM EN T S
Th e tiny elliptical orifice bet ween the reeds opens and closes wit h
their vibrations, and these in turn set up vibrations in th e air column of
the instrument. The oboe requires by far the least amount of wind of
any wind instrument. T his means that long phrases may be play ed
without caking a new breath , bur it means also that the player is in a
constant state of holding back the wind pressure. For this reason. as
well as for the purpose of allowing relaxation of the lips and tongue,
frequent rests should be provided in the oboe pan.
TO'SGL'TSG
T HE OBO E 151
The oboe staccato is superior to that of all the othe r winds for its
sharp, dr y, light quality, a point to realize when using woodwinds in
combination .
Another important characteristic of the ob oe embouchure is that
tones have to be started with a definite attack, noticeable to the car.
H th e reed is simply blown upon, without the t st roke of the to ngue ,
the moment at whi ch the tone begins to sound is unpredictabl e and
impossible of co nt rol.
Flutter-tonguing has been employed on the ob oe with no more than
moderate effectiveness.

The tongue controls the air stream at the orifice between the reeds. EX. 17 1 . Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Primemps p. 88. ed. R usse
All the tongue articulations previously described are feasible on the Vi.,.o f Int",,-
oboe, with a few reservations. Double- and triple-tonguing are in the
nature of emergency resour ces. used only when the tempo demanded
is too fast for single-tonguing. T hey are not idiomatic features of the
instrument. as they are in the case of the flute. On the other hand, the
light oboe staccato in single-tonguing can achieve a surprisingly fast .
m
~ ' .,, ~
f crete,
delivery.
Cop yriahl IQ11 by Ed ilion R".., de M" .iqlle . Vied by permiMion.

EX. 171. R ossini-c-La Scala di Seta: Sinfonia P: 3, ed . Eulenburg

~_ . ~
.. ... TIMBRE A'SD REG ISTERS

~
r pl~ . ~
c.. 1 ~I: L
, rr~ Oi
.. _ T he sound of the oboe has been called pungent. tangy. nasal. pene -
tra ting, biting. piercing. and raspy. T hese adjectives represent the
more obvious qualities of double-reed ton e. qualities that distinguish
th e oboe sharply from the flute, for examp le. T here is a noticeable dif-
feren ce in the kind of to ne pr od uced by different schools of oboe play-
ing. such as th e French and th e German . and by individua l players. It
is gen erally believed th at the oboe to ne of the present day is much
thinner and much lighter th an w hen the following melody was written.

Rep rin tro ... itb the pe rmiPi(lll of the .ole .1eJ\\$ for EIIlen b llrl M in i.,,,,re Sco ret ; C. F. Peter. Corpora-
tion. New YOlk.
152 INSTRUMEN TS T HE O B OE 153
EX. 173. Bach-Brandenburg Concerto no. 1 P' 15, ed . Kalmus U pwards from A above the staff the oboe tone gradually becomes
th inner, and above D begins to sound less like an oboe. These high
tones do not possess the warmth of the range below A, but they are
~.,

very useful for adding brilliance to the woodwind and the upper
strings. The oboe pans in Ex. 176 double the strings.

-
In direct contrast to the flute, the oboe increases in intensity as it
descends through the lower fifth of its range, and the characteristics
l'
EX. 176 .

Oil_II
Chausson-Symphony in Bb

'~
' .~.~.
_
Tres~me
· -- ~ #..t Jihli
p. 93. ed. International Music Co.

•
#J..o.l ....l\.
=
I ~

~ I ~ I
referred to become more pronounced. Here it is the problem of the ."
oboist to subdue the natura l tendency to loudness and even coarseness. -#~
T he low Bb is seldom found in scores. It cannot be attacked softly, and
it is more appropriate for music of a robust character than for the
, ,' ; iG-~
nuance called for in Ex. 174. The B~ is more manageable.
T he distinctive tone color and expressive capabilities of the oboe
EX. ' 74. Prokofieff-Chout P: "9, ed. Guth eil
make it a favorite solo instrument. Below are two well-known oboe
La"<I--_ ; melodies.
o.,J, f"
, PI' ?ioz; --
l'
EX. 177 . Schumann-SY111phony no. 2 P: I I I, ed. Philharmonia
Copyright 1924 by Breitkopf & Hute! (A. Gutheil). Copyright assigned 1947 to Boosey &< Ha....kes. Used
by permission. ; , A"'~
o•. I ~p lrJ_
Of the highest notes shown on the fingering chart, G~ and A are im- I' ~1f7I"biJt ~ ~fP
practical for orchestral writing. They are insecure of production and
lacking in oboe quality. F# and Gq are not often used, but they are
more playable and they are considered a normal part of the range of the
oboe. T hey had better not be approached by skip, and should not take
parr in active legato figuration. The following solo in the upper register
is very difficult but very effective when well played. EX. 178. Brahms-SY1flphony 110. 2 P' 80, ed. Kalmus

EX. 175. Ravel-Daphnis et Chloe P: 3, ed. Durand

j #'", ~
~., ' Il" ~1'1'J'
Permission gruud by Durand d Cie .. Puis, (opyri~t owners ; Elku-Vog el, Philadelphia, Pa., agentl.
154 I N S T R U ~I E N T S T HE OBO E 155
,\ lclodies of folk-song character are especially well suited to the EX. P' r I ed. D urand
simple plaintiveness of the oboe. The following melody is contained
within the range of an octave. T he oboe repeats it several measures
later an octave lower.

EX. J 79. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra P: 68. ed . Boose)' & l lawkes

4;:5£5 !:EF.;;~a
0•.
w

The oboe intensifies the suggestion of a strange exotic pipe, imparted

by the next example. Penn iulon IIrilnt...:! by Duran d et Cie., Paris, co p)right o_~r.; EIJ<.an -Vogd . Ph ill delpb la., r ... . ..,en"

EX. 18 0 . Falla-EJ A mor Bruio P' 64. ed . Chester TRILLS A:SD TRE:\lOLOS

Even more than in the case of the flute, a tabulation of oboe trills
and tremolos cannot be definitively made. There are the same variable
facto rs of skill of the pcrfonner, and degree of rapidit y in the alterna-
tion of the two notes, further complicated by differences in mechanism
,.bfQ
~
•••• Jj ~i~i
~ ==-- '-' _ .
be tween individu al instruments. Also, there is often more t han one way
to finge r one or both the not es involved. It can be said that all major
m ort"ldD
Copyr llJhl lor all countr ies J. &: W. Chnlet L ld_. Lo ndon. and mino r trills are possible, and that most tremolos wider than a fourt h
are undependable. Tremolos on not es above t he staff are apt to be of
poor effect.
AGI LIT Y

Generally speaking , fast slurred arpeggios and figuratio n are not
recommended fo r the oboe, unless a special effec t is intended. It is not
that t he instrument is incapable of this kin d of virtuosity, but rather
t hat agility does not seem suitable to the double-reed to ne, at least in
comparison with flutes and clarinets. On the other hand, th e oboe ~an
articulate rhythmic patterns with superior neatness. The followmg
quite difficult phrase proves eminently successful as oboe writing.
ORC HESTRA L U SES
The oboe group commonly consists of tw o ob oes. or t w o oboes and
English horn , t hree oboes an d English horn, or, less common ly, three
oboes. Other combinations, like the four oboes and English horn in
Stravinsky 's Symp hony of Psalms, are special and unusual cases.
A part from th e melodic uses desc ribed above, the oboes may rein-
force violins or violas by doubling at t he unison . In combination with
other woodwinds they give incisiveness to wind chords and sharp defi-
156 I N S T R U M E NTS TH E OBO E 157
nirion to rhy thmic figures. T he un ison doubling of oboe and clarin et f Sibelius-Sy1J1phony no. 4
EX. 18 4' P' 68, ed. Breitkopf
is forceful.
A harmonic effect of extreme pungency is obtained by placing to-
gether three oboes and English horn, all in their low registers.

EX. 182. Strauss-Till Eutenspieget p. 8, ed. Philharmoni a

Sehr lebhafr
,I "
oe
' I~ './. ~

,
" ~
'./. I-

' NO
H'

....-'"
~

·f·
lurrig /, _/G.

'I~
c
ON 0

Reprfnted ",lIh the ~rm;""ion

m/- v.
of the copyright owners C. f. Peters, Corporation, New York.
~
..
~

'~ 3
0 ••
Two oboes in thirds, or oth er close intervals, have a tangy quality
p
of (one not possessed by the othe r woo dwinds.

zx. , 83. Debussy-La Mer P' 8" cd. Durand " ~3~

Anim' ~
'I~ ~~
.,,#b;
II •• -P
. fl. =-p =--
p- r-, p-
/p

Pe nn ission granted by Dur<lnd et Cie. , Paris, copyright owners: Elkan_\'ogel, Philadelphia, Fa., agents.
In the closing measures of Sibelius' Fourth Symphon y, the oboe re-
peats a simple major seventh motive in diminishing nuances, with
changing harmonies in flute and strings. \ Vith economy of means, a
maximum effect is obtained.
..s-_6- uu
UsW. by ~rmi""ion 0' th~ origin"l publish~a, Breitkcp r & Hartd, Ldpzig
To.obtain a more stride nt sonor ity, Gustav Mahler often directe d
th e oboes and clarinets to raise th e bell of the instrument so as to point
stra ight at the audience. T he instruction in German is Schalltrichter
aUf ! a marking more usually seen in brass parts.
The opposite process is that of asking for muted oboes. Muting is
accomplished by stuffing a handkerchief in the bell.
15R INSTRU ,\IENTS
EX. 185. Stravinsky-Petrouchka
W --= poe ill.
D• .
" '" Jurd .
m
Cop)rilthl by Ld it;.on R. lISOC de ~Iu.i<.lue. R.e.. i~ >er.ion col')rlchl 19048 by
b y ~nn;",ion.
THE El"GLISH HOR:-l
Fr., COT mglais; Ir., como ingleu; Ge r., englisch Horn
The mechanism of the En glish horn is similar in aU deta ils to that of
the oboe, except that the low Bb is lacking. It differs fr om the oboe in
size (length JI % inches, including reed) . in rhe bulb-shaped bell, and
in the bent meta l crook ext endin g fr om the top end of th e instrument
to hold the reed tube. The double reed is larger than that of th e oboe.
Th e weigh t of the English hom is supporred by a cord around the
player's nec k.
The English hom is a transposing instrument, an instrument "in F."
This designation means that when the play er reads C, taking the fin-
gerin g for C as on the oboe, the sound produced will be F. because of
th e difference in size of the two instruments. Since the English horn is
larger than the oboe the sounds will be low er in pitch (it will be re-
called that th e piccolo sounds higher th an th e flute because of its smaller
size). All notes written for the English horn, therefore, sound a perfect
fifth below.
ORCHESTRAL USES
Although often used in eighteenth-century chamber music and the
divertimento, the English horn has been a normal member of the or-
ch estra , an auxiliary instrument of the oboe family , since th e middle of
th e ninet eenth century. It w as at first introduced only occasionally for
a featured solo melody, and was usually played by the second oboist,
p. '55, ed . Russe
n.oo..r), .. 1I:a.. l<d l:otd
THE OBOE 159
who resumed playing the ob oe after performing th e solo. Th is cou ld
be easily don e, since the two instruments were ident ical in playing
techniqu e. As the imp ort ance of the En glish horn grew; and its individ-
ual capabilities were more app reciated. this process of interchange of
instruments gave way to the establishme nt of the spec ialist on the Eng-
lish horn, who now occas ionally plays third or fourth oboe.
As an auxiliary inst rume nt . a pri mary function of the English horn
is to extend th e ran ge of th e oboe family downwa rd. Since the instru-
ment has no low Bb. th e extension in sound is to E: belo w middle C.
Irs lower fifth does not han the tendenc v to coarseness not iced in the
lowest notes of th e oboe . The large r size seems to favo r the low notes.
EX. 186. Bart ok-Second R bs psody for V iolin ,111d Orchestra
P' 3, ed . Boose}" & H awkes
.-.:J: _
~ ....
Another service performed by the En glish horn is to play the notes
of the ob oe's lower fifth wh en a softer and less pene trat ing tone is de-
sired. A three-pan chord for three oboes sounds smoother and mor e
homogeneous if the third oboe is replaced by the En glish horn.
For singing melodie s the En glish horn brings a new ton e color. It
is closely related to the oboe sound, yet it possesses a quality that is
high ly distinctive and indi vidual, owing, at least in part, to the peculiar
bul b it has for a bell. Orchestral litera ture abounds in solo phrases for
the English horn. Two of the se are given below.
G
1110 INS T R U ,\ 1E x T 5 T HE O B O E 161

EX. 187. Ber lioz-c-Overrsre: The R oman Carnival

P: 3. ed. Philharmonia

In comm on with all auxiliary inst ruments that arc designed to ex-
tend the ran ge downw ard, the uppe r to nes of the Englis h horn arc the
.- ~ . .. least effective part of its r:mge. It is unwise to write above E in th e
t iG:: orchestra, unless doubling by other instru ments is provided. The F
-- ~ in the following examp le is produ ced by good players.
~ -
'$..~-' .1 EX. 190. Rousscl-BJ'ccbm et A riane. Second Suite P' 16, ed. Du rand
V (I(. J :::'lJ l _ . .
• ~ "j,
ENG. · t ,

H!"'. f

EX. 188. Srrauss-Ein H eldenieben p. '7'. cd. EuJcnburg t i: ! I

~ l'

Pum UkJn &ra tlkG b y Du rand rl Ck , Paris, cop)righl cnrnr", ; E ll< an ·\'o &d . '-hila ddphia, Pa., acenlS

t:O<G.
H :-I.
The English horn is equ al co the oboe in agility and can participate
in all acti ve woodwind figur ation.

~. ;. rtf 7@ I ~ d~.
j ;: ." I
With th ~ ~rmi ....;o n o f th e pu b li. her f . E. C. Lellchet. }hanchen. Le lp~ i l. Copyrigh t leW, nne"l't d T HE OBOE D'A.\ \ORE
1927, b y f . E . C. UIlC .... rt.
Fr., hautbois d'omottr; It., oboe d'mnore; Ger. Oboe d'smore,
The English horn provide s new coloristic resources in combin ation Liebesoboe
with other instruments, winds as w ell as st rings. A perfect example of
Larger than the obo e but smaller than the Engli sh horn. t he oboe
mixed timbre is seen in the following melody whic h is played in unison
d'a more is pitc hed in A, a mino r third below the oboe . Its notes there-
with a solo 'cello. The two instruments blend as one, and neither pre-
for e sound a minor third lower than written. Its mech anism is like that
dominates at any time. The accompaniment con sists of widely spaced
of the English horn in that it docs not possess the 10\,.-' Bb, and it also has
harmonics in the strings, held pianissimo. th e bul b bell, T he tone is gentler than that of th e orhcr tw o instru-
ments, and subtly different in tone color.
EX. , 89. Debu ssy-La Mer p. 28, ed. D urand
The oboe d'amorc was a common instrument in th e baroque period,
Tres moderc and was much used by J. S. Bach . In modern or chestration it is known
~'" ¥Zt C--;; ~ I'r$ Fh¥¥'fr¥f
, tr h tJ:fJTt m f ~I IO-Wt'n "
fnf~1 ch iefly for its important part in Strauss' S vm pbonia D omestics , where
its wr itten range ascends to high F. Among other instances of its use
162 I~STRUMENTS

are the Bolero of Ravel, and the following example by Debussy. The
solo first appears unaccompanied. CHAPTER NINE

EX . 191. Debussy-Gigues p. 4. ed. D urand

T H E CLARINET
Fr., clarinette; Ir., ciarinetto; Cer., Klari nette

clarinet is a cylindrical tube, with a bell expanding sligh tly

T
HE
more than that of the oboe. It is most often made of grcnadilla
wood, less expensive kinds of ebonite, or metal. The key work
is nickel silver. T he body is in five sections, called mouthpiece, barrel
'*(5 ,1?~ ~ ~IF gj J@ joint, top joint, lower joint, and bell.

Perm i~$ion
p
&ranted by Duro.nd et Cit., Paris, copyright gwnC<3 ; Ell<an-Volld, Philadelph ia , Pa. , a l w t.
,I The clarinet mouthpiece is usually made of ebonite or crystal. It
is sometimes referred to as a "beak" mouthpiece on account of its shape.
.-
THE HECKELPHONE I
Ger. H eek elphon
Invented by Wilhelm H eckel, in 1904 , the heckelphone was in-
cluded in the scores of Elektra and Salome by R ichard Strauss. It is a
sort of baritone oboe, built to sound an octave below the ordinary oboe I-
o
and furn ished with an additional semitone taking it down to A. The
keys are arranged high on the instr ument, with the fingering of a Ger-
man oboe. There is a bulb bell per forate d on the side.
T he heckelph one has a rich and fu ll reedy to ne in the lower octave, Clarinet mouthpiece Reed Ligature Assembly
making an excellent bass for the oboe family. It can be played at least Fig. 50
as high as E above the staff, although it wou ld hardly be used for its
upper tones. Instances of its use are so rare tha t few orchestras are pre - The single cane reed is bound to the open side of the mo uthpiece by
pared to supply the instrument. means of a metal ligature with thumbscrews. Thus the flat side of the
The heckelphone is a transposing instru ment sounding an octave reed becomes part of the inner surface of the clarinet tube , and is in
below the written notes. direct contact with the air column. The upper end of the reed IS
scrape d very th in, and the orifice between it and the tip of the mouth-
16l
16~ I:-;STR U~IE:>ITS THE CLARI~ET 165

piece is carefully adjusted. A metal C:lp is placed ove r the reed when TR A ~S POS IT IOS
nor in lI SC.
In pl:1ying position. the reed is b id on th e low er lip. whi ch covers The clarin ets furnish a complete object lesson in the evolut ion of
the lower teet h. T he upper teeth rest on the bent of the mou th piece. transposing instru ment s. All of th e instr ument s listed han the same
T Oile quality and volume are affected by the amount of reed within the fingering system, so th at one who learn s this system can play th em all.
mouth and the pressure of th e lowe r lip on the reed. The to ngu e In the act of playing any instrument the re is automa tic, instinctive
[Ouches the tip of the reed with each art iculation. translation of the printed note int o the pro per position of the fingers,
and it would ob viously be impracti cal to learn diffe rent finge rings for
each o f the pitches listed under the Clar inet Famity. Th e playe r reads
THE. ClA RI~E T F _UIII.Y
his pan as th ough for C clar inet, and the instrument transposes acco rd-
Th e clarine t family is a large one. T he list of its memb ers, with ing to its size. Since the C clarinet is now obsolete, a clarinet's not es
appr oximate lengths and thei r tr anspositions. is as follows: are always different in pitch fr om those written.
In the discussion of finge ring. registers, etc.• the notes mentioned
Length
will be the notes as read, hence fingered, by the play er. T he norma l, or
l nstrmnent
(Sopranino ) clarinet in :\~
in l ncbes
q
A ctual Sound
minor sixth above written notes
standard, clarinet is th e B, clarinet, co rresponding to the flute and
{Sopranino) clarinet inE, 19 minor third above written notes
major second above written notes
oboe, and exemplifying the ideal clarinet as preferr ed to day. The A
clarinet is somewhat less extensively used.
(Sopranino) clarinet in D 1O ¥.!
(Soprano) clarinet in C 2Z ~_I as written
(Soprano) clarinet in S, r\- 26 % major second below written notes
FI S GERISG SYSTE.\ l
(Sop rano) clarinet in A 27¥.! minor third below written not es
Aho cla rinet in E b )8 major sixth below writt en notes Referring to the elementary six-hole, six-finger scale describ ed in
n asset horn ( in F) 42 ~ perfect fifth below written notes
Chapter Six, and used as a basis for studying the fingerin g of flute and
Bass clarinet in B ~ 55 major nimh below written notes
octave and minor third below oboe, we find that in the clarinet this scale starts on G instead of 0, and
Bass clarinet in A 55
written notes gives the written notes shown in Fig. 51 (a) .
Conrrabassclarinet in Bb 106 two octaves and major second be-
low written notes '5 r j a ~F
Of these, only four may be said to be regular members of the orches-
tra: th e small Eb clarinet, the pair of clarin ets in Bb and A, and the Fig. 5'
bass clarinet in Eb. The piccolo clarinet in Ab is rarely seen even in
bands. Part s written for D clarinet are most oft en played on the Eb. The cylindrical rube of the clarinet produces only the odd-numbered
Man y scores of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries call for C harmonics, when overblown. The series shown at Fig. 51 (b ) repre-
clarinets, but today these parts are played on either the Eb or the A sents the first notes available by overblowing from (a), at the twelfth
clarinet, The alto clarinet is sometimes used to play basset horn parts, above, leaving a large gap between the [\"'0 series. This gap was filled
and it finds some employment in military and dan ce bands . The bass by (I) boring a hole for the left thomb, giving G when open ; ( 2)
clarin et in A is virtually never seen except on pape r, and the contra- boring holes still higher on the tube, for G~ and A, with keys ope rated
bass clarinet has yet to be adopt ed by compose rs. The alto and bass by the left first finger; (3) utilizing th e register key (pro vided fo r ove r-
instr uments are distinguished fr om the others by upturned bells, and blowing ) to sound the Bb, this key being plac ed close to th e G hole
bent metal pipes to which the mouthpieces are attached. so that th e thumb can depress the key and close the hole at the same
1M 1N S T R L1 ,\ 1 EN T S THE CLA RINET 167
,, .. .5 b 7 e
" u time; and (4) extending the downward range co E. with keys, so that
the first overblown note is B~. The last step involves the use of both
fourt h fingers. The right thumb supports the instrument.
0
T he Boehm system and later improvements were applied with sue- '"

on ~d.
In,,,,,, "".
'~w ...b h ol ~ .
,1
T ~ ," ,, , I" ,. 11
cess to the clarinet, although some other systems are also in usc. The
Boehm clarinet has up to seven ring keys, and from seventeen to
twenty-one other keys. •\ bny alternate fingerings are provided, espe-
leuers iJ7Jd numbers indicate keys to be depressed or holes to be cloud cially for duplicating the action of the fourth fingers.

-, - Fig. 52. Fingering Chan for the Clarinet (Boehm System)

r r r r r r r r r r
,r • •r • •r • • , • , ••
r r t t 'r t

.n [~ l ,, ,, , , , l ,, , ,
~ 'r
• ,• •l • ,• -• •- - ,- -
t. l
,l l
-.-
- -- -- --
'"' ", - -" e •""- "- "- -" - ""
,n
OM

, , ,
- -

.... , ,• ,• ,• ,• ,x ,x x , - ,-
r,.,., ~ z z z r z z z •z - - - -
x
-
- -- -- - -,
-
- -
.
- ", - - - - - - - - -
- - -m -
- - - - -- -
- - - - -- - - - - -
It is to be noted that the thumb hole is kept closed, except for the
so-called throat tones G, G ~, A, and Bb, and for one F: fingering ; and
that the register key. also called the speaker key. is depressed for all
•• - " ,,- I- , - " - - - "-
[ - - - -- - - - - - - notes upward from the first overblown note, B1·
Side keys 9 and 10 (right hand first finger) are used to trill Bp-C,
and Bb-Cb. respectively.
Fingerings above F~ are not standardized, except for A~, and no
attempt is made in the chan to list the many alternatives used by clad-
,
- -, , ,- Ii• q• • , ,~ !~
, , 11• II• I l ,,~ II,, lH ; Il• II•, Il•, Il lW
Ii Ii o nerisrs. The practice is to discover by experimentation those finger
, "" , ,, - '"
l
-- , , , ,
- -
- - -
t, l
,, ,l l t,

-.-
le - combinat ions which produce the best results in terms of the individual

.
-
- - ," "- "" - - -" -" - "- - - - --- player and the individual instrument.
,• ,, ,, , ,x • - - - - x
- - - •
- - , ,
-- "-- ,z ,z "ZZ
xx 12 -
, - , - - - - - --
z z z , - - - - - - - ---
- - • REGISTE RS
- -
- - - - -
" ll - - - • - -
I' - - - ---
-I>

~ s ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
- - - - - -
/' : :;/ : c -" ,
I -;: ..

• •funda mental ,h. nn no.}. no. S (fin) • no. 9

chllumuu.J "th roat " ----J d u ino ....J high I extreme high --J

•, ,- • - - - , •, -•
II II IW IH j, 1 ~IH l II II I ~ l~ IW II II II II II

[ ••..
~.". - -- -- --- - -
-• ,
~
Fig. 53
,.
loft
- - l l
- - ,-
l l l
, "" "
l l
-- -- " ,- l
- -
L l L

- - -- -- --- - ", -- - - " - -

- - llm , - - -
-- -- ,- - •-- - -•-,- -Z -- - -
- -

- - -
..
- ,• - -, • -- " ,, •
l
THE CHALU:\lEAU

- - --
- -
15 J,i J,i - -. - - - -- u - - - -
- - • 14 14
" "
-
" "
T he low register of the clarinet is called the chalumcau register, from
the name of one of its ancestors. The tone color in this part of the
G'
168 I N S T R UM E N T S T ilE C L A R IN E T 169
range has been called dark , menacing . and dramatic. There can be no EX. 194-. M ozJrt-S.vmpbol1Y in E" K. 54-3 . P: 45, cd. P hilharmonic
doubt of its richn ess and individuality. It is unli ke any ot her sound in
the orchestra, and mar kedly different from ot her registe rs of the clari-
net. It is often employe d in effects of an atmospheric nature.
.-
~
Alltgn:n o ~

EX. 192. R cspighi-Folltol1le di R onu P: 8, ed . Ricordi

J~
p
,-- - 1---;--"',

.. ... -. -.-. . .. .. -. -. ·---r

::> ,
I.. . ~ I ,

~.
: . j
o .. I
·n
-
~I
p
I I I t r' J I t I , I , I ti t ~ t I I I
I HS.

~
,-;:\,'-• •- • ~ > ~
By co urt esy of G. Ricord l & Co., copyright QWn e fi :
vc.,
P

0-11 .
--
1 RS .

Accompaniment figures of repeated notes and accented rhy thmic

patterns are of excellent effect in the chalumeau register.
Til ROAT TO~ ES

EX, 19 3 . Stravinsky-Divertimento, Le Baiter de la Fee As th e upper pan of the chalumcau registcr is approached, the sou nd-
p.• 8, ed. Boosey & H aw kes ing length of the rube is shortened and the characteristic tone qual.ity
All to sostenuto is g radually lessened . The open tone G (thumb hole ) has a .sound,.n g
length of about 8% inche s on the B, clari net, and the ~ a minor third
high er sounds from a length just under 6 inches. T ogether w ith the G:
ra,
IN .~
and A, these are called throat tones. They arc rath er pale and less \"1-
brant th an ocher clarinet tones. but it is a mistake to reg ard them simply

Copyrigh t I Q3~ by Ed ition Ru Ul: de

Used by perrnw.ion.
~f u l ique.
.~~
Revil(<:! veniQll copyright 19-1Q b y Booso:y It Ib...k.u Inc.
as inferior tones to be avoided. On the contrary. th e throat tones shou ld
be recogn ized as a resource of the clarinet. to be employed appropri.
ately. The slight awk wardness of fingering invol ving G ; and A has
The contrast between the low and high registers of the clari net has been greatl y overemphasized.
suggested many passages in w hic h first and second clarinets sound as P: 8, ed. Durand
EX. 195. Debussy-L'A prcs.midi d'un Faune
two different instruments.

....
Pe nn '-iQn VUlt«! b y Ed il ionl ]un ] obert , Pu is, copyr ii\bl o..-n eIl ; EIUn· Vo&d, P b Ha drlph la , P a .,
~
170 INSTRU ,\IENTS THE CLARINET 171

erol over the different registers so that no lack of homogeneity is felt

THE BREAK in w idely traversing melodic lines like the following.
The interval made up of the th roat tones is oft en er roneously called
th e br eak. Th e break means mor e pr ecisely the p:lssagc fr om Hl, to B:<, EX. 198. Stravinsky-Sy mphol1Y ill T hree M ovem ent s
and vic e versa, or, in o th er words, th e point at which th e high est fun da- p. 30, ed . A ssociated Music Publishers
mental to ne, B,.
ad joins the lowest overblo wn note, B~ . Reference to
th e fingering chart will show that w hereas Bb is pla yed wit h the entir e
tube open, B~ requires th e entire tube to he closed. with the exception
of the vent hole op ened by depressing th e register key. It is true that CL

this transition presents a difficulty of coordination for beginners. but

it is made with perfec t smoothness by good players.
"
EX. 196 . Sibclius-SY111phon y no. 3 p. 40, <d. Ka lm us

With pum iuio n of th e oril inal publi oher . Robccn Lien.au. 100mer ly ScMe$inrccr. Bo:rlin·Udittrfdd ... .

CoPJrlP I 19016 by Asoc laled Mua ic Pv.trIi1.bUlo. Inc. , ~ e ... Yorll.. l: ocd by penn iMioA,.
THE CLARISO REGISTER

The overblown notes from B~ to the first C ab ove the st aff, in- EXTRE;\IE ?'OOTES
c~~sive, constitute the clarinc register. Here the clarinet
is bright, in-
cisrve, warm, and expressive . T he clarinet can be played up to high C above the G just mentioned,
bur th ese extreme not es have little sono rous value. G:: and A are oc-
EX. 197. Beethov<n-SY111phony no . 7 p. 75, ed . Kalmus casionally found in scor es, especially those of modern Fren ch com -
posers, usually in tutti passages, or doubled by other instruments. Ex-

"c~ :, ~(:71j _ dolu

amples like the foll owing arc most exceptional.

= EX. 199. Casella-Pup pazetti p. 48, ed. Philhar monia

, ,
n. ,
IN A II

Above C, the high register tends to sound sh rill and piercing in Cop JTlcht ' or all counl1iu ]. & W. Chester Ltd " Wnd<>o.
forte, and som ew hat flutelike when played so ftly . A good tone quality
is maintained up to high G, which may be taken as a safe t o p note for T hro ughout its range, the clarinet has greater capabilities of dynamic
orchestral clarinet parts. X eedless to say, the clarinetist exercises con- variation than the other woodwind instruments. This is most remark-
172 I N S T R U ,\ 1E :-I T S
able in piani ssimo. By subd uing the reed's vib rations with th e to ngue,
t he tone can be reduce d to virt ual inaudibili ty . SOllie times t he indi ca-
tion subtone, or echo tone , is ginn.
EX . 200. Bcrlioz-Sy mpbollie Fantastique
Adagio
- _____
~
EchO
~,l~ a • J;. :: i - • .+Ed
Pn'P - -
R~ pr ; n~ w ith t tlt ~rm ;,~io" 01 th e 10k 3gen ts fo r Eu knbw i 3.1I";&llIrc Sccree : C. F Pet(n CoqIO D.-
Bon , :-Ourr Yo."
l:SE OF T HE . , C L A R I S ET
T he A clarinet is not an auxiliary instrument like the piccolo or the
English horn. It is paired w it h the B, clarin et fnr th e position of norma l
or standa rd cla rine t. although somew ha t un equally.•\ clarinetist car-
ries both as prepa ration for a play ing engagement. l ie expects the music
to be in part for Bo and in pan for A clarinet . Som etimes he is asked to
make the change in the course of a movement, which he docs by re-
moving the mouthpiece from one inst rument and connecting it [0 the
other (to avoid playing with a dry recd) .
Unti l recently. the reasons for using the A clarinet were thr ee: (.2)
to simplify fingering in sharp keys by means of the added half tone
transposition ( B major would be written D major for A clarine t, C::
or D b major for B, clarinet) ; ( b ) [0 give the less bri lliant, slightly
warmer ton e of the longer instrument for certain expressive purposes;
and (c) to gain the low C::, sounding from th e low E of the A clarinet.
These purposes now need to be further examined. In regard to (a),
the assumpti on that some keys arc easier to play in than others is mis-
leading. The fact is that difficult passages may occur in C major. and
easy ones may happen in F ~ major. In the chromatic harmony and
shifting tonaliti es of the twentieth century, key signatur es are un-
reliable indicators of fingering difficulties to be encount ered. Further-
more, the perfection of mechanism and the enormous advance in play-
ing technique have combined to minimize problems of execution.
As for (b) . the difference in tone color between the A and Bb
clarinets is nor striking. Indeed. it is often impossible to tell by the tone
alone w hich of the two is being played. The size of the instrument is,
THE CLARINET 17J
however, unquestionably an aid to the performe r in secur ing a desired
tone quality .
And for (c) , clarinet makers now supply B ~ clarinets having a low
Eb key (right hand fourt h fi nger) to give the C:. This addition has
P: 11 7.ed. Eul enburg not been universally accepted. In orde r to sound this note the instru -
ment has to be lengthened. and the qu estion arises whether or not it
remains a tru e B, clarinet . \ \ .riting for the A clarinet is the only sure
way to obtain the low C::.
As a matte r of fact. the A clarinet has not fallen inti> disuse, despite
.
a preference for the B, instru ment and a tendency among clarinetists
to play evcrvrhing on the Bj , tr ansposing A clarinet pans down a half
tone. Sometimes that practice is reversed. the A clarinet being used
to play the part w ritt en for B, clarinet to get a preferred fingering or
a better tone on an important melody note . For example. the sound
A b, on the second space, would be wri tt en as throat ton e B, for the
Bb clarinet, whereas on the A clarinet it wou ld call for the fuJI B~,
overbl own from low E.
TRILLS A'SD TRE:\toLOS
All major and minor trills are good on the Boehm clarinet. Tremolos
are of excellent effect, especially in the chalumeau, bu t should not be
based on inter vals wider than the major sixth in that register. or the
perfect fourth above the break. Above the staff, the major third is a
safer limit.
EX. 1 01 . Kodaly-Psalmus Hun garicus P' 81, ed. Philharmonia
Cop )'rl&bt 1 9l~ by L'n ivcrwl E dit io n A. G. ; ren .....ed 1952 by Zolt .. n Kod..l)'. U-e <1 t.y pc fln iN jo" .
T OX GUIXG
The clarinet staccato is much less pointe d than that of the oboe, but
it can be drier and sharper than the flute staccato. Fast passages of
single-tonguing arc better relieved by slurring tWO or three notes at
174 INSTRUMENTS THE CLARINET 175
\
appropriate places. Double- and triple-tonguing can be used as emer- and fluidity . Wide legato skips between registers are more easily ac-
gency expedients, as in the following instance wh ere th e clarinets are complished when in an upward direction.
called upon to imitate the light triple-tonguing of the flutes.
EX. 204. Schoenberg-Pierro! Lunaire p. 13, ed. Universal
EX . 202. Mendelssohn-Italian Symphony P' 1)6, ed. Eulenburg R asc he
•

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tion , ~ew Yo rk .
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Copyrilbt1 914 by Universal Edition , Vienna; renewed l!f-ll by Arn old SrhOtnber l U""d by ~rm i !lllion.

The following cadenza for two clarinets exhibits the flowing quality
In variety of tongue attacks the clarinet is superior to the oth er reed
and flexibility of the clarinet legato.
instruments. The start of a tone can be controlled to give all gradations,
from an explosive sforzando to a soft attack something like that of EX. 205. Ravel-Raprodie Espagnole P' 8, ed. Durand
loure bowing in the strings.

EX. 203 . Debussy-Pre1l1h:,re Rbapsodie p. 7, ed. Durand

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The clarinet is a close second to the flute in agility. Its tone qua lity,
as well as its technical capacities, make it admirably suited for all kinds
of rapid scales, arpeggios, and figuration calling for ease in mobility,
li6 I N S T R U ,\ I E N T S TilE CLARINET 177
of Alban Rerg's\~olin Concerto. The clarinets are written at their
OR CHESTRAL L"SES
actual pitch in th e sco re, a practice adopted by a few modern com-
Besides the important melodic functions performed by clarinets, posers, the pans being print ed with the necessary transpositions. A
either as solo instr uments or doubling other melodic voices, th e har- foo m ote in th e sco re explains that the first clarinet part is notated fo r
monic and coloristic possibilities of the clarin et sect ion are nry numer- Bb clarinet, th e second for A.
ous, as can be seen in almost any orc hestra l score. The unob trusive na-
ture of the clarinet's tone mak es it extr emely useful for doubling and EX. W i. Berg-Violill Concerto p. 3. ed. Universal
for combinati on with practically all instruments. Clarin et accompani- , "
,
• 0
d <10ft
POet, crete,
~
;,1 \" ;~==> .- '"
-
ment figures arc common and often ingeniously arranged to contribute
'~
life and vibration to the background texture. The followin g is a goo d .JI ~~ ~~ .--~ --
example of this use of clari net s, and should be examined in the full score.
~ ~

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EX . 206 . Stravinsky-Petrouchka P' J 7, cd . Russe "
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THE BASS CLARI:\ET

Fr., clarinette basse; lr., clarinetto basso, ctarone; Ger., Bassk/arinette

Copyriabl by E d ilioa Ru_ d~ MU5i 'l \l ~ Rn iMd ~erslon ~OP) f ;,",h1 1904.'1 by ~ .t Hu , k" Used
Although the bass clarin et in A exists. and some compose rs have
br po:rm iss,OG.
called for it in their scores, few musicians han ever seen th e instr ument .
The evocati ve color of the chalumeau tones. combined with harp Parts for it are pra ct ically always played on the bass clarinet in Bo•
and solo violin, cre ate a fascinatin g atmosphere in the opening measur es th e playe r transposing the note s down a half tone. In most cases. the
178 INSTR U ~I ENTS THE CLARINET 179
composer's ob ject in writing for th e A instrument is to obtain th e low
C ~ . the act ual pitc h of th e low E of the bass clarinet in A. This sound
is now available, however, through th e addition of th e low Eb key
(right-h and fourt h finger ) to th e fib bass clarinet. Because of thi s ex-
ten sion th e len uth of the instrument is the same as th at of th e bass
clarinet in A . Since the bass clari net is pitched an octave below the
ordinary clarinet, irs lowest (One sou nds a half tone above the open
C-srri ng of the 'cello. Fig. 54
Bass clarinets have been made with a down ward range to D. sound-
ing C, and mode rn R ussian composers give evidence in their scores of The French system seems the mor e logical fr om the standpoint of
the existence of bass clarinets desce nding to C. sounding Bo. th e range fingering habits, whereas the G erman notation has the advantage of
give n by R imsky-K orsakoff. A bass cla rinet constructed by Rosario appearin g more nearly \..·here it sounds. Bass clarinetists, as a group, do
.\ 1a1.zeo, of th e Boston Symphony O rchestr a, provides two fu rt her not sho w a preference fo r either way. If the part begins with notes in
semirones , down to Bb, sounding Ab. At the present time, however. one the tre ble clef, ambiguity may exist as to wh ich notation is to be fol-
cannot with certainty count on having sounds lowe r tha n C:; on the lowed. A footn ote is sometimes given to make this clea r, e.g., "sound-
bass cla rinet. ing a major ninth (or major secon d) lower,"
T he mechanism duplicates that of th e standard Boehm clarinet, ex-
cept tha t two register keys are pro vided. The throat tones may be
T OSE Qt:ALITIES
overblown at the twelfth, givin g fuller to nes from high D to F, but
few play ers take advantage of th is, preferring to keep to the fingering The low ton es are rich in th eir odd-numbered partials, and result ant
habits of th e smaller clarinet. Extern al features of the bass clarinet are major triads are oft en plainly audible when the instrument to; playing
th e upturned bell and the curved mour hpipe, both of nickel silver, alone. The bass clarin et makes an excellent bass for the wood wind
and the supporting neck-cord attached to two str ap-rings. group, wi th or withou t doubling by bassoons. Its pian issimo in the
low register can be very much softer than that of th e bassoons, and is
a valued resource.
NOTATION
In the following expressive solo passage the bass clarin et is accom-
There are two systems of notation in comm on use, called French panied very lightly by flutes, with the harp placed above th em. The
and G erman, terms that may have possessed logic when they origi- written C# cannot be reached by most instruments.
nated. Subsequently both systems have been employed by French
and German composers interchangeably, but the name s persist. EX. 1 0 8. Shostakovi ch-Sy111phony 110. 7 p. 99. ed. Leeds
In th e French system, the part is written throughout in the tr eble
clef, exactl y as though for the ordinary Bb clarinet, the sounds being a
major ninth lower.
In the G erman system, the bass is used as the normal clef, the treble
clef being employed only when the patt lies so high tha t keeping to
the bass clef would require several leger lines. The sounds are a major
second lower th an written, in either clef.
180 1:-: S T R U ~I E:-: T S TIlE CLARI:-:ET \8\

The low register is ilia effective for a kind of shadowy fleetness EX. 111 . \V. Schuman-Sympbol1Y no. 3 P' 55, ed. G. Schirmer
characteristic of the clarinet family.

EX. 209. Milhaud-SymplJony 110. 2 P: 40, ed. Heugel

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It is important to fo rm a mental picture of the sound of the clarino

register of the bass clarinet as compared to notes of the same pitch
;~
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~_· 3 .;;;.:... . )
.
played on the ordinary nD clarinet. There is obviously no way to do
this without actually listening co the two instruments, but some knowl-
edge of what is involved in the way of fingering, overblowing, etc., THE CLARI:'IJETS IN Eb AND D
helps the listener to know what to listen for, and to identify what he
The small clarinets in Eb and D stand in the same pitch relationship
hears. In this register the bass clarinet is paler and somewhat less in-
to each other as the Bb and A clarinets. The D clarinet is little used. It
cisive than its smaller prototype.
is possible that in some instances the composer's choice of the D clarinet
EX. 110. Strauss-Ein He/den/eben P: 7, ed. Eu lenburg was motivated by considerations of fingering. but in any case parts for
the D arc nearly alwa ys played on the Eb clarinet, reading the no tes a
Lebhafr bC'Wii' _ .J ~ . ~ J ~' half rone lower.
,~~~.~
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~ - ~-~=~~ __; : E-~
f~
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(Frr nch noution)
Although the Eb clarinet has the same mechanism as the Bo. it is more
difficult to play well, and in tune, especially if the performer is asked
With th e penniss ion of the p u b lish er F . E , C, Leuckatt , Muen ch en , Leipzig. Copyrigh t 18'19, re newed to change quickly to the smaller instrument from the larger. The small
1927, by F. E. C. Le u cka tt.
reed and the rather cramped finger position need time for adjustment.
The bass clarinet is hardly less capable than the other clarinets of Usually one member of the clarinet section makes a specialty of playing
a high degree of agility, despite the comparative cumbersomeness of t he Eb clarinet.
its mechanism, due to its size. The following example is the statement The need for more strength in the high-pitched woodwind is often
of a fugue sub ject played alone by the bass clarinet, except for rhe sole felt in the large symphony orchestra. and this the small clarinet can
accompaniment of a snare drum. The high F is as high as it is advisable supply. It has a penetrating tone, an incisi ve staccato . brilliance and
to write for the bass clarinet. agility. It is used to reinforce violins and flutes, as well as the upper
tones of the other clarinets; hence the most used part of irs range is the
high register. The high G, sounding Bb, can be considered a safe upper
182 IN STR U hI ENTS T HE CLAR INET I8J
limit, although G# and A are w ritten for th e E b clarinet more fre-
quently than for th e Bb cla rin et. T HE BASSET H ORN
The following is a characteristic Eb clarinet passage. T he basset horn may be described as a cla rinet with extensio n to low
C, pitched to sound a perfect fift h lower than wr itt en, i.e., in F. Its
EX. 2 I 2. Ravc1-Daphnis et Chloe P' 263 . ed. Durand lowest sound is the refore F, a fourth above the 'cello C-string. Its bore
------~ is narrower th an that of the alto and bass clarinets, sometimes used as
U 1fb subst itutes, and this gives the instrument a distinctive timbre.
In early forms of the basset horn, the rube made a sort of S-turn in-
side a box, as a means of gaining length of air column without lengthen-
ing th e instrument . T his dev ice is not found in modern basset horns.
!' At present , the significance of the basset horn derives from a few

.. .
.;;; ~
_-- -, . . _,
notable instances of its use. Mozart wrote important basset horn parts
in the operas, especially Die Entfiihrung and Die Zauherfiote; also in
th e R equiem and in the Serenade, K . 36 1. Beethoven gave it a prominent
solo in Prom etheus. It has been revived by Strauss in the operas E/ek tra
and Die Frau obne Schatten,
Strauss writes the basset horn parts generally in the treb le clef, even
~' when it necessitates the leger lines fo r low C. Sometimes, however, the
Pe r.n lu ion granted by Du r~ nd et Cie. , Puis, copyrigh t owners; Elkan-Vogel, P biladelph lil, Pa.., agents
bass clef is used, and on these occasions the part is written to sound a
perfect fourth higher. This is a practice that will later be secn in writing
The entire range is playable, down to the low E. The rone of the for the horn. The procedure is shown in the followi ng exampl e.
two lower octaves lacks the warmth and expressive quality of the
Bb clarinet, and the instrument has often been used here for purposes EX. Z 14- Strauss-Elektrl1 p. 252 , ed. Booscy & Hawkes
of parody and imitation. As in the case of the piccolo, however, it
should be said again that auxiliary instruments bring new colors in their
"weak" registers, additional resources needing only to be employed in
a.us f:T_
the right way.
HORNS
Below is a well-known solo for D clarinet.

EX. 2 13 . Strauss-Till Eu/ enspiegel P' 98, ed. Phil harmonia

, ~----

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Reprin ted w ith th e ptrmission of th e oopyriltht owne~ C. f. rete ~ Corpora.tlo n. Ne.. York
184 I N S T R U h1 E N T S THE CLA R INET 185
,
THE SAXOPHO:-.lE
BASSfT -
H O II. ~ S
Fr ., saxophone; It., soxoiono, sassoiono; Ger., Saxophon
Invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, (he saxophone is classified as
a woodwind instrument despite the fact that it is made entirely of
brass. This is beca use its ton es arc produced with a mouthpiece and
, reed, almost exactly like those of a clarinet. It is commonly played by
clarinetists withou t furth er tra ining. The upturn ed bell of the saxo-
phone is remi niscent of the bass clarin et, bur its rub e is widely con ical,
and the ton e holes, inc reasing to Ye r ~.. large size toward the lower end
of the tub e. present a contrast to the appearance of the clarinet family.
Th e--ton~ holes have large brass padd ed key- covers. operated by rod-
axles from keys which arc arranged in two groups convenient for the
hands. A cord around the neck sup ports the instrument when playing.
The fingering is very much like that of the oboe , so that it need not be
T HE CONTRABASS CLARI:-.IET described in detail. Registers arc as shown in the following figure. The
Large clarinets have been constructed to sound in the octave below scale is compl etely chromatic.
th e bass clarinet, in Eb and in B~ . The latter instrument is made of
meta l and fold ed upon itself after the manner of a contrabassoon. It
has great dynamic variety, rich tone quality, and an astonishing pitch
\
, ?
if i i E
-- #~I
. I ~
, funda mental
• =1, ,: + octave key : extra keys
• + octave key
range, sounding from the D just above r o-foot C to the D just above
middle C. T he contrabass clarinet is as yet too great a rarity to be con - Fig. 55
sidered an available resource in symphonic composition. Saxop hones arc made in a large variety of sizes and keys. All are
written for in the tr eble clef, as in Fig. 55. their different sizes resulting
LARGE CLARIXET SECTlOSS in numerous transpositions for the sound s produced. T he most com-
The extent to which composers have expanded the group of clari- mon are the Eb alto (sound ing a major sixth lower ), and the Bb tenor
(sou nding a major nimh lower) . Next to th ese in fr equ ency of usc
nets in the large orchestras of the early twentieth century is shown by
are th e Eb baritone (sounding an octa ve and major sixth lower), and
the following listing of the clarinets employed in some wo rks.
the Bb soprano (sounding a major second lower ) . T he soprano saxo-
Mahler-c-Symphony no. 8 Schocnberg-Gurrelieder
phon e is usually made in straight form, without the uptu rned bell. T he
l Eb clarinets z Eb clarinets
3 clarinets in Bb and A 3 clarinets in Rb and A transpositions are shown in notation below.
1 bass clarinet 2 bass clarinets

Strauss-Elektra Srravinsky-c-Le Sacre du Printemps

1 Eb clarinet 1 D (Eb) clarinet
+clarinets in Bb and A 3 clarinets in Bb and A
2 basset horns 2 bass clarinets
I bass clarinet
186 IN STRUMENTS THE CLARINET 187
EX. liS . Copl and-Concerto for Pianoforte and O rchestra

J"

I~
.
p. j 6, ed. Cos Cob Press
PO'" .u~/. ,C:l ,. , • b., t>.. : ..
r
A large bass saxop hone in B, is sometimes played; also soprano and
tenor in C, and others in F. Ravel writes, in Bolero, for Bb soprano
" •
,.., , . => ,.>
.'~ ' . » >

and Bb tenor , an d also for a small sopranin o in F (sonndi ng a fourth • • CL ~

up) . The part for the latter, how ever, can perfectly well be taken over I" f
by the less rare Bb soprano, since it docs not go too high. ~:--.... e: tl~,. II" ~~.
,.. . -,.>
The saxophone possesses the agility of the clarinet, except in the
matter of fast tonguing, which is hindered by a slightl y slower re-
••,
$OI'IlA NO
IAlOI'H Ol'I"
»
-~ --:;;. - •-
f
sponse in the embouchure.
Modern developments in saxop hone playing have completely
changed rh"ture and sound of the instrument from what it was . N. ,
when melodies were assigned to it by Bizet and other European co m- I f ~
, ~ ,~

(piuiuto accomp"llimcllt onurredj

posers before 191 0 . From a pure, steady tone , partaking of both horn Cop yril hl 192'9 by Cos Cob Pre$6, tee. Us.ed by pcrm i"5.lon of Arr ow P ~CSI, Inc.• lr.eorporati n. th e
Cc. Cob Pres-.
and reed instrument qualities, its tone has beco me, coincident with its
ascendancy in the field of popular dance musi c, tremulous, oversweer, The following legato, expressive solo passage for alto saxopho ne
sentimental; and it is almost in vari ably play ed out of tune. The saxo- represents a rather unusual use of this instrument in a work of religious
phone as played today cannot be used successfu lly in instrumental ch aracter.
co mbinations, and it is perhaps for this reason that it did not, as seeme d
like ly twenty-five years ago, become a member of the symphony or- EX. 11 6 . Britten-Sillfonia da R equiem; Dies frae
chestra. p. j 8, ed . Boosey & H aw kes
The numer ous instances of the use of the saxophone in symphonic
music have been chiefly as a special instrument introduced to playa
featured solo (see h.loussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'tme Exposition).
In the following example, the soprano saxophone is employed to im-
pan a flavor of the jazz style of the 19 2 0 'S.

C HAPTER rEX
TH E BASSOO?"
Fr., basson; Ir., [agott o; Ger. F,;gott
HEllltassoon is picturesque in appe :uancc 35 well as in sound.
T lrs air column is abo ut 9 feet c inch es lon g. sou nding the B
JUSt below the open 'c ello C-string. and th e instrument is
rendered m anageabl e by bein g folde d in tWO, so to speak. T he bassoon
o F1SGERISG SYSTE:,\ [
is usually made of maple, in four sec tio ns- t he hell joint, t he bass (or
long ) joint, the bu tt, and th e wing (o r tenor ) joint. The bun and the
wing joint arc lined with rubber, against moisture. A do uble reed %
inch wide, qu ite like a larger English horn reed, is fined onto a grace-
fully curved metal mou rhpipe ca lled the crook, or bocal, and t his fits
into the top en d of t he wing joint. A neck -cord, attached to a ring at
th e [Op of the butt, provides support so that the hand s arc free . Some
bassoon ists use a hand rest , fixed [0 the butt an d bracing against the
palm of the right hand.
The righ t hand ho lds th e bu rr close to th e player's rig ht hip , t he
left han d g rasp ing t he bass and wing joints toget her. In this posit ion,
the th umb keys arc on the side tow ard the play er (called the back ) ,
and t he fingers find th eir positions on th e from side. o ut of sight of
th e pl ayer. Since th e tu be makes a sharp U ctu rn inside the butt, the
lef t ha nd co ntrols at on ce th e lo west not es, o n t he bass join t, and the
hig hest notes, on t he wing joint.
T he bo re is co nica l, fr om )-@; inch at the small en d of the crook, to
abo ut I y:! inches at t he bell. The pitch of the bassoon can be alte re d
on ly by cha nging the posi tion of the reed o n the en d of t he crook. It
is not a transposing instrument.
188
TII E BA S SOO ~ 189
Th e wing itself is a device for adding th ickness to the wall of t he
ru be, in order thar to ne holes, bored on a slam, may be spaced properly
fo r pitch on th e inside. y et close enough together on the outside fo r
the fingers to reach <Fig. 57 ).
Fig. 57. Cross Section of Bassoon \ \"iog
Some holes in the butt arc also bored slantwise. This peculiarity and
the situation resulting from the folding of the t ube create an external
aspect of confusion and complexity in the fingering system.
Bassoons in use at the present time are of t wo main types, t he F rench
( Buffet) , or the Germa n ( H eckel ) . •\lost G ennan bassoons can be
ident ified in t he con cert hall by the w hite ivory ring at the top end of
th e bell joint. Some. howeve r, do not possess t his distinguishing featu re.
,\ l odero improvements, such as th e Boeh m principles t hat revolu -
tio nized the mechanisms of other woodwind instruments, have not bee n
suc cessfully incorporated into the bassoo n. It scerns tha t p ractica lly all
devi ces fo r im proving the instrumen t's purity of intonation and capa-
bilities of execution inevi tably destroy just those c haracteristics of
tone qu alit y and delivery wh ich go to make up the cherished indi vidu-
ality of th e bassoon. Some key wo rk was indispensab le in o rde r to cover
the ext raordinarily w ide range, and mod ern bassoons ar c eq uippe d
with seventeen to twcnty-tw o kcy s.
The fun damental six-finge r- hole series gives a sca le just an octave
below t he w ritte n clarinet scale, start ing on G . In th e butt arc G , A,
B ~, co ve red by right third, seco nd, and first finger s-the G w it h the
aid of a key , as t he hole is beyo nd reach. On th e wing are C, D , an d E
(l eft t hir d, seco nd, and first fingers) , and th e op en note, F~.
The dow nwa rd extension of this series uses the rest of the butt (F
righ t fourth finger, E right t humb), and the bass and bell joints. T he
left thumb contro ls a nest of four keys ( D, C, B, and Bb), as we ll as
four ot he r keys on the w ing joi nt t hat lie w ithin its reach .
190 INSTR U ,\ 1 ENTS TilE BA SSOON 191
letters and numbers indicate h:y s co be depressed or holes to be closed

!} ~ _~~h ! ... 1
Vu !;o" ~ ,~ ,., t'o -&
f,,,.....
• I~ I: I: I~ ,- I: • • • • • • • •
."[?:....... •L •L •L
"- -" "-
•L "•L •L •L •L •L •L •L •L •L •L
..
" -" "u "- •- "- "- "- •- -" "-
• •• •• • • • • - - - - - s -
K
• Y •Y Y Y
K K
-
X K K K K K K

, z z z z z z
Y Y Y Y Y Y v
z
Y
z z z -
y
- -
-
" • • • • • • • " - - -
"
• ,
"u _ • '<Ii • , , ,- , • - - -
[..
. b - - - II
•, ,• ec K "'"
"" .... K K
" "K K K 0 0 K K K K K K K
L L - - -
L L L L L L L L L L L
• -l3
.. ...•• "- -" -- -" -- - -" -"
-
" " -" "- -" "-
, - -
-
-
-- - - - - - - --
[..
- - - -
.... :':"" -
.... - - - - - K K K K x -- K -
- - - - -
- - - z z , - -
• v • • y -
- -
- -
--
s
,•
• x
y
... -- -
-
-
- - - - " - " - - - -
-
-
• • ,e
" "
- ,
,- I ,- ,- -• - II Il, a
,I ,I - " " 1 I
" K

L - - -
Q

L l "L L L" - - - L L 0 0

-
"II II" II" II• J3- - u" II" J3" e
M

back front - "" "" "" "5

- - - ,
Fig. 58. Fingering Chart for the Bassoon (Heck el System) , x -x 5 -, - - x •
-
, ,5 -5 - -•
- - "- v
x

z - •- - z z •
- - -
z •
• • -• z Z -
v
- -
There are three speaker keys and several chromatic keys. and in the - - I- - • - - • " • 17
" 17 "-
crook there is a tiny hole called th e pinhole, controlled by the crook-
key. T his ~o le is a vent, which the crook-key automatically closes Fig. 58 (Cominued v
wh en the fight thumb depresses the key for low E. O vcrblowing is
left-hand thumb keys. and th e position of other keys ( low Eb on the
accomplished by using the half hole (for F~ and G ) , speaker keys, and
French bassoon is for the left thumb instead of the right fourth finger) ,
venn ng.
but since th e German type is muc h more commo nly used at the present
Some differences exist between the fingering systems of French and
rime, the chan of fingerin gs is ginn for the H eckel bassoon.
G erm an bassoons. such as the slightly different ar rangement of th e
H
192 1:-\ S T R U ,\ 1 F :-\TS
The four left-h and thumb keys for th e lowest note s arc arr anged
so th at pressing key I:: also closes I I, 10, and 9; p ressing key I I also
closes 10 and 9; and pressing 10 also closes 9.
Special tri ll keys are 8 ( G-A,l, 15 (A- Bal, 19 (C- Dbl, and 20
( F-G'l .
The half hole is used for venting. but the half closing has to be done
by th e finger alone, without the help of a half-hole key like that on
the oboe. For k finge ring is no rmally used for middle E ,.
For the high no tes, there arc various finge rings other th an those
given in the chart. Some instr ument s have high D and E keys . in addi-
tion to the ~h A (key 2) and C ( key I), on the wing joint. Va ria-
rions in th e ~re. and in the size of th e {One holes, affect pitch. and in-
dividual players find combinations of vent s to correct this.
•Many awkward situations confront th e performer on the bassoon,
and the se he overc omes with more or less decepti ve skill. An illustra-
tion is furn ished in the foll owing apparently simple phrase.
EX . 21 7 . Tchaikovsky-c-Oncerrn re Solennelle, / 8/2
.N. I tt:i> W
A Uegro giusto
T ilE llASSOO:-\ 193
It is hard to say wh et her the complex fingerings in the upper reg ister
affect th e pitch of the fun darncnrals chosen, or th at of the harmon ics
produ ced . For th e basssoonist, as for the players of ot her woodwind
instru ments, the production of high notes is a matter of experirncrna-
tion to find the most workable combination of open and closed holes.
The solut ion may "ary with the instrument as well as with the playe r.
There is no dividing line of cont rast to be dr.iwu between the regis-
ters of the bassoon, as far as sound is concerned. Low merges into
medi um and medium into high.
The lowest fifth or sixth of th e rang e is sonorous and vibrant, with
a little rou gh ness. It is rich in audible ove rtones. It is not easy to attack
softly, and it is incapable of anph ing Iikc th e pian issimo of the bass
clarinet. Som ctifiics the instru men t is mut ed bv a handk erchief in th e
bell in an effort to reduce the ton e. Th e Bo gives a softer piano than
rhe B~ .
EX. 218 . l' tilhaud-Secoud Symphonic Suite P: 46, ed . Durand
P: 45, cd . Kalmus Te es arum\!
,

Z :: 3:a::ent
9' I:,;. ... :.J:. J±±::m=:t
....... . _ _- ...... '-~
'~ :o ~ )~
p
. t:rr - ;* .. :>-';1 . '
~ ~

I
A, ~
R eference to the fingering cha rt will show that moving from
to E b requires the coo rdinate d movement of both thumbs and bot h
" p ;:- . .._.;>
-~ ... -.. •.
:> -- •
Penn jo,sion vantw by D"r"nd ~t Ci~., Par ,s, co pyril;h{ o.. n~ r~; Ul<an· '·o~d. Ph ib ddph i. , Pa. , .~n{1
fou rth finge rs, the right fou rt h finger having to move o ff key 17 onto
key J 8. All must be accomplished witho ut the slightest break, because Low A for the bassoon may be seen in the scores of \ \ "agner and
the two tone s are slurred. Mahler. This note can be played by replacing the bell joint with a
longer one made for th e purpose. ,' lodern bassoons extending to low
REGISTERS A can be purchas ed. but the extra scmitonc cannot be considered
within the nor mal range of the instrument.
The midd le register , sometimes called the baritone register, includes
the notes of the fundam ental six-hole scale, on th e smaller half of the
humoniC$ butt and the wi ng joint. Here the tone is smoother and more subdu ed
no. J J (rJlup ) nO_ 4 (w rp no. J
(Ilu ) in expressive ch aracter th an in the lowe r part of the range. It is easily
covered or absorbed if too th ick ly accompanie d .

Fig. 59
194 I NSTR U ~I ENTS THE BASSOON 195
EX. 119. Moussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'une Exposition Solo passages in louder nuan ces passing through this register must
P: 23, ed . Boosey & Hawkes be lightly accompanied. The followin g phrase sounds over soft stac-
And ante , cato chords for thre e trombones, in their low register.
(~p rtss~ ~:- -:?-; .-, 7~ -= ==--
,,;, 7J'lllliIUjIJ IIp):;'JJlp .~ EX . 222 . Stra\'insky-SY1J1phol1Y in C P: 55, ed. Schott
11- - - - Allegren o , :::- " >~. .:::".~

~.~~
a !i~t
AAf#IFl~
BN. I .

" ml1rc.--=--

-
Pn m lsslon granted by Dura nd er Ci e., Paris, cop)'right ownU I ; Elkan- \"ogd , Philadelph ia, Pa... allenls.

Th e two bottom oc~·cs are shown to advantage in the following

example, for solo ba~lItn, in three-part melodic writing with solo
violin and oboe. The passage should be studied in the full score.

EX, 2 20. H indemith- Concerto for Orchestra P: 8, ed. Schott

) CoPyrillht 1948 by SchOll &: Co " L td . l:!>C u by pumi ssioll.

Ascending the high register from D up to about C, the tone of the

bassoon becomes more tense and penetrating, although it can be well
modulated up to A or Bb.

~~~J- JJJh - - _ ~ b ...lm

EX. 22 3 . Beethonn-SY111p hony no . 9 P' '36, ed. Philhannonia
_~
_==="""'~ P -poco -poco ~ v_
II CTt IC. - - _ l. An danrc: mode rato

Copyr ight 1925 by B. Schott 's Soehne; renew ed \95Z by Paul H indemith . Uoed by permission.
BN . I
cresco
The gentlest and most delicate part of the bassoon's range is the
upper middle register, from F~ to D, the first overblown notes. T hese
harmonics have the least intensity and carrying pow er, and are softly
expresslve.

EX. 22 I. Brahms-SY111phony no . 3 p. 50, ed. Kalmus The extreme high register extends to E.

~.
EX. 22 4. \ \'agner-Tannhdllser: Overture P' 48, ed. Kalmus
~.~
lIN . I · · •. .
Allegro ~ -------
=--
P (IF. oJ~t . - -=;;:
• "~t fte,.~ ~"'"
ON :, Ul,$:l~ " X c: tJ=a=j - - ~t jj
/f
196 INSTRU~IENTS
Approached by skip. this note is hazardous and uncommon. In this
instance it is somewhat safer because of unison doubling by violas and
'cellos, but the highest notes are always better approached by step.
Iligh F has been written, by Alban Berg in the opera Lulu, and still
higher sounds can be forced from the bassoon. The smaller bore of
the French bassoons favors the production of these upper notes. How-
ever, such extreme tones are strained and pinched, and unreliable.
The following mel ody employs the high register effectively up to
C::::. the bassoons being doubled at the unison by the bass clarinet. The
composer acknowledges the difficulty of its performance by cueing in
the parr for alto saxophone and (WO clarinets, explaining in a footnote
that these instruments are to pl. . only in case the " pur posely exposed"
passage cannot be played by ti.!tass clarinet and the two bassoons.
EX . 225. Berg-Violin Concerto p. 61, cd. Universal
Semp re piu pesame (Allegro)
T HE BASSOON 19 7
E;\IBOl:CHURE
L ike the oboist, the bassoon player fashions his own reeds. The
do ub le reed and the technique of tone production are similar in both
instruments, qualified, of course, by the fact that the bassoon reed is
larger and heavier. The bassoonist docs not have the oboist's problem
of holding back the breath; in fact, the low notes require much breath,
especially for loud and long tones. As in all wind instruments, slurs
over wide intervals are good ascending and risky descending.
TOXGl.Jli'JG
T on g uing is like that of the oboe, but a little less light and active.
The bassoon staccato is especially effective and examples are numerous.
E X. 2 2 6 . Beethoven-Sy mphony no. 4 p. 7, ed . Kalmus

.. ,',~~gr~ )
.I'so lo violin ommined

Passages like t hat in Ex. 226, if long continued, present breathing

probl ems. A short, quick breath can be taken at almost any point, but
th e process is likely to disturb the rhythm of the staccato. It is better
Cop}'righi 1936 b) ' l"n;nr sal Ed iii on A. G. l"sed by p.,mis5ion . to provide a musical break, or else to arrange the two bassoons in
some such manner as the following.
It is to be noted that the tenor clef is used for high notes. The treble
clef is rarely used.
E X. " 7. Prokofieff-SY111plJony no. 5 P: 5'. ed. Leeds
The ;lrtempt will not be made here to describe the difference in

N~~_~~ ~ FJ ~ ;1
sound of these melodies as played on French or German instruments.
It is an interesting fact that, although their tone qualities are indispu-
tably very different, both arc accepted as sounding like bassoons. Me-
ON~tJ:d & 2~ G
v : " •• .,. '1 ,..' ~ i-..l
chanical considerations aside, the choice of one or the other type is .1' :::.- P •

~P~f'~
dependent on personal taste . A performer, through training and ex-
perience, develops an ideal of tone toward which he strives, and he
chooses the instrument with which he can best approach that ideal.
Copyrilh t 194(i by 1.(~d~ Mu sic Corporation. N~w Yo rk. l'srd by pe rm ission.
French and German bassoons are both widely used, and one some-
times sees them side by side in the same orchestra. Sin gle-to ngu ing can be executed with remarkable rapidity, although
if unrelieved by slurs or rests the tongue will become fatigued. Double-
tonguing, and even triple-tonguing, can be employed as a last resort.
198 I~STRU~IE~TS T HE BASSOON 199
It is doubt ful if the passage shown in Ex. 22. 8, occurring in an orches-
tral tu tti , is ever accomplished by single ton guing, with ou t slur ring or The same observations app ly to tremolos. Also, they shou ld not
omitting some not es. cover an interval wider tha n a fourth.

EX , 22 8 . Mozart-Cost Fsn Tuite P' 43 I , ed. Braude Bros. ORCHESTRAL U SES

Allegro molto
Besides serving as the nat ural bass of the woodwind section, with
ON :, :t;, r n~""Cj'F '1?F?c:elr!'rF~j':;1 or without bass clarinet, the bassoons perform an everyday function
f of dou bling the bass part of the strin gs, eithe r at the octave or unison .
They not only reinforce the double-bass and 'ce llo tone, but give point
and clarit y to staccato and rhythmic figures, without noticeably affect-
ing the string tone qual ity.
Inn er harmonic and con trapuntal voices are likewise often strength-
ened or taken over by bassoons. In the following example, the two
bassoons play the two inside parts in a four-part texture, blending per-
fectly wit h th e string octaves.

zz9. Brahms-Piano Concerto in D , op. J 5 p. 76, ed. Eulenburg

:): J r r @ r F l r ~
EX .

I
~ .- ~ '

TRILLS AXD TRE;\-IOLOS

A tabulation of the relative merits of all bassoon trills would be im-

practical and of limited usefuln ess. Each trill has its own peculiarity H!'t.1
ON.
as to mech anical feasibility and effect in sound. Short of consultation
with a good player, the best approach to the sub ject is to attempt as
Cl>1f lord.
far as possible a diagnosis of each situa tion by study of the fingering
chart, rem embering that it cannot take into account special trill keys
.I' "/'Tt". ~ K,to
that may exist on individual instruments.
The best trills are those made by th e up and down movement of a
single finger (Fig. cos} ; those requiring two fing ers are not as easy ... con f or d.

(h). T he more fingers in motion , the more difficult the trill , especially
if some are raised while oth ers go down ( c) . It is impossible to tri ll if
the fourth finger is requi red to move back and forth between two keys
,
vc,
Do.
(d), or if both notes are played wit h the left thumb (e).

.. b. c. ~ _ d. ~•
~~~t~~ y~tthe permiSllio.n of the. IOle &1lU11.1 for Eulenb\U 1l: Min i<ltuce Scor es : C. F. Peten Cot QOr<l'

~~~ ~~ ~

Fig. 60
200 INSTRU ,\IENTS TilE BASSOON 201

T he bassoon merges unobtrusively with ot her woodwind s and horn s EX. 1 3 1. Barrbk-C011ccrf O fOT O rchestra p. 37. cd. Boosey & H awk es
in all kinds of accompaniment figu res. ~tcl odic doubling is espcciallv
,.
A lleg ren o sc he rt.llndo.........
......
~
~.

well suited to it. Composers of the classical period we re fond of plac-

, ~
ing the bassoon in th e octave below a first violin melody. ,
EX. 230. Haydn-Sym pbolly ill G (Paukemc blag) P' 38, cd. Kalmus ~ .... ~.

--. .iF ~'-!.

Menuerro as . t , -

as . 1 ~
.. ~~
I= :FI*
, ! I
I' ~- ..
• "
,
=- - -

An extraordin ary effect of mixed tone colors is created by Berlioz

with the unison of four high bassoons, English horn, and horn ( Ex.
23 1) . In the concert hall one is impressed by th e fact that th e English
horn. far from being lost in this combination, is distinctly heard as an
ingre dient in th e composite tim bre.

EX. 231. Berlioz-R omeo et Juliette p. '55. ed. Eul enb ur g

Copyripl 1'0046 by lh... lr. e. It Son ( Londoa, LId. Cst<! by perm iioo ion .

T HE CONT RABASSOON
Fr.• cont rebasson; It.• cont raiagott a; Ge r. Kont raiagott
Th e on ly auxiliary instrument of the bassoon family is the contra-
bassoon, also called double-bassoon. an instrument with a vibrating air
column 18 feet 4 inches long. It duplicates th e technique and range of
th e bassoon an octave lower, reach ing the Bb a whole tone belo w t he
R~prinlrd .... ith th~ permi ..ion of the sol~ ag~nu for 1::l.lI~nburK l>l in iatu c. Scores: C. f . Peters Corpora-
lowest pitch of the five-string double-bass. Strauss has written a half
tion. :\"ew York . to ne still lower. and extensions for the low A are made, although rar ely
The followi ng solo passage for three bassoons sho ws to adva ntage seen.
their capacity for music in neat. rhythmic sty le, co mbin ing staccato This huge instrument, as designed by Heckel. is folded so th at th ere
and slurre d not es. are four parallel wo oden tubes, connect ed by th e burr and two U -joinrs,
and terminating in a brass bell pointi ng downwa rds. O ther styles exist,
with the bell pointing up in the air, and some French contr abassoons
202 I NSTR u ,\ \ ENTS T HE B A S SO O N 203
were made entirely of brass. The weight is supported by a peg to the
floor. AGILITY

Despite some not able exceptions, e.g., Debussy-Iberia, and Wag-
ner-Parsifal, th e contrabassoon is pr operly w ritten as a transposing
instr ume nt , sound ing an octave lower, like th e doub le-b ass. In thi s way
a bassoonist can play the larg er instrument, using the accusto med finger-
ing for th e written notes.
When playing works requ iring no notes below C. the extension pipe
and bell may be removed, considerably light ening the instrument.
Theoretically. anything playable on the bassoon is playable on the
contrabassoon. but the slow vibrations and inertia of th e large instru-
ment pre" cnt anything approaching nimb leness or easy agility. A cer-
tain clumsy impression is inevitable. Ir may be covered by doubling.
EX. 2 33 . Ravel-La Valse

LOW REGI ST ER
•
~~&~j;U;W ! m%J'f . ~ !I
The tone of the contrabassoon is a little rougher than th at of the
bassoon. and in the low register the buzzing sound of the slow vibra-
tions is of ten audible. T he lower octave is its most usefu l range. There J~ ", > ;..
was real need of a deep and heavy bass for the woodwind . more than Pcrm iMloa &ranted b,. Du.nn4 et Cio:.• Paris, eop)'ript o.<nefa . Elbn· \'oco:l, Ph ilado:lphia, Pa .• al,nta

could be supplied by bassoons and bass clari net. to balance the modern
string and br ass sections, and in recent times the co ntr abassoon has
bec ome established as a standard member of the orchestr a. In octaves
with the bassoons. it makes a full , son orous. woodw ind foundation in
soft or loud nuances. It is often used to reinforce and give point to the
double-bass part, and it may also serve as a deep bass for brass group-
ings. T he low tones require much breath. and the part should contain
frequent rests.
ST.....CCHO
T he staccato is dry and heavy. Fast repeated tonguing is difficult
because of the slow response of the air column, The following exampl e
is taken from a general tutti of a rather noisy character, not too fast
for the tongue, and in characteristic style for the contrabassoon,
EX. '3+ Strauss- Till Eulenspiegel P: 90, ed. Philharmonia

HIG H REG ISTER

The qua lity of th e uppe r tones var ies with the player, but in any
case they are th e weak pan of the contrabassoon. from the first over-
blow n note, F~ , upwards. The F above the staff is a wise limit fo r high
notes, although Mahler takes th e contraba ssoon to the A beyond, and
Ravel asks for B, in Ala Atere L' O y e. Th ese notes can be played, but arc Jt.prlnt,d with th ' perml..lon of lh' cop r ript OWn'B C. F. P,t'u Corporallor., No:.... York.
of poor qua lity compared to the same pitches on the ordinary bassoon.
In the doubling of double-basses the contrabassoon is often carried
SOLO USE
higher than it would be taken alone .
The contrabassoon has proved to be a solo instrument of novel effect,
for purposes of characterization and descriptive suggestion, but also in
204 IN S T R U .\ lENTS TH E BASSOO N 105

phrases of purely musical intent. The next example. from a typical T he following long pianissimo legato melody sou nds an octave be-
Mahler L indler, is especially int eresting for the coloristic touches. as low the unison of tw o " 'agoer tubas and a contrabass cuba. T he brass
horn and bassoon uni son . different dyn amic markings. subtle interru p- instruments are muted.
tion in th e bassoon part, open strings for th e 'cel los, and the harmonics
created by the doubl e pedal point. EX. z 36. Srrauss-Elektra P' 1 22 , ed. Boosey & H aw kes

EX. 235. ,\ lahlcr-S..n llpbouy 110 . 9 p. 104. cd. Boosev & H awkes C-I!\! .

= ---.
~ "Q_•
~
----F
. ~
.. Q -,";l
. - -'-=:
ti s . II ( ror
I"" f

f molto rspr.
p
T H E SAR RUSO PHONE
Some French compose rs, dissatisfied with the contrabassoon as they
kn ew it, preferred in its place an instru ment called the sarrusophonc.
The family of sarrusophoncs, used in European military band s. is a
large one, comprising nine members, from the sopranino in high E,
to the contrabass in Bo. T he contrabass in C is the on ly sarrusophn nc
ever used in the orchestra, and parts designated for it arc now played
on th e contrabassoon. T his is partly because of great improvements in
the cont rabassoon, and partir because the tone of the sarrusophone is
mor e suitable for play ing out -of-doors tha n in a concert room.
T he sarrusophone is ent irely of br ass, with large tone holes and hole
covers similar (0 those of t he saxophone, and it is played with a dou ble
reed like a basssoon reed. It has a wide coni cal bore . The contrabass is
folded aft er the manner of the contrabassoon, except th at its flarin g
bell points straight upwards. The keys are arra nged in two groups co n-
",.
venient for the fingers. The fingering system resembles tha t of the flute,
oboe, and saxophone.
 BRASS INSTRUMENTS 207
subdivisions-horns, trumpets, trombones, and tubas. Auxiliary in-
struments do not exist in the same family relationships to these four
groups as were obser~'ed in the woodwind section. The horns (French
horns) are always written today as horns in F, although in practice Bb
CHAPTER ELEVEN
horns or double horns in F and Bb may be used to play the parts. T rum-
pets are either Bb or C trumpets, the D trumpet and the bass trumpet
appearing rarely. Cornets can hardly be considered members of the
trumpet family. Trombones are regularly tenor trombones, except that
BRASS INSTRUMENTS one of them may be a bass, or a combination tenor-bass instrument. The
tuba is a bass tuba, generally speaking, the tenor tuba (euphonium)
being only occasionally employed. The Wagner tubas are special in-
struments, more like horns than tubas.
The average brass section in a score employing woodwind by threes
HE student of orchestration is faced with a difficult situation in

T
is as follows:
attempting to fonn a mental image of the sound of music
4 horns
written for brass instruments. The absence of standardization
3 (or 1) trumpets
in the types of brass instruments leaves him on far more insecure ground
than in the case of woodwinds. Not only do the types themselves show / 3 trombones
I tuba
important differences in different countries, but instruments other than
those designated in the score may be regularly used by custom. Fur- This will be found convenient to adopt as a standard, to which may
thermore, the student listening to a performance of one of the great be related the numerous variations in the make-up of the brass section.
works of symphonic literature, let us say Beethoven's Ninth Sym - Personal taste and the character of the particular composition are the
phony, must continually remind himself that the sound of the brass, chief deciding factors in the adoption of variants by the composer. The
especially, does not truly represent the sound as conceived by the com- variants range from the classical convention of two horns and two
poser. • trumpets to the expanded forces called for in scores of the late nine-
Three principal objectives are necessary for the study of brass in teenth and early twentieth centuries.
orchestration. First, the student should learn all he can about the basic The following are illustrative examples of differently constituted
principles of construction and playing technique common to all brass brass:
instruments. Then, he should proceed with the examination of the
Berlioz-Sympbonie Fantastique
types of instruments that have been, or might be, used to play the parts
4 horns
he sees in scores. This includes natural horns and trumpets and other
1 cornets
obsolete instruments, understanding of which is indispensable to an
z trumpets
understanding of the orchestration by composers of the classical period,
3 trombones
as well as of later periods. Finally, it is of great importance that he
z bass tubas
keep abreast of his own time by seeking all available information about
contemporary practices in orchestral brass playing.
In a modern symphony orchestra the brass section consists of four
206
108 I.":STR U~ lE:-.1TS BRASS I .": S T R U .\I E :" T S 109
Holst-The Planets ease of produ cti on c f low er or higher not es in its ran ge. A shallo w er
6 horns cu p, or bowl. add s brilliance and force, bringing our the high er partials
4- trumpet s of the ton e, wh ereas the cone -shaped op ening o f th e horn mout hpiece,
3 trombon es merging gemly int o th e bore, produces tones c haracte rized by soft ness
I tenor tuba and mell ow ness.
I bass tuba Individ ua l taste and chang ing styles make it impossible to desc ribe
\ \ 'agner- Die (i otterdrnnnerung accurately a universal stan da rd shape of mo uthpiece for t he va rio us
8 ho rns brass instruments. The forms show n in Fig. 6 1 arc average ty pes.
-). t vagner tubas
3 trumpe ts
I bass trumpet

3 tr omb one s
I contrabass t rombone

I contrabass tuba

Schoenberg-G urrelieder
10 horns

4 \ \ . agn er tubas H orn Trum pet T rom bone T uba

6 trumpet s
F ig. 6 1• •\ 1out hpieces of Brass Instru ments ( Cross Section)
I bass tru mpet

I alto trombone
O\"ERBLO\\'I~G
4 tenor-bass trombones
I bass trombone in Eb By means of lip ten sion. the ha rmonics of the t ube's fu nd amental
I contrabass tr ombone tone are isol ated and mad e to sound ind ividu ally. T he pit ch of t he
I contrabass tuba fundamental tone being determ ined by the length of the rub e, a rube
8 feet long is t heor etically capab le of sou nding the following harmonic
series from s-foor C.
TO:SE PRODUCT ION

I I 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II II "
The function of sound generator, performed hy reeds in oboe,
§
J

cla rin et. and bassoon, is fulfilled in a brass instrument by the player's ~
~ ~r: (~ ~ ~ ~ i'F ~~"r
= -
lips, held against a more or less cup-shaped meta l mouthpiece fitted to
Fig. 62
th e small end of the main tube of the instrument. As the air stream is
fo rced through the lips, they ar c sec in vibration , and these vibration s These harmonics represent vib rations of the air column in fr acti on s,
are communicated to the column of air enclose d in th e bra ss tube. aft er the manner of fra cti on al st ring vibrati ons (see Chapter On e. page
The size and shape of the interior of the mo ut hpiece has a viral in- : 9. For the second har moni c the air column vib ra tes in halves. wi th
fluen ce on t he tone quality of the instrument, and also on the relative a node at th e halfway point. For the next tone, G. th e w hole 8-foo t
210 INSTRUMENTS
length vibrates in thirds, and so on. It will be noticed that the ratio
between successive pairs of tones shows intervals of steadily diminish-
ing size. Hence the minor third between sixth and seventh harmonics
is bound to be smaller than the minor third between fifth and sixth
harmonics. It follows that the seventh harmonic, Bb, will always sound
too flat. For this reason, the use of the seventh harmonic is regularly
avoided in brass playing.
There are other tones in this "chord of nature" that are out of tunc
with our tempered scale. Those usually mentioned are numbers 7. I I,
'3, and '4, but if we examine numbers 8, 9. and 10, we find that these
two major seconds are intervals of unequal size. In short, the performer
on a brass instrument, practically all of whose tones are harmonics, as
opposed to fundamentals, can never relax his vigilance as to the intona-
tion of notes as they come from his instrument.
Pitch can be modified by the lips, within small limits. Other means
exist, such as the mobile slide of the trombone, or the right hand in-
serted in the bell of the horn. Here it is well to repeat that in practice,
pitch is not absolute, and that playing in rune involves continual ad-
justment to the sounds of other instruments.
RANGE
The range of a brass instrument should be thought of in terms of
the length of its tubing, and the portion, or number, of partials of its
harmonic series it can produce.
The length of the tube, regardless of its diameter, is a reasonably ac-
curate gauge of the pitch of its fundamental tone. Length is also a factor
in the availability of upper harmonics, because the shorter the tube
the more difficult it becomes to sound the highest partial tones. Two
tubes of equal length may differ in range because of different diameters.
A wider bore facilitates the production of lower harmonics, whereas a
narrow bore is better for the higher ones. To these considerations we
must add the width and depth of the mouthpiece used, and the aptitude
and skill of the player.
Tones higher than the sixteenth harmonic can be sounded by some
players but they are not practical because of their difficulty and in-
I -J BRA S SIN S T R U hI E N T S 211
secure pitch. Fundamental tones are called pedal tones. They are not
always obtainable, or they may be of such poor quality that they are
not used. Instruments that do not sound their fundamental are called
half-tube instruments, in contrast to whole-tube instruments, which
give the pedal tone.
CROOKS A~D SLIDES
In the classical period, horns and trumpets played only notes in
the harmonic series of the fundamental to which they happened to be
tuned. This tuning was accomplished by fitting different-sized sections
of tube, called crooks, to the instrument, an operation requiring a cer-
tain amount of time. Further adjustment was made by means of a tuning
slide. This was a V-shaped bend somewhere in the tube, designed so
that the two pronbTS of the V fitted like sleeves over two ends of the
tube. By sliding this V in or out, the total tube length could be carefully
regulated.
The principle of changing the sounding length of a tube by means
of a slide is the principle of the trombone (Fig. 63), dating at least as far
back as the fifteenth century.
1
flindam,"nt.l.ls 6l' A Ii' c ~ r E
Fig. 63. Positions of the Trombone Slide
The fundamentals given in the diagram are those for the tenor trom-
bone. The seven positions of the slide, shown by dotted lines, provide
seven different series of harmonics, moving down by half steps a di-
minished fifth. Change of position cannot be effected instantaneously,
so that there are problems of playing technique to be mastered, but the
slide system is ideal for perfection of intonation, since the slide may
be moved at will to satisfy the ear.
1 11 [ N S T R U ,\ 1 E N T S
VAU ' E S
Although inven ted fairly early in the nineteenth cent ury. t he valve
system was slow in gaining acceptance among musicians, and it was
we ll after 1850 before instruments equipped with valves could be said
to have become established in the orchestra .
The operation of a valve opens th e wa y for the air co lumn through
an extra loop of tubing. at the same time blocking the original path. so
th at th e to tal tube length is greate r th an before, and therefore lower
in pitch. Depressing the piston or leve r acc omplishes instantaneously
what wa s previously done by changing crook s.
Two types of valve mechanism are used. the rotary valve and the
pismo valve. Their method of operation may be seen in Fig. 64-
BRA S S r :-i STR U ,\I E N T S llJ
L'\e basic valve system employs three valves, operated by the first
th ree fingers of the righ t ha nd, except on the horn, wh er e th e left
han d is used for fingering. T he valves are arranged so that the first
valve (the one nearest the player, and played by the first finger) lowers
the pitch of t he tube a whole tone; th e second valve lowers the pitch a
half tone; and the thi rd valve lowers the pitch a tone and a half. Two
valves, or three. may be dep ressed at the same tim e. The follow ing
table gives the possible valve positions and combinations. These are
sometimes identified by number with the trombone positions having a
corresponding effect.
Corresponding
Interval by Wbicb Tr om bone Slide
Valt:es Depressed Pitc h Is Louiered Position

N one none fi",

o
1':0. 2 semito ne second

--
N O.1 wh ole tone third
N o. j , or nos. I and 2 minor third fourth
N os. 2 and ) major third fifth
N os. I and) perfect fou rth sixth
N os. 1,2, and) augmented fourt h seventh

v. l.... f"boo
/ \
lever up lever down
Rotary V alve
Fig. 64. Valves (path of air column is show n by broken line)
The drum of t he rotary valve is w ou nd w it h linen fishline or gut,
attached to th e co nnecting ar m of t he finger lever in suc h a w ay th at
depressing the lever gi\'es the drum a qu arter turn. T his aligns the open-
ings inside the drum in th e man ner shown in the diagram . The piston
valve works up and down within a cylinder. Both are provide d with
springs, w hich return the valve to its original position whe n t he pres-
sur e of the finger is released.
The use of valves in combination presents difficult ies of intonat ion.
The len gt h of each valve tube is that proportion of the whole tube
length (without valve s) necessary to low er th e pitch by thc desired in-
te rv al. If, however, one valve is dep ressed, the ot her valves do nor then
add tu bes sufficien tly long to meet the pro portional requirements of the
new total length. This is less serious where the shorte r tubes of first and
second valves are co ncerned, bur t he discr epancy is pronou nced w hen
the third valve is used in comb inat ion.
In order to compe nsate for t his defici en cy in th e th ird valve, its rub e,
in trum pcts and co rnets, is ge nera lly ma de a litt le longer, wit h t he result
tha t notes played using t he th ir d valve alone are flat, and have to be
play ed sha rp by the lips. Fo r t his reason, th e combination of first an d
seco nd valves is preferred to the third alone.
The valve tube can be pulled out a bit by the hand not engaged in
finger ing, an d instruments are often equipped with rings or levers to
fa cilitate this means of pitch adjustment. Some instruments have auto-
214 INSTRUMENTS BRASS INSTRU ,\IENTS 215
marie compensating devices. Finally . extra valves may be added. on [ 101 _ 191_ 111 _ 7 _ _
the larger instru ments, for the purpose of correcting pitc h. • • • •
Other reasons for adding more valves to the thr ee-valve system are (I I (p ( Il I ( I)
to extend the range wit h lower tones, and to effect the transposition of
1'1 _ _ II I _ _ [:' h1 -----
the enti re instru ment to a new pitc h. These devices will be described
in connectio n wit h the individual instrume nts concerned . ~ J# 1,if],; 252" rE: dE r$af-r lr r'r r'r I
" ' I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
It is to be noticed that whereas in the woodwind instruments the I I I)J I
I
process of changing the pitch of fundamental tones is one of shortening hi 1·1
• •
!i: 2 ; J
~
the air column by opening holes. in brass instruments it is one of lengt h- .. j ,J I.... =1 i
ening the air column by adding tubing. T he ascending valve found I
J
I
J
I
I
I I " ,
I
~ ~ b'J
on some horns of French manufacture is an exception. •\ t ent ion should (numbcl' of die han nonicl are " . en Jin brackm) I J J ~
also be made of the technique of hand stopping. by which tones of the fig. 65
horn can be flattene d witho ut lengthening the tube.
T he proximity oi the uppermost open tones (nos. rz to 16) suggests
the possibility of playing with the lips alone in that register. but using
FISGERI SG
the valves helps intonation and articu lation.
If th e student will rake the trouble to write out the harmon ic series As the scale descends. the intervals between the open tones grow
of s-foor C. transposing it six rimes downward prog ressively by half larger, and the necessity for the usc of the third vain increases. T his
steps. he wi ll have before him the notes theor etically ob tainable in means that the attendant pitch defect is more pronounced in the range
the seven valve positions. or combinations. as show n in the table. It of the bass instruments. and it accou nts for the prese nce of extra valves
will be at once apparent th at in the upper p.:ut of the range the same on instruments like the tuba.
note can be found in rnore than one series. J\ tany of these will be har- Since the total lowering of pitch by th e three valves comb ined is a
monics known to be out of tun c. and so avoided. O thers will be oc- diminished fifth. no tones arc available between the fund amental and
casionally chosen for their special sound. or because of their fingering the F~ above it. Extra valves arc needed if this gap is to be filled in.
in relation to that of preceding or following notes. :IS in trills, for in- The total (t heoret ical) extension of the pedal tones down from 8-
stance. In principle. hocvever. that fingering is chosen which involves foot C, as given in the figu re, would necessitate the sounding of the
the addition of the least amount of tub ing. the purcst ton es being those fundamental of a tube nearly I z feet long.
nearest to the open series. without valves. No brass instr ument can enco mpass this entire scale. In st udy ing each
The simplest view of the fingering is had by considering a descend - instr ument. the scale should be tran sposed to fit the individual tube
ing chrom atic scale in the performance of which the valves arc em- lengt h. and the instrument's capabilities and limitations should be
ployed for their original purpose of lowering the pitch of open tones learn ed.
progressively by half sreps.
E:\1. BOUCHURE

In general, th e lips are loose for low tones and tigh t for high ones.
Considerable muscular development in the lips is needed for t he pro-
du ction of high notes and for contr ol of tone. T he conformatio n and
216 I I' S T R U ~I E I' T S BRASS I N ST R U M E N T S 2 17

text ure of th e lips is ver y importan t, some perso ns possessing more na- EX. 237. DvoHk-Symphony 110. 5 p. 55, ed. Kalmus
rural capabilities than ot hers in this respect. It is interesting to note that [."go
horn players beco me specialists in either low notes or hig h. and :IfC not •
expe cted to c hange tha t specializatio n. O ften long stu dy and experi-
mentation arc necessary to discover just the right shape of mout hpiece
to suit the individu al mouth. " d"" .
Th e lips must be able to pick out acc urately the right harm on ic in
the series. and make the proper adjustment where valve changes arc in-
volved . Following are some technical details of embouchure, based on
the 8-foot scale.

;' ~ .. d.
li S .
P1'P
I

~7J I~ C

Fig. 66
" dim.
In ( a) the three interven ing har moni cs must not be accidentally
sounded, and if tOO much tensio n is gin n for the upper C, the next
harm onic, D , may sound.
In (b) th e problem is that of slurring from one tone to a seco nd tone
which is a lower-numbered harmonic, but with a higher fundamental.
,
TkB . I
D is the fifth harmon ic fr om the fundamental B11 ( first vain), wh ile " ,-
, 9 c <1 r:
C is th e fourth harmonic fr om the fun damental C (open). ='"
P1'P
,
Slu rring between adjacen t harmoni cs in th e same series, ( c), gives
th e best legato on br ass instruments. If th e harmo nics are not adja cent
(d), more skill is called for to avoid sounding intermed iate tones, and
...
B""
lU'"
• <
.• , >- ~
P1'P f Jmt.
to minimize any possible break between th e two tones. U~d by permission 01 t be o r ijtin11 pu bliih et , N . Simrock, Jbmbur &.

TO X GU ING

T onguing on brass instru ments employs all the various tongue

stro kes used by the woodwinds. The tu of the wo od wind attack is more
like tJ in th e upper brass and like d ii (French du ) on trombone and
tuba. ;\l ore vari ety in soft and shar p att acks can be had with brass than
with w oodwinds. Exam ple 237 is an illustration of soft attacks in ex-
treme pianissimo; Ex. z38, of sharp atta cks in forte.
218 t x S T R U .\ 1 E:-; T S BRASS INSTRUMENTS 219

EX. 238. Strauss- Do n Juan P' 9, ed. Kalmus EX. 239. Dcbussy-c-Jenr P: 98, ed. Durand
Scherzando

:,~
1'V. IN C
MM
'M '
m
"
Pe rm issi on vanl( d b y Dll ra nd (t Ci ( .• Paris, copyri gh t o.. n(n : Elkan _Vogd, P h ilad ( lp hia, Pa., . ~nl"

• The following is an instance of the use of double-tonguing for th e

n

.. ,
m .
"
- entire brass section.

EX. ' 40. Rimsky-Korsakoff-Scheherazade P' '"9, ed. Kalmus

-' ~
Vivo
~~

" MM.

'"
u
ev

Rep r lnl( d ..·Ith ee permissio n of th( copyrll,h t o wne n C. F. P( lera Co rpo ration, New Yo rk .
m . ,
I'" A II

The storzsndo, shar p acc ents, and forte-piano arc especia lly well
suited to bra ss. Care sho uld be taken to write the exact kind of accent
desired. •
u
Fast staccato in single-to nguing can be used for all bra ss instruments,
but it is to be expec ted that tubas, and the 10\\' registers of horns and n.o .

trombon es. will respond less prompt ly th an th e smaller tubes. For light-
ness in fast tonguing. the tr umpets, or corne ts, are the best in the brass ~-
group. ( brasi only ) "
Copyri&ht by !ot. P. Belal(lf; 501e II( n ts ~J' &: Hawk es l,;wd b, ~nni... ion.

Brass players are not in agreement as to the relative merits of t -t-k

and t- k -t in the articulation of tri ple-t onguing . T he majority seem to
favor t-t-k. Double-to nguing can also be used for triple rh ythms, alter-
nating the t and the k as the initial st roke of each triplet, thus: t-k-t,
210 1:-; S T R U ,\ 1 EN T S BRASS I N S T R U M E N T S 221
k-t-k , etc. In any case the effect of tri ple-t onguing is best on the high - EX . 2.,p . Strauss-Don Qu ixote P: 55, cd. Philharmonia
pitch ed instrume nts. b ngS.1rn
.
'~
t
..
, •i i
III muted $
, •
E X. 241. D ebussy- La Mer P: 51, ed. D ur and
" • - s- ~
Alleg ro crete,
."
, Jl sourdmr
i
" / P piu I'
PI'
H o,; .
10,; f
II
1\
, "
Hl" I" S
IS ,

'"
fQurdi~
,
-?'
.
crete.

i ,
/
p -- pili I' PI' ,
t" 'I, !! II t
sourdmr ." crete.

'"'
IN!
,
" ,
, . f t •
r " r ~i V , ~
•
P~rmi"iun granted by Durand ~t Cie. , Pari!, WPl'tight owners ; Elkan · Vog el. P~.llade lphi a. P a.. 31<'-<11 <
TR I'.
." crete. f f
.
I :-' Il
F lutter-tonguing is easy on the horn or trum pet, less easy on the
trom bon e or tuba. It is sometimes indicated for brass as a tremolo, like
,
" • - --.
a bow ed tre molo for strings . "'ff crete.

, • •
u

TRB.
",,;'(foe • f!

u , 'gf
(brass o n ly) ~ eresc.
Repri n ted with the permi»ion of the wpyrighl owners C F. P e lc r ~ Corporation, New Yur k..

BREATH I:SG

M ore wind is required in brass playing than in woodwind playing. It

is essential that a reserve of wind is kept available to the embouchure
at all times. Th e air is blown into the tube of the instrument, wh ere
some of it condenses, making it necessary to drain the tubing from time
to time, eith er by mean s of a water key or by pulling out the valve
slides.
Ph rase mar kings are like th ose for woodwind. It is unfortunately not
general prac tice to mark the places where breath is to be taken, as op -
222 INSTRUMENTS
posed to tongue articulations. These are often very important for the
correct phrasing and dynamic emphasis of the music. The difference
between an interruption for breathing and the effect of tonguing is
especi ally noticeable in th e brass, most of all in chord progressions such
as those in Ex. 237 and Ex. 238, where all th e voices ar e in the same
rhythm. Composers should stu dy this detail of phrasing, which ought
not to be left to the decision of the individual player or the conductor.
The wind is controlled by the diaphragm. It is not permitted to puff
out the cheeks, a condition under which command of the tone would
be impossible.
DYNAMIC RANGE
The full dynamic power of the brass is a dominating force capable of
obliterating the sound of the rest of the orchestra, and it is often allowed
to do so by conductors lacking either authority or discrimination. The
limit of loudness and tone-weight of strings and woodwinds is a physi-
cal fact. Forcing them to compete with the brass simply results in dis-
agreeable sounds, with the brass still far in the lead. Orchestral balance
in great climaxes is an impossibility unless the brass volume is measured
by the sonorous capacity of strings and woodwind.
This problem of balance is a besetting one for the composer and
orchestrator. Its solution lies mainly in the understanding of the music
by the conductor and the orchestra. The first perform ance of a new
and unfamiliar score is seldom a satisfactory test of the merits of the
orchestration, and, on the other hand, it must be recognized that man y
well-known and well-loved symphonic masterpieces are made to sound
well orchestrated only through sympathetic and understanding ad-
justment of the written parts in performance.
The practice of marking the brass at a lower dynamic level than
strings and woodwind should be reserved for special purposes, and not
resorted to as a corrective for faulty balance due to the lack of under-
standing referred to above, or to un skillful scoring. Good brass players
know that dynamic indications do not signify absolute, but relative,
value s. It goes without saying that the orchestrator strives to place the
various instrumental voices so that the effect will be as near as possible
to that imagined.
BRA S SIN S T R U .~ I E N T S 223
At the other end of the dynamic scale, the brass cannot match the
softness of a string or woodwind pianissimo. It pro vides, however, a
real pianissimo in terms of the brass itself, and this is a valuable resource
in orchestration.
MUTES
Muted brass is of course still softer, and it can be reduced to inaudi-
bility. A vast array of mutes, of every conceivable shape and tone color,
have been invented in the twentieth century, products for the most part
of the enthusiastic interest in new sounds in the field of popular music.
Thirty years ago it was believed that the new mutes would be intro-
duced into the symph ony orchestra, but at the present writing it can-
not be said that standard equipment of the symphonic brass section in-
cludes such coloristic resources as Solo -tone, Harmon, Whisper,
Tonalcolor, Vocatonc, or cup mutes, to name but a few.
The mutes ordinarily used are cone -shaped air chambers of card-
board, wood, fiber , or aluminum, with small blocks of cork to pre\-cnt
too tight a fit when one is inserted into the bell of the instrument. The
usual sound of muted brass is somew hat metallic, more akin to the oboe
sound than co any other in the orchestra. It can be cutting and strident
when attacked with force. Loud muted brass is a common orchestral
effect. Mutes are used on all brass instruments, and a similar muted
sound can be obtained on the horn by hand-stopping.
SCORE MARKISGS
Horns are placed above the trumpets in the score. just below the
bassoons. If there are four, two staves are used, with two horns on each
staff.
Three trumpets may occupy one staff, unless the parts are so dif-
ferent in rhythm as to cause confusion in reading. in which case a
second staff is allotted to the third trumpet.
First and second trombones are on one staff, usually in the tenor
clef, The third trombone is placed on the same staff as the tuba, in the
bass clef.
The custom of omitting key signatures for horns and trumpets is
224 I NSTR U ,\ 1E N TS
fairl y universa l. alt hough some composers pref er to incl ude them. CHAPT ER TW ELVE
Originally t he pa rts for th ese inst rumen ts we re always in C. w ith an
indication of t he proper crook to sound in th e key of the piece. Mod er n
players often express a preference fo r this fr eed om f rom key signatures,
especially w he n they may be using an inst rument in a key o ther t han
th at prescribed. and tr ansposing the part . Trombones and tub a are TH E HORN
gi ven t he same key sign at ure as t he strings .
Fr.• cor; Ir., como; Ge r., Horn
The directions given in Chap ter Six (page 126 ) are eq ually appli-
cable to brass parts.

il E horn is oft en called in E nglish th e Fren ch ho rn. but it is

T significant that it is not so called by th e F rench. T he te rm is

supposed to han originat ed in England in the eigh teent h cen-
tury. H owever, the hom as we know it today has been developed
mainly by Germans, and it could with more justificati on be called
the G erm an hom .
A true French hom doe s exist, almost exc lusively in France. It is
an inst rument of small bore, eq uipped w ith piston va lves instead of
th e rotar y valves generally used o n th e ho m . Its [One is of a ligh t, bril-
liant, and open q uality, quite different fro m the w ar m, rich, and rath er
dark tone of the Ge rma n ho rn, used practically eve rywhere.
The hom w it ho ut valves is called the natural horn, o r hand horn
{Fr., COT sim ple; lr., como natu rale; Ger., lVaJdhorn ). Ea rlier names ,
such as hunting horn, cor de chasse, como da caccia, }agdhorn, are not
found in sco res of the period w e ar c studying. The horn with va lves is
called the valve horn ( Fr., cor a pistons, cor cbronuuique; It., com o
ventile; Ger. , V emilhorn ).

THE XATURAL HORN

In its eighteenth- and nineteenth-centu ry sha pe, th e na tural hom

is an op en hoop or co il of brass tu bing, a q uarter of an inch in diameter
at the sma ll end holding t he mouthpiece, expand ing ge ntly to a diameter
of 3 inches at th e th roat of t he bell. T he bell flar es wi dely, measur ing
about I I in ch es across, T his w ide bell is conside re d to favo r t he lo wer
partials in the make- up of th e tone of th e ho rn.
225
226 INSTRUMENTS THE HORN 227

Ri\:'\GE

Fig. 67. Natural Horn with Crooks
A tuning slid~ in V-shape is located within the circle of tubing. This
~art of the bore IS necessarily cylindrical so that the slide may be moved
In and out.
Crooks of various sizes can be fitted onto the end of the tube, the
mouthpiece being inserted in the end of the crook. Some crooks were
later made with slides, enabling them to be attached in place of the
tuning slide.
The crooks most used were those which pitched the horn in the fol-
lowing key" Boalto, A, AD, G, F, E, ED, D, C, and Bobasso. The total
tube lengths, when crooks are added to a horn pitched in 8-foor C,
measure from approximately 9 feet 3 inches for the horn in Bb alto to
18 feet 6 in~~es for the horn in Bb basso. The following are the intervals
of tranSposltJon, shown by the effect on one note of the harmonic series
the eighth harmonic. 1
written IOtInd on horn
in flb.-alto in A in AllinG in Fin E in ElIin 0 in C in Bb-basso
Ii. ~ ~~
~I~
Fig. 68
Higher pitches than Bb alto have very rarely been prescribed. In the
Haydn symphonies may be found horns in B~ alto and C alto. The C
alto appe~rs to be the horn without crooks. "Horn in C" always means
a horn with C crook, sounding an octave lower than written.
As for low pitches, the horn in A basso is seen in Italian opera scores,
the B~ .basso crook is called for in Brahms' First Symphony, and the Db
crook 10 Romeo et Juliette, by Berlioz.
The range of the horn is from the second harmonic to the sixteenth
inclusive, with some qualifications. The shorter rubes, from F up. sound
with difficulty above the twelfth partial, whereas these upper har-
monies are more easily produced on longer tubes. On the other hand,
the pedal tone comes out well on the short Bb alto horn, poorly on the
F horn, and hardly ever on lower-pitched crooks.
The separation of horn players into "high" and "low," together with
the evolving of taste in quest of the ideal horn tone, brought a prefer-
ence for the lower-pitched horns, and a great development in the
technique of tone production in the lower part of the range. For a time .
the keys of E, Eb, and D seemed the most preferred, and more inter-
esting and important parts were written for the second player, or for
the fourth if there were four horns. In the nineteenth century, the
preference turned to the middle pitch of the F horn, and the F horn
became the standard horn, to which the valve system was applied. The
principle of high and low hornisrs persisted and became permanent.
In the usual quartet of horns, first and third are high, and second and
fourth are low.
The low players of the natural horn used a larger mouthpiece and
developed a different embouchure. They also added to the horn's avail-
able notes by the discovery that the second harmonic can be lowered
as much as an augmented fourth by the lips alone. These tones are called
artificial. or factitious, tones. Figure 69 shows their place in the har-
monic series. Modern horn players do not make a practice of using these
tones.
• :1 J •
4J J f Id J ,j jJ jl~
;,; J ,J A
Fig. 69
228 I N ST R U M E N T S
BASS CLEF :!\"OTATlOX
When the bass clef is used for the horn, the notes in that clef are by
cu stom written an octave too low. H ence the part for horn in F in
Fig. 69. sounding a perfect fifth lower than written in the treble clef,
sounds a perfect fourth higher than written in the bass clef. Modern
composers have tried to correct this illogical notation by writing note s
in the bass clef in their proper octave, bur when thi s is done a note
should he given in the score-"horns in the bass clef sound a fifth
lower than written," to avoid misunderstanding.
STOPP F:D NOTES
TH E H O R N ll9
piano, but would be unconvincing in forte. The problem does not arise,
of course, when th e phrase is play ed on the valve horn.
O rchestral composers were sparing in their use of ne w notes available
as stopped tones. Instances like the fourth horn part in the Adagio of
Beethoven's N int h Symphony are exceptional. But the hand technique
proved subsequently most valuable as a means of tone control and cor-
rection of intonation on the valve horn.
T he natural horn, wit h all its limitations, had a vita l and lasting in-
fluence on melody and harmony. Melodic turns of ph rase for all sorts
. of instru ment s, even the pianoforte, often show characteristics of na-
tu ral horn music. The following is an illustration of this universal
qu ality in simple horn melodies.

It was discover ed that if the natura l horn were held so that th e EX. 244 . Beeth oven-Piano Concerto no. 5 P' I I, ed. Eu lenburg
right hand could be inserted in th e bell, the hand could, by partially Allegro ~ ---..
closing th e throat of th e horn, not on ly control the quality of the tone, H I'oi . I
~ ~ ~~

_ F
Il'I £~ II
bur also correct the pitch of those harmonics that were out of tune. P dolcl
F urthermore, by lowering th e pitch of the harmonics in this way,
many new notes were made available. Half to three -quarters closing of
the tube lowered the note a half tone, fu ll stopping a w hole to ne.
The stopped tones, however, had a decidedly du ll and subdued Rcprlntffl wit h th . P<"rmission of the sol. a gents for Euleo burg Miniatu," Scores: C. F. Potu s Corpora-
tion, No". York.
sound in contrast to the open tones, and great skill in embouchure and
right-hand tec hnique was required to achieve equa lity in tone in me- CHOICE OF CROOKS
lodic passages containing stopped notes.
In general, th e crook chosen was that of the key of the movement,
EX. '43 . Schubert-Symphony no. 7 P' I, ed. Eu lenburg as being the one that wo uld give the most notes of the scale. Exceptions
to this rule might be prompted by a planned modulation to a related
f~dm" ~. ~ ~ key in which horns we re to be given a prominent part. or by a prefer-
~~·;' :." f r rlt~F'~!pF'~
1' 0 0 0 + + 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 + + 0 0 0 0 0 00
enc e for low-pitched horns wh en th e key is high, e.g., E horns for a
W piece in A major.
R~ pri nt.d
tion, :-;~ W
"oith th~ P<"rmission of the 501.
Yor k
ag~nts for Eul~nburg Min iatu re SCOr~! : C. F. P~"T! Corpora - When four horns were used, they we re most often crooked in
pairs in two different keys . Berlioz frequently wrote for fou r horns
In the Schubert example, notes requiring stopping are marked with crooked in four different pitches, ingeniously chosen to provide cer-
a cross. The A needs less stopping than the B, since it is sto pped fro m tain com binations of notes.
the already flat seventh partial. The F is stopped from the eleventh
partial, whose pitch lies between F and F~. The passage is succ essful in
 THE 110 R:-i 231
130 INSTRUMENTS
EX, 245. Berlioz-Romeo et Juliette P' 12, ed. Eulenhurg TJ-JE VALVE II O R N
liN. ' Th e stage of transition from natural horns [0 valve horns was longer
IS I:
for the composers than for the players. The new instrument had to
prove its value and overcome much prejudice and nostalgic feeling
for the natural horn, as well as general mistrust as to the future of valved
instrumcnrs. The horn without valves W:lS used. as least occasionally.
r up to the beginning of the twentieth century; on the other hand, many
composers wrote as though fo r natural horns even when they knew the
liS. III
IS G
valve horn would be employed.
In Rienzi, T he Flying Dutchman, and Tonnbduser, \V agner speci-
f fied two valve horns and two natural horns.
H!'l. IV lb'b=
",
f -- EX. 246. W agncr-Tamlbiiuser: Baccbanale P' 14, ed. Kalmus

The felloe•.'ing example shows the much-d iscussed experimental

crook markings used by \V agncr in L obengrin.

EX. 247. W agner-Lobengrin: Prelude to Act III P' ' 7, ed. Kalmus

Reprin.ted w}th the pcrrniiSion of the ""I( ag"'t. for Eul en bu rg Min iature Score.' C. F. p,,," Co,-,.-
li on, l';ew ' o rk . ...-

I'
 232 1:-: S T R U ~I E :-: T S
The indications call for instantane ous changes in the key of the horn,
to be accomplished by valves instead of cr ooks, as formerly. \Vith the
horn crooked in F, as was th e case, "in E" could be met by de pr essing
the second valve and playing as on the natur al horn in E. In the same
,v ay , for "in D" one coul d use th e third valve, or valves I and 2. But
no combination of valves can put the F horn "in G," so-here it was
necessary to transpose up a major second and playas for the F horn
with valves. Perhaps W agner had in mind the system of crooks as ap-
plied to th e C ho rn, but at any rate the no tati on was abandoned aft er
L obengrin.
Mu ch fine horn music is contained in the works of Brahms, usually
in th e sty le of hand horn music, and mostly playable on th at instrument.
There is no doubt, how ever, th at it sounds bett er on the valve horn, if
only because of the elimination of sto ppe d notes.
EX. 248. Br ahms-SympfJo11Y 110. 3 p. 75, ed. Kalmus
Poco allegrerro ~
. ~ ... '~
H :-l.1 _ .
1:01 C
I'tJ/'F.
--= =--- - = . :::=--
THE MODER:'>! HORN
In th e pr esent cent ury the valve horn in F (tube length including
valves about 17 feet) cont inue d to be regard ed as th e sta ndard horn,
but increasing demands in th e high regi ster led to the adoption by first
and third players of the high Bb horn (tube length including valves
under J 3 feet ) . They we re attracted by its brilliant tone, and the ease
with which it produced tones of th e same pitc h as th e highe st partials
of the F horn. \Vhile the F horn was playable up to the sixteent h har-
TIlE HOR:-: 233
monic and beyond, th e to p notes were difficult and ti ring to the em-
bouchure. To obtain th e same sounds on th e Bb ho rn, the notes were
transposed down a perfect fou rth, so that th e sixteenth harmonic of
the F horn became only th e twel fth harm onic of the fi b horn.
It beca me apparent, however, that the most valued attribute of the
horn-its ch aracteristic warmth and dark beaut y of ton e---could not
be supplied by the high -pitched Eb horn, wh atever else it had to recom-
mend it. Today th is pro blem seems to have reached a w orkable solu-
tion with the invention of the double horn.
C'
Fig. 70. (left) Single Hom in F; (right ) Double Horn in F and Bb
The double horn is fast replacing the single horn in orchestras. As
its name implies, it is actually a combination of the F and fib horns into
one instrument. The valve tubes arc duplicated and operated from a
single set of rotary valves, with a fourth valve, for the thumb, to switch
from F horn to Bb horn, and vice versa. The sw itch can be made at any
time and in any part of the range.
RANGE
Music for the double horn is alw ay s written as for F horn, wh~ther
played on the F or on the Bb division. T he choice is left entirely to the
player, and is not indicated in th e part.
2J4 I N S T R UM E NT S TH E H O R N 235
written r:ange of the double hom ~
The Bb division is used not only for the greater faci lity gained in
tl J ,J lJ J I~ ,J .I :£E
F
::nd hum unlc :16lh hannoruc on f diVl$lOn
I the upper register, and the prompter response of the shorter tube's low
pedal tones on fill divi!;i~ .on F WVl:llOn IIat h harmonic on Bbdivisio n register, but also fo r the alternative fingerings made available in all
parts of the range.
The double horn com bine s the good qualities of the F and Bb horns
whi le making it possible to avoid their defec ts. Its own peculiar prob-
lem for the horn player is that of equalizing the tone between the two
divisions. Th e Bb divi sion tends inev itably to have a certain hard ness
ch aracteristic of the Bb horn, in compa rison to the tone of the F divi-
sion, but this is successfu lly overcom e by goo d players. The fu nction
Fig. 71 of the right hand in the bell becomes of prime importance in controlling
the (One quality of the double horn .
F I:!'o."GF.RI:-1G

On the dou ble horn of the usual type, th e two divisions can be used
separately as sing le horn s in F and Bb. but play ers of the double horn
have come to regard it as a single instrument . When using th e Bb divi -
sion to play parts written for horn in F, the ment al process is not the
same as w hen using the single Bb horn-namely, to transpose the writ-
ten part down a f ourth and then finger fo r the resulting notes. It is
rather to emp loy directly a new set of fingeri ngs for the notes as writ-
ten. This involves learn ing a new set of finger ings for t he do ub le horn.
The steps in this proce dure are compared in the follow ing figure. (See
Ch apter Eleven, Fig. 65, for the normal fingering on th e sing le hom .)
STOPPED TOSES
Al th ough the technique of the hand horn is no lon ger necessa ry for
co mpleting the chromatic scale of the hom , the hand is constantly en-
gaged in refinin g the pitch of most no tes. Stopped tones in th e modern
sense are, how ever, qu ite diffe rent from th ose used on the natu ral ho rn.
The hand is inserted far enough to close the tube completely. T his pro-
duces tones of muted quality, and since it is necessar y to force the wind
a little th ese notes have the metallic vibrancy characteristic of muted
br ass.

EX. '49. D'Indy-lstar p. I, ed . Durand

Sound.

W ritten part, with fingering on the F division

of the doub le horn (same as for single horn Pum ission granted by Durand .1 Cie., Pa ris, eopyri ght oom us ; El k...n ·\'ogel. Ph iladdphi a. P..... &gome...
in F ).
The act of full stopping cuts off enough of the tube's vibr ating

HO"~= Transposition of the parr to obtain the same length to cau se all sto pped notes to sound a half tone higher. It is t here-
no' ~Jp' J= sounds, with fingering on the single horn in Bb. fore necessary for the player to transpose them down a semirone to
I 1 0 I compensate for this. Some horns arc equipped with an extra half- tone
valve. operated by the thumb. to effect the transposition automatically.
Ori ginal written part, fingered on the Bb divi- T his valve is called th e stop valve, or transposing valve. It is fou nd com -
sion of the double hom (thumb valve to be
dep ressed also) . monly on the Bb horn, but not often on the double horn because of
Fig. 7' the adde d weight of the extra valve.
236 I ;-I S T R U M E ;-I T S THE HORN 237
Mutes. of metal or cardboard. are also used on horns. They are so EX. 2 5 1. Mahler- Das L ied ',..on der Erde P: 49, cd. Universal
con structed that they ?O nor alter the pitch, except for some types of Erwas $Chlcichcni wopft
meta l mutes that reqUire t he same pitch correction as stopped notes. ,u ," ,
Stopped notes arc apt to be unrel iable below middle C (written), and ,~
p ~f ~P
I "
mutes are often used for these lower nores in preference ,to stopping. MS .
ON.
~lthough the muted horn does not sound quite like the stopped horn, gtst opft
In usag~ the two terms are sometimes carelessly interchanged. "
"

"
/:>u·_____ 0 ·
Despite the fact of their occasional misuse, the tenus should be used P ---== fIf ==- P
in thei r tru~ meaning. For brass instruments, the directions for inserting Copyright 1911 by Unlvena\ Editi on A. G. ; renewed 1939 by Alma )L, hler ·We,r.1 Coed by p erm i... ion.

and ren~ovmg mutes arc the same as fo r using them on stringed insrru-.
merits, m all languages. The word stopped (Fr., boucbe; Ir., cb iuso;
Ger., gestop ft) means hand stopped, canceled by op en (F r ., ouoert ; l r,
apert o; Gcr., otim, nic bt gestopft ) . Single stopped norcs arc sometimes
marked by a cross, canceled if necessary by 0 , for open .
EX. 2 50 . Falla-El Amor Brujo P' 6" ed. Chester
In th e following passage written for natural horn, the sudden piano
and the rise of a half tone on the last nor c will be obtained simulta-
neously by keeping the G finge ring and playing th e Ab as a stopped
not e. It is believed that th is met hod was not used in Beethoven's day,
when the Ab would have been partially stopped, fr om the thirteenth
harm onic.

o EX. 2 51 . Beeth oven--Sym phony no . 3 P: 35, ed. Kalmus

Allegro con brio -r> ; - --:--- ~
HN
IN I'
~: ~~ Wolett ~ e Ie Ie r~l'
crete,

"
T RI LLS

Copyr ight for all coun tri es ]. & W. Che.ler Lt d., London .
~orn play ers often ignore th e direction to play with mutes, pre-
~ernng the less bothersome and qu icker hand stopping. In their defense
~t ~ust be added that the practice is abetted by composers who are
indifferent to the distinction between the two effects.
T he metallic sou.nd of stopped tones is less noticeable in soft playing,
more pro no unced m forte. Frequ entl y th is kin d of sound is called for
in exaggerated form by the word brassy (Fr., cuivre; Ger., scbntet-
ternd). It . is obtained by lip tension and hard blowing, causing the
metal to VIbrate. The degree of brassiness can be varied , and the sound
can be made on open notes as well as stopped and muted. Th e usual
marking is stopped, with a sforzando or forte sign (Fr., boucbe-cuiore;
Ger., gestopit-stsrk anb/asen) .
On th e horn, trills are played either with valves or by the lips alone.
The lip trill s are possible only whe re two harmonics lie a second apart,
so th eir range is limited, as is also their chance of good intonation. In
effect they can be compared to vocal trills. Trills made with valve ac-
tion suffer from the inertia of the valve tubes when called upon to speak
qui ckly. T he second valve being the shorte st, half tone trills are likely
to wo rk better than whole tone trills, although there are exceptions.
H orn trills never escape a certai n sluggish quality, especially in com-
parison wi th woodwind tr ills, and they are not among the best features
of th e horn .
In the following example, the tr ill is used in music suggesting a rustic
dance.
238 1:-; 5 T R l: .\ 1 E:-; T 5 THE HORN 239
EX. 253. Mahler-SY111pbony n o. 9 p. 65, cd. Boc sey & H awkes EX. 255. Strauss-Don Quixote p. 48, ed. Phil harmon ia
Land ier
I, Gemich lich ,
fit -" " " " , r ,

I ~
~ l' -
d"n.

"
HH . l'J'

..
'H'

" ,

-. ,.
,, 0

~
tv
;
"" p
,

d'm
~
l'J'
Co pyri ght 1912; ren.w ed 19<Kl, by L'nh"erul E diti on A. G. L'sed by permluion

TO~GnNG

All types of tonguing arc used in horn playing. The arti culations can- '"
not be as sharp and crisp as on the trum pet, because of the lengt h of
the tube. Care should be taken to provide rest for the tongue in long Reprin ted wi th the pcrm is. ion of th e copyright o wnerS C. F. Peters Corporation, New York .
passages in fast tempo. The following is ver y difficult.
The foll owing is an instance of effective and delicate use of both
EX. 25+ Moussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'une Exposition double- and triple-tonguing.
P' 87, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
EX. 256. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagnole P' 69, ed. Durand

j
Perm ls.ton li\ranted by Durand et Cic., Paris, co pyrigh t own ers; Elkan-Vog d, P hila delphi&, 1'a., agem s.

PermiMlon gunted by Duran d et Ck, Paris, copyrigh t owne~; El kan -Vogel , P h iladdph ia. P l.., agents
GLISSANOOS

An arrangement like that in the next example would produce a more A qui ck slurring upwards over the harmonics of any given finger
rhythmic result, being more playable. position produces the horn glissando.

Copyrlpt 1921 by Edition Ruue de Mu alque . Used by pcnnlSil on.

 \
240 INSTR UMENTS THE HORN 241
It is usually advisable ro doubl e ext reme high notes in loud passages,
CA:\l PA N A IN ARIA
to assure volume and security of attack.
When the horn is in its usual playin g position th e bell is point ed down
and away from th e listener, in addition to its being partially closed by EX. :60 . Copland-5y1l1pbony no. 3 p. 70, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
th e right hand . O ccasionally th e player is directed to play w ith the .J =110
, ~
.\
n.I.I .J ~-e~
bell up (Fr., pa-villon en f air; It., campan a in aria; G er., S cbslitricbtcr ,, " ' I :==- ;=0-

auf). The right hand is taken out of th e bell, and th e horn is raised into " .t1'f ~~ lib.) W'

-
HN.
a horizontal plane, so that the sound may come free and unobstructed IN r
, , ~.1 .I • "!f" ~
from th e bell. The effect is lusty and blaring. Witho ut th e control of
u, " " ~ ~

the hand in th e bell, the notes may not always be in tune. . tv

, ~ .t1'f (I V lid Jib.
EX. 258. M ah!er-SY111phony no. 4 P' 12 I , ed. Philha rmonia Copyr ig ht 1947 by Ha wkes & So n ( Lo ndon) Ltd. Vs.d by p erl ni ... ion.

It is likewise advisable to do uble extreme low notes, even wh en vcry

soft; in fact, low rones in pianissimo gain much in steadiness and tone
quality, and need not sound any louder when play ed by two horns
"N. =- ..,=-- p =-- w instead of one. In the follo wing example, three horns arc used on the
"" bass part.

EX. :61. J\1ahler-Sy mphony no. I p. 89, ed. U niversa!

,
n, "
,',
Fererhch und gemessen

MELODIC USES

The horn has alway s been a favorite solo instrument. Its most com-
fortable harmonic range is from the third or fourth harm onic to about
"N.
r. .
vt

,
" , . -----...:- '! ,-_.
m n prt PI' dro t
',
h
.. '!
--- '-'---"

'w~ ,.
th e twelfth. The follo win g solo calls for fine br eath control to ach ieve
a perfect legato. A note in th e score directs that the high B is ro be
tak en only if it can be played piano. The horn plays in canon an octave
and fifth below the flute. Harp chords and pulsating strings for m th e
r
,~
- -- - -
<I'" <I ~ ,~<I '''<I~ ~

accompaniment.

EX. 259. Shosrakovich-SY111p hony no . 5 P' 46, ed. Musicus

~,'fi~~
Melodies played by horns in octaves are rich and sonorous.

Copyr ight 1945 by Le<'d. Mu sic Co rpo rat ion , :-:ew Yor k.. C""d by p erm iss ion.
l42 INSTRUMENTS THE HORN 243
EX. 262. Debussy-La "Jer P: 6, ed. Durand of the principles of the natural horn, and that the best writing for the
Modere instrument carries the suggestion that it might be playable on the hand
horn . This is of course not literally so, but passages like the following,
:,~~ even though effective and successful for their special purposes, cannot
be said to be idiomatic horn music.
HN.
>N'
EX. 264. Strauss-Elektra P' ,87 , ed. Boosey & Hawkes
Sehr schnell
P expressi' et Jammu
P erm issi on Iran ted by Du ra nd et Cie. , Pa ris, copyri gh t ow nuI; E lk a n· Vo gd , P h ilad.Jphia, P a. , a gent _
,
m

The unison of the entire horn group. usually four horns, is frequently
employed when breadth and force are desired. If the score calls for
more than four, all can be united on the melody. Example 263 is for
six horns.

EX. 263 . Holst-The Planets P' 83, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
Allegrogiocoso .....-;---

'''' ~·fJrlf·JIEJr~
6 HNS.
cresco

" i
I , II
cresco
III, IV
v, '"
Used by p..rm lssion of ]. e u rw en & Sonl , L td .
h cresc•
The low horns, second and fourth, may be taken up to the top of the
horn range occasionally, and especially when they participate in this
type of doubling. The classification of low and high horns remains in
force, however. Second and fourth players cultivate the lower notes,
for which they are more talented by nature, but all four can play the
entire range.

AGILITY

Although technical improvements in the hom and in hom playing

have made possible the execution of music of considerable virtuosity, it
Copyright 1916 by Adolf Fu r'tner , iL'I sign ed 1943 to Boosey & Hawkes, Lid . Uaoed by perm iss ion. ( For
remains true that agility is not in the nature of the instrument. It is an Po rtug al, I ta ly, Gennany , Danzll, USSR &S of 1935: Fu rstner, Ltd., London.)
interesting fact that the style of horn music is still under the influence
244 I NSTR U ~I ENTS
HARMO~IC USES
For many years, from the mid-nineteenth century on, it was a com-
mon habit of composers to use the four-part harmony of horn s as a
foundation for orchestral writing. This "blanket of horns ," as someon e
has called it, could be so unobtrusive as to be unnoticed by the lay
listener, and it offered a sure means of obtaining continuity and full-
ness of sound. The growth of interest in contrapuntal voices and in
clarity led away from this procedure, with the result that it is unusual
today.
The harmonic background can be presented by horns in all kinds of
figuration and rhythmic division. As in the next example, it can be skill-
fully arranged to have contrapuntal interest and tran sparency.
THE HORN 245
cannot be expected to have more than four or five. A fifth player may
be given the duty of assisting the first horn, playing his part in the less
important measures, so that he may save himself for prominent solo
passages. Extra players may be engaged for works requiring six or eight
horns. Even more than for the performance of scores calling for these,
the eight horns are a great advantage in that the players may change
about, affording rest for fatigued embouchures.
.

EX. 265. Stravinsky-Dit,'ertimento: Le Baiserde la Fee

p. 70, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

,
H

JI dolu

Copy r ight 1938 by Edition Ru",", de M usique Revised nrsion copyright 1949 by Boosey " Hawkes I nc.
Vied by pe rm ission .

Horn tone combines well with that of all instruments. The horns
therefore form an important link between brass and woodwind. In-
deed, they seem to be as much a part of the woodwind section as of
the brass, to which of course they belong by nature. This perhaps ac-
counts for their being placed in the score above the trumpets, so they
are near the woodwinds.
In respect to tone-weight, horns are unmistakably weaker than what
is called the heavy brass-trumpets, trombones, and tuba-whereas
the horns in turn are stronger than the woodwinds. \Vhen in combina-
tion with other brass they must be carefully placed, and sometimes
doubled, if balance is to be maintained.
The larger symphony orchestras possess eight horns, but lesser ones

CH APTER THIRT E EN
THE TRUMPET
Fr., trompcu e; It ., tromba; Ger., T rompete
HE trum pet as kn own to Haydn, Mozart, and Beeth oven was a
T slende r brass tube, fold ed twi ce, with a flaring bell of moder-
ate size (abour 4 inches across), and fin ed with a cup mouth-
piece. The bore, measuring und er half an inch in diameter, was cy lin-
drical except for the last foot and a half or so, whi ch became conical
as it approached the bell.
In the eighteenth century, trumpets were made in various sizes, and
th ese could be length ened by adding crooks. The C trump et was an 8-
foot tube, and its harmonic series was therefore the same 8-foot series
presented in Chapter Eleven, Fig. 6 2. This series is the written series
playable, with restrictions to he noted, on the natural trumpets of the
classical period. Just as in the case of the horn, the sounds pro duced
will be transpositions of the series according to the rube length s of the
various instrum ents. It is to he noticed that this is the same series as
that of the " horn in C alto," to which the different horn crooks wer e
added. Also, the series is an octave lower than th at of our cont emporary
C tr umpet, w hich is a a -foot instru ment.
N ear the beginning of the nineteenth century, the choice of pitc hes
had settled on the F trumpet as the standard instrument , having a rube
length of about 6 feet. It was equipped with a tuning slide, and croo ks
could be applied to put the instrument in E, E b, D, and C. The lower
pitches of B, Bb, and even A and A b could be obt ained by combining
crooks.
21"
THE TRUMPET 247
Fig. 73 . Classical Trumpet, Crooked in Eb
Trumpets pitched higher than F were rarel y called for. In pieces
written in G major, for example, C trumpets might be used, or none at
all. In Beetho ven's Seventh Symphony in A major, D trumpt:ts are
chosen rather than the heavily croo ked A tru mpets.
TRASSPOSlTIOS
The C trumpet sounds as written. The shorter trumpets sound higher
than written, the longer ones lower.
, 00"gB
written sound on
.trumpt[inF
I
mE inEbinD in C
~
InB inB\> inA
(8 th humOfU(; )
Fig. 74
RASGE
In the early eighteenth century trumpeters had developed the art of
playing very high harmonics, even going as high as the twenty-first
partial (a perfect fourth above the sixteenth parti al) . This technique,
known as c1arino playing, was acquired through long prac tice and
specialization, aided by natural ability, and a shallow mouthpiece. In
comparison with trumpeters of toda y, the player had also the slight
advantage of a lower pitch, requiring less lip tension for a given har -
monic.
Examples of these high trumpet parts may be seen in the works of
J. S. Bach, but after the middle of the century the art of clarino playing
appears to have suddenly declined and to have become lost completely,
doubtless because of the change in musical style from the linear to the
symphonic idiom. Composers of the classical period almost never wrote
f or tru mpets above the twelfth partial, although higher harmon ics were
248 1:-1 S T R U .\ 1 E :-I T S
obtainable on the trumpets with lower-pitched crooks.
T he peda l tone was playable only on the F trumpet, the second har-
monic w as of uncert ain pitc h on most trumpets, and the third harmoni c
poo r on the low crooks. In short, th e range of the classical tr umpet,
with few exceptions. was restricted to the harmonics numbered thre e
to twelve. inclusive , giving the following w ritten notes:
TH E T R U .\ 1 P ET 249
This extremely limited repertoire of notes remained in force until
the middle of the nineteenth century, w hen valves were incorporated
into th e tr umpet. T he ingenuity and adaptability sho wn by the com-
posers of the period in th eir efforts to make the most of such small re-
sources attests to the need they felt for the sound of [Cumpets in th e
orchestra. O ne cannot study th e orchestration of these important com-

• , • ."
, posers intelligently without a knowledge of the technique and limita -

~
: h ' "p tions of the classical trumpet.
• ~s • I
J 5' I I

Fig. 75 ORC HF:STRAL CSES

Among these to nes, the seventh was too flat, but it was nevertheless T he most familiar trumpet effect in the classical orchestra is probably
occasionally written. the tr aditional flourish of trumpets and drums, usually in the tutti,
with hor ns.
EX. 266. Becrhon n-Sy mphollY no.!) P' 27. ed . Kalmus
EX. 168. J\ loza rt-Sy m pbony in C11lajoT, K . 55 1
p. 84. ed. E ulenburg

HN . I
lI" C 1.1 Ii':F'R"l=
The eleventh harmonic, F::. lay in pitch between F:: and F ~ . and if '
used, requ ired correction with the lips. N o hand stopping. like that on
th e horn, was ph ysically possible.
In th e fo llowing examp le, it might seem th at a peda l to ne is indicated
for the second trumpet. It is an unusual instance of the appearance of
the bass clef in trumpet pans, and it is reasonable to suppose that the
practice, followed in writing for the horn. of placing notes in the bass
clef an octave roo low , has been followed here . That would give the Rf p rl ntoN! ,,"ilh thf ptrmiuion of lhf .,, If OSen l. to r Euknbu,g :l>!ini. lu rf seer.. : C. F. P ri ers Cor po r-a-
lion, ~f'" York .
seco nd trumpet not a peda l tone bur the second har mo nic, even that
being an unreliable no te on th e D crook. W hcn trumpets w ere used harmon ically, for loud tutti chords, or
for dynamic accen ts, they were often doubled on wha tever no te of
EX. 267. ,\ Iozarr- Do n [nan: Overture P' 2. ed. Kalmus the chord was available to th em. The composer evidently prefe rre d to
risk a bad ly balanced chord rather than lose tone-weight by omitting
11
one tru mpet. T his is doubtless the reason for the occurrence of trumpet
pans like the following.
250 INSTRUMENTS THE TRUMPET 251
EX. 269. Becthoven-Symphony no. 6 p. '43. cd. Kalmus EX. 271. Beethoven-Sy11lphony no. I p. 3', cd. Kalmus
Allegretto And3ntC cantabile con mota

;',:'~:,~retl~
'" ~
The three chords of the tutti from which this is drawn are the triads WIND

F major, D minor, and G major. The C trumpets can contribute only

one note of the D minor triad, hence the doubling of D, and the un-
orthodox voice leading of the second trumpet part. The two trumpete~
probably played the note somewhat less than fortissimo. Furrhcnnore,
the long classical trumpet must have been less piercing in tone than our 1 TaP.
IN C
present-day instrument.
Long held notes in octaves, rhythmic punctuation, and patterns on w'-'
one or two notes, are other characteristic features of trumpet parts.
Also an occasional solo phrase of short duration might occur. Themes TlMP.

were often constructed on the harmonic series, so that the trumpets s

could play at least part of the melody in the tutti.

EX. 270. Beethoven-SY11lphony no. 5 P: 3J, cd. Kalmus

,.... ,
IN C II

The trumpets were not assigned loud passages exclusively. The fol- THE VALVE TRUl\fPET
lowing entry is an example of delicacy in the use of trumpets and drums.
\Vhen the valve trumpet was introduced, in the middle of the nine-
teenth century, it was the same standard trumpet in F with a 6-foot
tube, now lengthened by the three-valve system to nearly 8% feet.
Its written chromatic range, from third to twelfth partial was, then,
as in Fig. 76, sounding a perfect fourth higher on the F trumpet.

::';~ 7 F
#
Fig. )6
 THE TRUMPET 253
252 INSTRUMENTS
The lowest rones were probably of useless quality. Examples of these EX. 27 2. Bruckner-SY11lpbony no. 7 p. 28, ed. Philharmon ia
low notes written for the trumpet in F cannot be regarded as proof of Allegro moderato
!\ A "A
their playability on the F trumpet, because of the likelihood of the
part having been played on a differently pitched instrument.
Composers continued to write for trumpets in the keys of the various
crooks, such as E, Eb, and D , and even C and Bo. One concludes either
that the parts were transposed and played as for F trumpet, or that no
trumpets of brger sizes were used. .tJ'
Richard Strauss, in his revision of the Treatise on Instrumentation A A A A.,
' A A A A
by Berlioz, advises as the best procedure t he writing for trumpets in
a variety of keys, choosing those keys which \viIl cause the written I V V
pan to appear as far as possible in C major. This will make it convenient , V V
V V \

for the trumpeter to transpose the part and play it on the instrument A A AA A A A

of his individual choice. The advice is based on the knowledge that

performers will not necessarily usc the instrument designated. and that
.diverse practice makes it impossible to predict what their choice will be.
T hese remarks by Strauss are 01 great importance to the student of THE MOOERS TRUMPET

the orchestration of the last half of the nineteenth century. and, as we
shall see, of our own century. A part marked trumpet in F may not
have been play ed on that instrument, and, what is eve n mo re significant,
th e com poser may not have expected that it would be.
R eports of the tone quality of the F trumpet, its nobility, its heavi -
ness, its tendency to dominate, its superiority over the modern trumpet,
all doubtless contain a part of tru th , as can be ascertained by playing
on th e original instrument. Nevertheless, there is nearly alw ays a ques-
tion whether or not the testimony is based on actual hearing of the
F tru mpet.
W e may exercise our imagination as to the effect of the following,
if played on the instruments indicated.
The trend toward grea ter use of the high register, and p reference
for more brilliance and agility, led to the adoption of smaller instru-
ments, and in the twentieth century the standard trumpet is either the
C or the Bb trumpet. in thei r modern forms. These trumpets have tube
lengths one-half as long as the classical trumpets of the same keys. The
tube of the C trumpet measures 4 feet, not counting the valves, and
th at of the Rb, 4 feet 6~ inches. T he fib trumpet can be changed to
an A trumpet, ordinarily by pulling out a specia lly designed slide at
th e first V-bend and adjusting the valve slides for the new pitch. Some
tru mpets with rotary valves exist, but piston valves are the universal
sta ndard for the trumpet, in contrast to the horn.

Fig. 77. Modern Trumpet in Db and A

 IN ST R UM EN T S T ilE T R L' .\ 1P ET 255
The written series of harmonics we have used thus far must now Lower sounds than the F;::: can be obtained by such drastic expedients
be replaced by one an octave higher.

.
as pulling out the valve slides and the tu ning slide as far as possible.
, " Ravcl- R.lpsodie Espsgno!e p. 35. ed. Durand
r EX. 2 7 3 .

~
'j
I )

Fig. 78

The fundamental tone can sometimes be produced. wit h extraordi-

nari ly flexible lips. Irs sou nd is of such poo r qua lity that irs playability
has not been cult ivated. and it should not be inclu ded in the range of
the trumpet. H armonics above the eight h are more easily obtainable
on the Bb trumpet than on the C. and as usual the flat seventh harm onic
is avoided.
The C tr umpet sounds as written, the Bb trum pet a major second
lower than written.
FlSGERISG
The notes playable in the seven valve positions are as follows:
TOX E QU.-\U T Y
T he tr umpet possesses carrying power sufficient to sound with au-
thori ty over the full orchestra. The volume and ton e quality depend
somewh at on the bore, w hether small. medium, or large, and on the
width and depth of the mouthp iece employe d. T hese fact ors arc de-
cided by individual taste. T he n , tr umpet preser\"Cs a little more of the
fullness of rune characteristic of the older trumpets, whereas the C
tr umpet has more intensity and at the same time more delicacy . T here
has been a not iceable increase in the usc of C trum pets in the last
twenty- fi ve years. T hey arc often played when Botru mpets are speci-
fied in the score. O n the ot her hand. m:lIlY tr umpeters prefe r to play
the C pans on the Bb tru mpet.

000 OJO 0 1 0 00 )
Of I ~ 0
01) I O J , .
)
In the low register the trumpet sounds fu ll. and with much solemniry.

EX. 2 74. Shostakm·ich-Sympbol1y 110 . 5 p. I.t, ed..\l usicus

Fig. 79

As previou sly noted, the usc of the third valve pr esents into nation
difficulties. The Ab series can be corrected by the lips, but the last rwo
series cannot. Low F:: and G, and their fifths C# and D, not being
duplicated in anoth er series, can be fingered only as in Fig. 79, and arc
therefore bound to be out of tune. These pitches are corrected by
mechanical devices. The first valve is lengthened by a spring tr igger Cop)Ticht 1 ~5 by Letd s Musk. Corpon,tion. r.;tw Yort. l:std by Pt rmission
for the left thu mb, and the third valve by means of a ring for the left
third finger. T hese devices may be operated while a note is sounding. The normal comfortable range for melodies lies between midd le C
Hi gh A b is another note co which special attention must be given for (written ) and the G a twelfth above. H igh and low points in the
intonation. melodic curve may exceed these limits, if desirable.
K
256 INSTRU\lENTS TilE T R U ,\ 1PET 257
EX. 275. Hindemith-Concerto fOT Orchestra P: 6, ed . Schott
EXT RE :\1 E HI GH :SOTE S
Nicbt sch1srpen _ '7 ••
7' '. ~7 . Th e nimh harmonic is often playe d by those t ru mpcrers w ho make
a pr actice of pby ing C trum pet parts on the (rllmper. since t hey n"
must play D when the high C is writt en. :\ written high D is much
mor e diffi cult on the C trumpet. h O W CH f . ; \ p;trt like th e following
wou ld most pr obably be played on the D trumpet.

EX . 1 77. B<1 ft<Jk- Collcerto for O rcbestrs

p. 107 . ed. Bcosey & H aw kes

Copyriahl 1915 b)" B Schoth ~h ne: rco u .-cd l'lS! b y Falil lI in <kfn ilh t '....:! b y pt'nniSAlo n.

In the high register. from G to C. th ~ ton e is . nat.ural~y most pene- Copyrilht 1'}.16 loy I b .. k~1 '" Son (London) Li d l'~ b) prr m i'lSI<.on .

tr ating. These upper no tes have a beautiful quality In pian o, but the y
The production of higher notes is a mat te r of lip tension, aided
arc difficu lt to play sof tly. by the kind of mouthpiece and the bore of the insrrumcn r. Dance band
P: 65, ed. Schott trumpet ers frequently plav up to G , th e twelfth harmoni c, and even
EX. 276. Stravinsky-Sym phony in C
further, but it is noticeabl e th at this is accom plished at a sac rifice of
J =9 1 quality. especially in the medium and low registers. The siruation is
reminiscent of the clarino pbying of the eighteenth cent ury . But
whereas the clnrino playe r was admittedly a high register specialist, the
m~c. rn l' orchestra trump eter of tod ay is expected to be at his best in the medium
part of the range . It would he folly for him to weaken this more valu-
able aspcct of trumpet playing for the sake of extending his range up-
ward.

ML'TES

M uted tru mp ets can give fo rth the most piercing sound in th e or -
chestra (Ex. 278), and on the other hand th ey can be used softl y for
a kind of ech o effec t, a sou nd as of an instrument played at a distan ce
Cop yri ght 1945 b)" Scholl & Co " Lt d l: oed b y p<"mi ..,o n. (Ex. 279 ) , At one ti me in th e early twenti eth centu ry . mu ted tr ump ets
2511 I ~ S T R U ~ I [:-;: T S T II E T R U ,\ 1PET 259

were so muc h in vogue that they were heard almost as freq uently as F.X. 28 1. Debussy-La ,Her P' 122, cd. D urand
open trumpe ts.
",P . 1
EX . 278. Stra\'in sk y-PetrollChkJ P: 6 S.,cd. R ussc 11'0' r
"," oJ t
pp ........-:=
or:/.3
PP --==.

4q-.-.:r~-:"":~ ~ ~--- ~ ~~~~;~~4'±?'±#8

pp pp - = = pp pp
COPl <i ~h l I.y E d ih un R ..a w de ~l u " Q "e . Rn u.ro "n~ i "n cOP l n~l.t 1 9~~ b y l>oc.ow y &: 1I~"'k..,,, l'~d
by pt"r n,,,~ , on P enn is. IOfl gunl(1J b)' Duund rl Cic. , P U is, COI 'l-righ l o....n c rs; Uk :on-\"ogd, I'h il:odt lphil, 1'1_. IlcnlS

EX. 279- Berg-Violjn Concerto p. 45. cd. Unive rsal TRILLS

Allegr crto ~ ,DPf

. A 0 '- A few lip trills are possible in the high register. but trills on the
,
I"
, ,= [npt.
-
-
' i p.J, ror d ~
trumpet arc ordinarily mndc with valves. ~ lost arc \'ery good. but
some arc awkward in effect because of awkwardness in th e fingering.
T he following examples show fingeri ngs that do not produce good
,.,. .". .,,=.-
n ~ =- "
'-"-' "=
•
-
tr ills.
.." ( p,m ou ltj
Cop) . ic h i \936 by l ' n i- u u l Ed it wll .'\ . G. l'wd b y pt r m is~iOll.
o •
g I
TO X G L'I ~ G
Fig . 80
Separately tongued notes on the trumpet arc more incisive th an on
Fast running figures are quite playable. although perh aps not in th e
th e ho rn. They are especially forceful w hen accented .
best trumpet sty le. The following gives a dazzling splash of color, the
P' 129. ed . Bro ude Bros.
trum pets sounding wit h a loud tutti for the first two beats, then wit h
EX. 1 8 0 . Str'.l\"insky-L'Oise<11t de Feu
on ly the marking of the beats by pizzicato strings and timpan i.

Rep rod uced by pt nn i" ion of J. &: W. Chester Lid , London .

Compared with the horn , the trumpe t responds more quickly to

the various to ngue strokes. Its staccato is extremely crisp and pointed.
Double- and triple-tonguing are performed on the tr umpet with a
lightness and neatness unsur passed by any ot her wind instrument.
260 1:-; 5 T R U \ 1E :-; T 5 T /I E T R U ,\ \ PET 26 1
EX . 2 82 . R avcl-Dapbnis et Chloe P' 269, cd . Durand preponderant. When mu ted, however, it blends especially well with
the English hom.

- EX . , 84, D eb ussy-c-La .lI er

rerenu
Io",dmt
p. 25. ed. D urand

,.., ~f.j £ --;$·1 1 i5

IS f J - :... J .
" tzp' tsrrf

.
( 14"'JO" 'l;;irh E.ll }l,f j rh ho rn '
P um lpion If"ftled b y Du rand et Ci e.• hr if , copyr ight o.. " tl"$; Ellr."n ·\·Olld. Ph iladelphia.. Pa " aaenta-
~

", .-" \\'hen the br ass section includes three or fou r tru mpets, a para llelism
of chords suggests itself, and this effec t has been wid ely used. The fol-
lowing passage is accompanied by full pizzicato chords on eac h eighth.
kettled rum on each quarter, and arpegg io figures for two clarinets and

f'umi~~ion lI, a n ted by D u ra nd .\ Cie .• Pari ~.

:. - :r"-
. - pp
cop)'ril:ht o..-n e,, ; El ka.n·\'ogd, Ph ila d elp h ia, 1';1.. &j;en l.
bass clarinet.

EX. 285 . Casella- Partita for Piano and O rchestra P: 29. ed. Uni versal
Music of a fanf are or prono uncement character falls naturally in the
trumpet 's sphe re.

EX. 183. Copland- .Hmic for the T heater p. 3. cd . Cos Cob

..
-
." alto moderato
~ ~

-
>- ""'.-....

•
"
'" == ~<
f - " ON>'"
IS C " sIm p, (411. de,", 'I l"VOUJ

~--
'"
- ---~
f IWI troppo

~
~

~ ~ ~

~ ~ .
~ .....-=

Copyr igh t 19J! by Cos Co b P re5&. In c. l"..ro by pt. m i"',on o f Arro.... Pr~. 1m;., in t o rpor.ll n e th.
Cos Cob Prey

Combinations of other than br ass instruments in unison wi th the

trumpet are usually not successful. T he trumpet is too assertive and - "---.:...--- -
Copyrirlu l't!6 b y l:niar<.l.l E d ili un A. G; rcn c..-fd 1953 by \ ' YOCUlt C ~ ... l ~ l 'M'd by ~rm is~ion.
262 I~ STR U ~I [~ T S
THE T R U hI PET 263

Al.'XILIARY I~ STRL'.\ tEXTS

EX. ,87' D 'Indy-SY 11lphony in Bb p. 186, ed. Durand
The aux iliary instr uments of the trumpet family are the small trum -
pets in D and E" and the bass tr umpet.
The modern D trumpet is nor to be confused with the earlier J)
trumpet, which had a tube len gth of about 7 ~-S feet. T he small f)
tru mpet measures 3 feet 5 inches , not including the valves. It shouid
be remarked here that all comparisons of measurements between new
Perm i!ls lon gran ted by Du rand et Cie ., Paris, co pyri gh t ow ner. ; Elk an -Vog el, Phi la dd phia, Pa. , a gent•.
and old instruments should take into account the fact that the eight-
eenth-century pitch was not only variab le bur was. in a gcncr:ll way. The bass trumpet, as writte n for by \ Vagner and Strauss, in th e keys
about a half tone lower than the pitch of the twentieth century. of s-foor C and th e Bb below, is to all int ents and purposes a valve tro m-
Small trumpets in Eb and 0 exist as scp,u arc instruments, bur t he 0 bone . It is played by tromb on ists, using th e tr omb one mouthpiece.
trumpet is now equipped wit h a device for changing to Eb. thus com- The bass trumpet in Eb, however, preserves a tr umpet quality with a
bining the (\\"0 into one instru ment. T his is a grea t convenience for large trumpet mouthpiece, and it sounds especially well in th e register
the player, who may find it advantageous to play an E b part on the where the standard trumpet is not at its best. It is supp lied with a fourth
D trumpet, or vice versa. Some players like to use a smaller mo uthpiece, valve, by means of which it may be changed to a bass trumpet in D .
ot hers use the same as for the C trumpet. T he technique and the written This add s a half tone to the down ward range of the Eb instrument, so
range arc the same as those of the C instrument. T he D trumpet sounds that its lowest w rit ten not e is F, soun ding th e Ab a major sixth lower.
a majo r second higher tha n written, t he E b trum pet a mino r third
higher than written. EX. 188. Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Printemps P' 104, ed. R usse
T he tone of the small trumpets has a tendency to shrillness, especially
in th e high register, where they arc most used. Followin g are examples
of parts for eac h.
4
BA~S

nu:,::; ~J-t~ ~@;~

Lento
CO'7I loyd.

Cop yri gh t 1921 by Edit ion Ru_ d~ Musi 'l u ~. "'-sed by permission.
EX. 286. Britten-Four Sea Interludes from Peter Grimes
p. , 8, cd. Booscy & H awkes The bass trumpet may be used to play melodi es wr itten for Bb or
C trumpets in th e low register, wh en a more resonant ton e is desired.
Also it is the best instrument on whi ch to play parts for the old er tru m-
pets, if they happen to descend too low for the mod ern trumpet.

EX. 189. Strauss-Ein H eldenleben p. 220, ed. Eulenburg

~E!;. J_
~
m~ g Iangsam ..."

.r- = = m":::::2
dill = ~ " '
Copyright 1945 by B<x>sey & Hawkes Ltd . t:",d by p('rrn ission . p . .~. ereso "" dim. ' !/to 'dim
With th~ permission of th~ publisher F. E . C. Leuclr.ut. Mu enchen, Leip~il. Cop yr il1ht 1899, ren ewed
1927, by F. E . C. Leucka rt.
264 INS T R U ~l E N T S T 11 E T R U ,\ 1PET 265

In modern R ussian scores a trom ba con tralta may be found, an in- Long used in bands and the ater orchestras, cornets were first intro-
strument descr ibed by Rim sky-K orsako ff as having been invent ed by duced into the sy mp hony orchestra to sup plement the trumpets and
him. Although it has th e same fun dame nt al as th e ninet eenth-cent ur y fill out the brass harmony, a usage seen in Fr ench scores we ll afte r the
valve tr umpet in F. its bore and mouthp iece give it a range fro m th e valve trumpet had become established. Cornets we re fou nd to combin e
second to abou t the nin th partial, w hereas the older F trumpet played more sympathetically with other instruments than did the tr ump ets,
from the third partial up to the twelfth . and to be mo re appropriate for melodies in a style like the fo llowing .
The small n and E b tnlmpcts are used in the perform ance of clarin o
tr umpet parts by Bach, H andel, and ot hers. Special instruments fo r . EX . 290. Tchaikov sky-Capriccio Ltalien p. 49, cd. Kalmus
th is purpose have been constru cted in high F and G , sometimes called
Bach trumpets. This is of course a misnomer. The instruments do not
fu rn ish the harmonics originally playe d. from eighth to sixteenth, bur
th eir harmonics from fourt h to eight h sound just as high. since they arc
but half the length of the original trumpets. The gaps between partials
are filled in by means of the valve system.
H igh est of all trumpets is the Eb sop ran ino, with a main tube length
of 2 feet 3 % inches. It is used in some military bands.

T HE CORNET
Fr., piston, cornet a pistons; It., corne tta; G er., K ornett The cornets are nevertheless not regular members of the sy mphony
The cornet originat ed in France about 1825. It is not a trumpet bur orc hestra. Rather, they arc adj uncts, to be employe d on special occa-
a descend ant of th e post horn , and thus it has more family ties with th e sions. This is perhaps a result of the circumstance th at cornets and
horn. Formerly its rat her squa t, compact appe ara nc e was in contrast trumpets have grown to be so nearly alike that the distingui shing char-
to th e streamlined trumpet, but the mod ern cornet has come to resembl e acteristics of the cornet are scarcely noticeable.
th e trump et more and more, both in external shape and in tone quality. The follovving examp le is in typical cornet style.
First made in a variety of pitches, the standard cornet is now in Bb.
with a slide ch ange to A. It has the same tu be length and range as the
Bb trumpet. Its bore is two-thirds conical and one-third cylindrical,
and it is play ed with a cup mout hpiece.
The cornet tone shares characteristics of both trumpet and horn.
The heroic qu ality of th e trumpet is lack ing, but, on the other hand, th e
cornet is capable of a warmth and mellow smoothness associated only
with th e horn. It must be added th at the corne t is rarel y well played,
so tha t its good qualities are no t often to be apprecia ted.
An outstanding feature of th e cornet is its superiority over the other
brass instruments in ease of performance in mu sic requiring fluent
agility and virtuosity.
266 INSTRUMENTS
EX. 291. Stravinsky-Petroltchka

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

THE TR 0,\1 BON E

- Fr., trombone; It., trombone; Ger., Pormme

-_ a r l
T
HE principle of the slide trombone, described in Chapter Eleven
(see Fig. 63), dates from antiquity. No really essential change
in the instrument has been made in at least five centuries, if we
except certain alterations of mouthpiece and bell proportions indica-
Copy right by E diti on R\lS5e de M \lsiQ\le. Re,·!.sed versi on ooPlrigh t 1948 by Boo"",y &: l ia ,,·kes. Cled tive of changes in ideals of tone quality. Also, the tenor trombone,
by per mission.
pitched in c-foor Eb, seems ever to have remained the standard, typical
slide trombone.

m: Fig. 81. Bb Ten or Trombone

The tube is cylindrical for about two-thirds of its length, becoming

conical toward the bell, which measures about 7 inch es across. The
mouthpiece is a shallow bowl cup, more like a large trumpet mouth-
piece than one for the horn, cornet, or tuba. The slide is made with
fine precision. its outer walls being about a hundredth of an inch thick .
A water key is provided for drainage. The instrument is balanced in
playing position by a weight situated in the V -bend of the tuning slide.
In some makes of trombone the weight is contained within the tran s-
verse braces. l\ laterials going into the trombone's construction are
brass, chromium, and nickel.
267
268 [J','STRUMENTS
SLIDE T ECH:-;'lQUE
The left hand hold s th e inst ru ment by the mourh pipe brace and
stead ies the mouth piece aga inst the lips. The right hand operates th e
slide, holding the slide hand bra ce lightly.
In Fi g. 8 I . the slide is seen com plet ely closed, the ends pressing upon
co rk, c ontained in w hat ar c called th e cork barrels. In improved models
th ese cork barrels ar c repl aced by spring barrels that permit pit ch ad -
justments in the closed pos it ion.
\ \ "hen closed, t he slide is in the first po sition, with a tube length
o
identical w it h that of t he natural horn in B alt o. The bor e and mout h-
piece of th e tr omb one. however, are nor designed to produce harmonics
as high as th ose of the horn.
As the slide is ext ended, th e posit ions are id enti fied by number as
each half tone alteration in pitch is reached, Th e distances between
adjacent positions increases as the slide is furth er extended. From first
THE TROMBONE 269
tenor trombone, bur the se extreme notes are not thu s far a part of the
trombone ran ge for sy mphonic purposes, probably because th e need
for th em is not felt, considering th e presence of horn s and tr umpets.
T he fundamentals ( pedal tones) of th e first three positions arc of goo d
quality. if approached with time for ad justment of th e emb ou chure.
The low E, second harmonic in the seventh position, is th e poorest
note in resonance.
It is to be noted that op tional alterna tive positions arc available for
many tone s, but that quit e a numb er can be obtained in on ly one posi-
tion, especially in th e lower octave. Care shou ld be taken that wide
changes of slide position do not have to be made rapidly. T he fo llow-
ing passage is very awkward if played on the tenor tromb one, since
it necessitates alt ernating sevent h and first positions.
E X. 292. Bartok-Dan ce Suite p. 66, ed. Un iversal
Comodo

to seco nd position is 3 ry~G inches; from sixth to sevent h position is 4 % '::' :);! J ; g ¥J ~
inch es. At its grea test extent the ent ire instrument has a rub e length of P CO'/l sord
J 2 feet, 7 % inches, just about the length of th e classical horn in E. CoP)'~lg.ht
penn l.lon.
1924 by Unh'enal Edition. Copyright ll.Aigned 1939 to Boo",,)' & lI a,,·kes Ltd. Used by

The following shows the notes available in the seven slide position s.
Mu sic for the trombone is w ritten in bass and tenor clefs, th e tenor Int onation problems inh erent in valve combinations are not present
clef to S3\"C Icger lines in th e high register. The trombone has always in the slide system. Pitch can be adju sted to perfecti on by slight move-
been a non tra nsposing instrument, the notes sounding as written. ment s of the slide.

bh!'@ _
~ :l{lIl
~
.A . 0_
THE ALTO TRO\\BONE
Until the late nineteenth century, the three trombo nes makin g up
t,
the custo mary tr ombone section of the orchestra were alto , teno r,.and
bass. With the ascend ancy of the valve trumpet, the alto tromb on e
• Q
gradually came to be repl aced by a secon d tenor trombone, and th e
positions: '" I
Q
II
1'9"
III
\U )
IV 1#"1
v
IQ)
VI grouping- two tenor and one bass-became standard practic e. French
composers have shown a preference for a group of three tenor tr om-
Fig. 82
bon es, and they have been reluctant to usc the bass. In genera l, how-
The ninth and tenth partia ls are used ch iefly in the first two positions. ever, when simply three trombon es are indi cated , it is und erstood that
They are less difficult to produce in the five lower-pitch ed series, but th e third is a bass trombone.
th e notes are better taken as lowe r-numbered partials in higher posi- The alto trombone is pitched a perfect fourth above the tenor, so its
tion s. Trombonists tod ay play as high as the twelfth harmonic on the f undament al in closed position is E b. Its playing technique is the same
270 INSTRU ,\lF.NTS THE TROMllONE 271

as th at of the other trombones. Parts for it w ere writt en ordin arily in

the alto clef, an d t his is probably one reaso n for the usc of t he alto clef
for first and second tr ombon es, seen in some sco res even wh en no alto
tr omb on e is inten ded. This practi ce is co mmon among Ru ssian co m-
posers. O ccasional notes for th e alto tr ombone that are too high to be
playe d on th e tenor are most often give n {Q the trum pet (see Ex . 295 ) .
Fig. R.;. Bass T romb one with F Arrachmcnr and E Slide

THE BASS TRO\mONE
The bass t rombone is pit ched in F. a perfect fourth lower th an th e
tenor. In Englan d t he prefe rred pitch is G . w hile in Ge rmany in the
ni neteenth cent ury bass trombones in E b were widely used. In t he
twentieth centu ry these have all been gr3du:1lly superseded by an in-
st ru ment call ed the tenor-bass trom bone. whi ch in its present form is
The advantages of the F attachment arc nor limited to th e acquisitio n
of not es not playable on t he n, rube . It makes of th e trombone really
two instruments in on e, or even th ree in one if rhe E slide is co unte d.
a development comparable in significance to th e invention of t he
double ho rn . It provi des virru allv unlimited possibilities of inte rchange
through t he entire range of both tenor an d bass divisions.

l,
now called simply (and not always accu rately} t he bass t rombone"
T he tenor- bass t romb on e is a tenor trombo ne with a so-called
" F att achment." a device consisti ng of a loop of extra tubing. accomrno-
TO~ G1.:I~G

dated with in the up per C -ben d. of sufficient lcnarh to gi ve t he instru- All ronmi imrs are used on the trombone, condition ed bv the fact
A
ment a fundamental F when added to th e main tu bing. ro tar y valve. that th e mout hpiece is a large one, and fast ton g-ue strokes arc fatigu ing
operated by the left thumb. con trols t he addi tion of t his extra rubinu if continued long. A rtic ulations in t he low register tend to be 3 littl e
in the manner of a valve on the horn. ~ sluggish. A certa in heavi ness is expected in th e follo wing p3ss;1ge. In
\ Vhen the ten or-bass trombone is designed princi pally for service the sco re, the tr ombon es are doubl ed by st rings. an d in P3rt by ho rns.
as a bass tromb one, the bore is enlarged, the size of th e bell in creased to
about gY:! inch es, and t he F tubing eq uip ped wit h a slide which , wh en
pulled out , lowe rs the F to E. This last was needed ro complete t he
filling of the gap between low E of the tenor trombon e and its first
pedal tone, Bb. \\'ith about 3 feet of extra rub ing added, the distances
between slide positions are gre ater, so that the slide is long enough for
onl y six po sition s when rhe instrument is in F. The low B~ is obtained
by pulling out the E slide (Fig. 8J).
teno r r.gsIU OJl5 on
tr ombone F valve

,j
,
VII II III

Fig" 83
272 I N S T R U ~\ E N T S T H E TR 0 .\\ no N E 273

EX. 293. \Vagner-Die G ott erdammerung p, 309. ed. Schott Flutter-tonguing can be employed, and there are a few examples
Sehr lebhaft in modern scores.

,dI
,(J" l"' ' , ~ - - EX. 294. Scbocnbcrg-c-Frce O rcbestral Pieces P' I I, ed. Peters

c h' ., .
, .. b.. .

, •~ ~
no,
" ,(J"

u
,(J'"""r' • ; ~ ....

- R ep ri n ted with th e permi:;.sion of the copyright o wners C. F . Pe ters Corporation, :\ew York

LEGATO

A perfect legato is obtained only between two adjacent harmonics

in the same position. Slurring two [Ones that require a change of slide
position demands skillful co ordination of tongu e and slide movement s.
\ Vhen t his type of slurring is w ell execute d, t he break in continuity
necessary to avoid portamcnto is barely discernible.

EX. 295. Schumann-Sy1l1phony no. 3 P' 97. ed. Philharmonia

"---~.u~~D

..-,

O n the other hand, it is more characteristic of trombone sty le to

employ a soft tonguing on each note of a cantabile melody. The inter-
vals are not slurred, but the tones are as closely connected as in a nice
ch ange of bow by the strings, except at places where breath is taken.
 274 1:--1 S T R U ,\ 1 E:--I T S THE TRO MBONE 275
Tlt OM BON l!: IN , (GOOO)
EX. 296. H indemith -Sy mphollY: M atbis der Maler p. I, ed. Sch orr TllO M8Q>;[ IS Bb (tMPOSSTlLt)

Rulug lxw~ ~"?Sj O@~d~

::1~
I ~. p:-a - p..
I
rr ~ t> ... .

I~E~:i!~~~~
I
J
hum')fllC$: I
posnicns : IV
•
III
I
II
I
I
. J
V II V I
J I I
VI V I V I I I I I I
' I

.., Smft htr.JQrtT~!rn Fig. 85

T he glissando over the overtone series of a sing le position. like the

,;< ' 15• • ~I~.
... ~'. '
horn glissando. can also be played on the t rombone.
Copyrt&h1 1934 by Jj Sc ho ll s Sofhnc, "la inz l' ""d b}' ~ rm i ....ion .
LX. 298. Bart{.k-Violil1 Concerto P' 133. cd. Boosey & H awkes
The trombone requires more wind t han either trumpet or hom.
Phrasing shou ld be arranged to allow fr equent breathing places. I\'~'(f.;,~ _~ ~
;;:;;;' *jdJj: ;U ·tCHiiJii.ir-
\1

TRILL.5

T rills c an be made with the lips on adjacent harm onics. T hey are
TO:SE
therefore limited [Q trills of a major second. T he following excerpt
contains two lip trill s playable in the fourth position . Th e tone quality of the trombone is hom og eneous throughout t he
range. with a natural increase in brilliance and penetrating power
EX. 197. Srra\'insky-L'OiscJu de Feu p. 16 1 , cd. Broude Bros. as t he high registe r is approached. In the low rcgi stcr.nn extremely soft,
A Il~ro .. subdued piani ssimo CJn be produced. especially effective in chords for
~ three t ro mbones.
..utff~ <f»'.tf'-= <f»'
m . EX. 299. D cbussy-c-L a .\ler P: 1°5. ed. Durand
r
" o ~,II1.

Reprodu ced b y ~ rm isi ion o f }. & W. Chesl~ r Ltd ., Lo ndon.

GLl S SA ~[)o
T he fortissimo of t rom bones in the low register has a dramatic, cras h-
ing sound. wi th treme ndo us pow er of c rescen do . \V hen uncont rolled,
Th ere is natura lly a tend enc y to allow t he int er venin g sounds to be it causes t he me tal of t he instrum ent to vibrate, giving a prono unce d
heard w hile shifti ng positions, and t his has bee n exp loite d as a specia l cuh;re effect . In ge ne ral th e eX:lggcfJte d brassy sonority is un pleasant,
effect, the trombone glissando, shown in Ex. 297. T he glissando on bu t on occasion it nuy no t be in app ropriate .
the trombone is comparable to the string glissondo. and its use can easily
be abu sed. It cannot be made over an interval l.r rgcr than an augmented
fourth. the total displacement of t he seven positions, and a glissando is
no t possible if it involves a c hange of harmonic number, as demonstrated
in t he following figu re.
 276 J :-I S T R U ~I E :-I T S THE TRO~IBONE 277
,

,
EX. 300. Sibclius-SY lllphollY 110. 1 p. 37. ed. Brcitkopf The high register is difficult to subdue to anything less than mezzo
Allegro energicc forte, with average orchestral players. The extreme notes suggest ten-

":'~-~>~
sion and excit ement.
TU'I','lt d : ::~ : "
f ~m(. molto .IT cresc. POln~ EX. 303 . Schmitt-An toine et Cteopatre p. 106 , cd. Durand
Cop yri cht 190Z, renewed lY3Q, b j" lJr c itk op l & lI a.rt el. u ipz ig

In medium register the trombone is closest to th e horn in timbre, but

with a lin Ie more solidity , even hardness, comparatively speaking. The
piani ssimo unison of three trombones, in the next example, makes a n •.
full, round tone, without being loud.

- ' ( TW: . .tf

EX. 301. Schubert-Symphony no. 7 P: 30, ed . Eulcnburg Perm ission gra n ted by Dura nd et Cie.. Paris. wp)' righl owners ; 'Elka n -\'O lld , Phi ladelphia , P a. , ag ents.
Allegro rna non (top~

M UT ES

Muted trombones are extensively employe d to redu ce the volum e of

TIl0 M1l 0 N £S
tone, as well as to obtain th e new tune color. Th ey are not as piercing
in fort e as muted tr umpets. In the low reg ister th ey have a sinister
quality. In the followin g example, a novel effect is created by doubling
the muted trombone in unison with low strings cot tegno.

EX. 304 . Berg-Violin Concerto p. 8, ed. Universal

p
Rep r in ted ,,-ill> th e perm; ", ;"n o f t he so l. 3-genu lor Eu le" b u, g M in i" lu re Sco res " C. 1'-. P.tu~ Corpora- mit D.nnPftr
t io n, :-:.w Yo rk.

(u,,) II
The same uni son in fortissimo is overpowering, especially if pitched
somewha t higher. It can easily dominate the mass of sound of the whole ....
orchestra. Copyright 19J6 b y Un h 'er sal Ed il io n A. G. tJled b y pe rmissio n.

EX. 302. Rirnsky-Korsakoff-Scb eberazade p. z )6, ed. Kalmus ORCHESTRAL USES

Allegro non troppo maestoso The tr ombones are by tradition gro up instr uments rather than solo-
I (l J
ists and the y are used very frequently in three-part harmony, per-
"" "JlH "
III I
fo rming a harmonic background function similar to that performed
.(I'
Co p yr igh t b y !<of. P . lie/aid!; sole a genl.> llOO5CI' & H awke s , Cse d b y pr rm ission by horns. In large tutti passages, the comparatively light tone of the
 278 I x ST R U \ 1 E x T S TH E TRO ,\ \ B ON E 279

horn s is insufficient, and the trombones may be combined w ith them . R hy thmic, contrapuntal style:
O r, the trom bones may take over the harmonic burden. leaving the
EX. 307 . I-lindemit h-Sy mpbonic Meunnorpbosis
horns free for melodic activities. The trombones arc regularly asso-
p. 28, cd. Associate d M usic Publishers
ciated wi th t he mba. making eit he r a four- part texture, or a three-part
harmony with the bass doubled in octaves o r unison. All three trom-
bones may join the tuba on the bass line. T he trombone harmony -
sounds wel l in either open or close position. In Ex. 305 there are, in the > >

score, full doublings by woodwind, ho rns, an d rru mpC[s, b ur t he phra se

TIl.B .

u, ~
~ mf_
S t-Ji. , . , I "i'rbJ '. ,
~~ ~.1
is dominated by the trombone tone.
u

... ~
( H OR:-' 5, TIl. P. , T l 'BA ommed l
EX. 305· Brahms-Sy mpbol1Y no. 4 p. 12 5, ed. Kalmus ..:. ~
Allcgr.Q encrgl.c o C ~ss. ionaro
~.
Ja rl
...
m!:,Wif . If If Lp
~. t:i. ; a . ' ~.
~f f
i . I I 1:'1 ,,.1 j~ J . j .J .J ,.i,.I .! I I

The most suitable melodies for the t rombones arc those havin g a kind
of deli berate dign ity and solemnity, or those of a choral type that
,
-
Cop yrig ht 1945 by A-"<Xiated Mu sic P u blishers. In c., ~ ew York. t:.., d by perm iss ion.
:r

would be sung by more than one voice ( Ex. 296 ) . Such melodies are Lig ht staccato:
give n normally to two or three trombones in unison, o r in octaves with
t w o on t he upper part. T he m ore intimate and personal type of melody EX. 308 . Strauss-Till E ulcnspiegel P' 9. ed. P hilhannonia
(Ex. 306), for one solo tromb one, is much less com mon in symphonic Schr lebhaft . ~ . . . i .
mus ic.
"':JiEa ' .ef1$J j ~, IijJ ~
.If poco nt. P ~
EX. 306 . l\1ahler-S)'11lphollY 1/0. ] p. 82, ed. Boosey & H aw kes Rep rint ed ....ith the per mission 01 th e copyrigh t o wners C. F. Poten Cor por at ion. New York.

D uet between t ro mbon e an d trumpet, both muted :

EX. 309. Copland-Concerto for Piano and Orchestra

P: 30, ed. Cos Cob
d'l'on sord.
TIl.P ,
'N c.
, ,0
.~ .
>
- ~
- C

> >
IV ~f~

COf/J~ > >

1-..'----- -.-
m . ,
V""d by p"rmi"ion of Vninrsal Edition A. G.
~f
Cop yr ight 19<'9 by Cos Cob P reM, Icc. Used by pe l'Tllission 01 Arrow Prest, I nc. , incorporat ing th~
Follo wi ng are ot her examples of o rchestral trombone writing. C~ Co b Pre ss
280 INS T R U ,\ 1 EN T S TH E TRO ,\IBON E 281
Colorful phrase in parallel chords (doubled an octave above by EX. J 12. Ve rdi-Falstalf P' 316, ed . Brou dc Bros.
oboes, English horn, and clarinets):

EX . 3 10. Debussy- l beria P: 37, ed. D urand

Rubaro
rrh dQm: er rTf
, /C
!FE< ~. ;;§1 ;> .";~, g I
n
..'i . , -. . . .: :. . ·:t>~ 2 •
--t

.J:... P morrndo
m.
By co u rtesy of G. Ricordi & Co., cop)'righl owncrs

'"
Tt!&A

I'Nm j~~ ion gr3nt~d by Durand

pf------r ------- f " -
~I ell'.• PariL, coPyrillht o...-n".; Elkan -VOlld, I'hiladdphi a, Pa ., ag en ti
TH E V ALV E TRO ,\1BO ~ E

The th ree-valve system has been app lied to trombones. The valve
Unison fortissimo with wide skips, cove ring the ent ire range (the trombon e has had succ ess in bands, but it is not used in the or chestr a.
tu ba plays an octave below) : Although the valves give greater facility in the performance of fast
figures, they possess the defects in intonation of all valve systems, and
ex. J II. Prokofi eff- ChoU! P' )8, ed. G urheil th e valve tr ombone lacks the characterist ic feature of trombones- the
J
Andant
Il
"e
~
g
~
n~ _
~~ :
>- :> slide-that has distinguished the tro mb one family for centu ries.
nuI. lI ~ :: ~
III
~
iJ:- :> ;> ;>
~
>-
.t1' ttnuto ~ p t SnJlt
Copytj~ht lo2~ by Breit kopf & llartd (A G ut hc il). Cop yr igh t a ""ign ed 1947 10 B00"",Y & lh.wk. • . Used
b y p er m i",i on .

T HE CO~TRABASS T RO:\ IB O:" E

Pitch ed in fib. an octave below th e teno r trombone, th e contrabass

trombone was included by \Vagner in the br ass sect ion of the R ing
des Nibe lungen, the object being to exten d th e tromb one family dow n-
ward, so th at it wo uld not depen d on th e tuba for its low bass. Th is in-
strument has been seldom used by other compose rs (Strauss-Elektra;
Schoenberg-G urrelieder), and it is gene rally considered unsatisfac-
to ry because of the physical demands it makes upon the player.
T he It alian con traba ss trombone that Verdi called for (Ex. 312)
was a valved instrument. Its part is usually played on the t uba.

C HA PTE R F IFTEEN
TH E T U B A
Fr., tuba; l r., tuba; Ger., Tuba
tuba is the brass instrument least understood by composers.
T
HE
\Vhen the score calls for tuba, the tuba placer and the cen-
du ctor must decide wh ich of several instrum ents is intended,
and also which of several instruments will best answer to the musical
needs as shown by the part written for the mba. Even when rhc instru-
ment is specified-i.e., bass tub a or contrabass tuba-it is often found
that the pan is better suited to a tuba of different size. Since a real
bass tub a has been in use only from about 1S75, it is called upon to
play pan s not planned for it, such as parts for the earlier small tub a
or for the obsolete op hiclcidc.
T he modern mba player may choose from four or five different
tu bas. H e adopts for everyday usc th e one that seems to him best for
th e general run of tuba parts, most of whic h are simple bass parts, lying
neither too high nor too low and having no outstanding tec hnical or
musical features. On the ot her hand, he occasionally finds reason to
select anothe r tuba for a particular wor k or a special solo passage. It
may happen that as many as three tubas are used by the same player in a
single concert.
The tubas employed in the orchestra are pitc hed in o-Foor Bb,
I a-foot F, rq-foot Eb, r6-foot C, and Is-foot Bb. They arc constructed
wit h a wide ly conica l bore, except for the necessarily cylindrical valve
system, and a very wide bell, details which, together with the large,
deep cup mouthpiece, facilitate the sounding of the lowest notes, in-
cluding pedal tones.
282
TH E T UB A 28J
Both types of valve arc used, rotary or piston, according to personal
pr eference. T he valve system is the regular three-valve system, plus
usually a fourth valve, occasionally a fifth, and in some cases even a
sixth valve.
THE FOl:RTH VALVE
N ormally the fourth valve lowers the pitch two and one-hal f tones,
a perfect {ourth . T he pitch difficulties encountered when using the
th ird valve in combination with first and second arc more pronounced
in th e larger instr uments than, for example, in the tr umpe t. Since the
four th valve can be made the right length to lower thc pitc h a perfect
fourth, it is most valuable as a substitute for the combi nation of first
and third valves, correcting the pitch of the sixth- and sevent h-valve
positions. Also it is a convenience for simplifying some fingerings.
Whi le it is true that the fourt h valve oilers an extension of the range
downward. the notes produced by combining the fourth with other
valves arc hopelessly sharp, unless the instrument posscsses automatic
mechanism for lengthening the valve tubing.
The four -valve finger ing as applied to the second harmonic of the
small Bb tuba (eupho nium) is shown below. T uba parts are regu larly
written at their actual sounding pitch.
o ,
!
!' .J
Fig. 86
By th e time the B ~ is reached, the accumu lated discrepancy in the
valve tu be length s amounts to at least a half ton e, so that the note will
sound C un less compe nsated in some way .
A fi ft h valve is sometimes added, most often lowering the pitc h a
perfect fifth and functioning in a manner similar to the fourt h valve.
A sixth valve may gi\-e aid to finger ing by transposing down a half
ton e. Individual tuba players han devised various systems involving
fr actional tube lengths and even combining high and low instrume nts
into a doub le tuba, in their efforts to solve the problems of intonation
and range.
284 INSTR U~I El"TS THE TUBA 28S

The first three valves arc op erated by th e right-hand fingers; the

fourth may be arranged for the right as well, or it may be located for
the left hand, along wi th ot her extra val ves.
~ J I I'
- - ch romaric

THE T UBA I:S 9-FOOT Bb

Except for some French tub as in 8-foot C, the smallest tuba in com -
mon use is that pitched in o-foor Bb, ge nerally called the euphonium,
or tenor tuba. Other na mes ar e: Fr., tu ba bssse, tuba ordinaire; Ir .,
tuba bassa, fiicorno basso; G er ., Basstuba, Tenortuba . It has usuall y
four valves, sometimes five. Range:
The pedal tones are of goo d quality but difficult. \Vith five valves,
the low F, E, and E b shown can be pr oduced as second harmoni cs,
without recourse to pedal tones. The w riter has w itnessed the pla y ing
on such a tuba of a complete chromatic series of pedal tones down to
and including th e l ~ -foo t Bb. It is risky , however, to write lower than
D. Notes higher than the eighth partial are inadvisable.

TU"O," TL'BA ~.
IN I b
c hro IJW:ic
THE TUBA IN I4-FooT Eb
1..::.-,,-=-:-_2.-_~ This tuba is known as the E b bass, or bass tu ba in E b. It has four or
pedal tones
five valves, and it is preferred by some to the F tuba because of its
Fig. 87. Tenor Tuba in B],
heavier tone and a slight advantage on the low no tes. Range:
The eighth partial may be exceeded by individual players. Likewise
the downward limit of the pedal tones produced in the valve position s
varies with player and instrument. The French tuba in 8-foot C, con-
.~~:.~ ~~~~~
~
chromatic
structed with wide bore and equipped with six valves. can produce 'pedil t~
tones as low as those customarily written for the larger tubas. Fig. 89. Bass Tuba in E b
The o-foor rube length is identical with that of the tenor trombone
and the horn in Bb alto. The bore of the tuba is much wider than in TH E TUBA I S I 6-FOOT C
these two instruments, placing its natural range rather lower in the
harmonic series. The euphonium is also a wider-bored instrument than This is the instrument design at ed by W agn er as the K ontrsbssstuba,
the baritone, a three-valved band instrument of the same length but and used by him as the bass of the gro up of Wagn er tubas, to be de-
more suited for higher parts. scribed later. It is also called the double C tub a (CC) , or co nt rabass
tuba in C. Man y players prefer this large instrum ent for general use,
alth ough its pon de rous to ne makes it more suitable fo r music in W ag-
THE TUBA IN I I-FOOT F nerian style t han, for instance, th e music of D ebussy and Ra vel. R ang e:
This is the most generally used all-around tuba, often called the
orchestral tuba in F. It is also referred to as the bombardon, or simply
the bass tuba. It may have four or five valves. Range:
286 I N S TR Ui\l E l' T S T HE TUB A 287

The pedal tone is possibl e bur very difficult to produce, and the
TOSE QUA LITY
valve tones jusr above it are unre liable. Notes above the eighth har-
monic had better not be written for this tuba. The deeper mouthpiece cup, and the greater conicity and wid th of
th e bore, give the tuba a smoot her, rounder, and less trenchant tone
than that of trumpets and trombones. Th ere is. in fact, more affinity
THE TUBA I N IS -FOOT Bb with the horns in tone quality, but by reason of tone-weight the tuba
M or e properly an instrument for military band, th is huge tuba is is rig htly associated with the " heavy brass," a group whose homo-
sometimes employed in the orchestra. It is known as the double B bass o geneity is by no means perfect.
(BB b), or contrabass tuba in Bb. Range: The tuba's resources in beauty of tone are best shown in soft, quiet,
legato phrases in the middle register.
~E2iI T J ,J J
(~I ~)-- chromatic - - - --
EX. 313. \Vagner-Eine Faust Onverture P' I, ed. Peters

~
pedal tone

Fig. 91, Contrabass T uba in Eb u~TUBA *#~

l'P .. ~

The pedal tone is barely possible. The ext remely heavy sound of Reprinted wit h the p",m i~;on of the copyri ght own"", C. Y. Pet",' Corporation, :-:e... York .

th is tuba makes it somewhat unwieldy for orchestral combination. It is

Low tones can be soft and unobtrusive, but the high register tends
capab le of a fine pianissimo, and if properly understood and skillfully
to have a shouting qua lity not easily subdued . W hen lo ud, the rone is
handled its good qualities could be used co musical advantage.
hearty and robust, capable of sounding ove r the orchestral tutti.

EMBOUCHVRE
EX. 3l4 . Strauss-Also Sprach 'Zaratbustra P' 105 , ed. Aibl

In playing the tuba, the lips are compressed or tense on ly in the high
'~ TC,,:, ~
Sol" lebhaft

I I J!
er
~
e-r ~.. ~
~
register. N or mally , they are rather loose and cushicnlikc, and are given
.(}' ~#. ~
added relaxation for lower notes by dropping the jaw. T he low est rones
Reprinted ....ith the permission of the cop yright o wners C. F Pe t.", Corpora tio n. New York .
requ ire the utmost looseness of the lips, while at the same time the ca-
pacit y of the lips to vibrate must be maintained.
THE MUTE
A n enormous amount of breath is called for, espec ially on the large-
sized tubas. It is not un common ro breathe for single notes, in slew- The tu ba mute is usually a large cone made of cardboard or other
moving nonlegato basses in the low register. A device for helping the light material, and over 2 feet high. It is used chiefly as a means of re-
holding of long bass rones was once tried, whereby air was conveyed du cing the volume of sound. The effect is muffled, becoming straine d
to the mouth by a tube connected ro a son of bellows wo rked by the in th e high registe r.
foot, but th is invention appears to have r emained a curiosity. Long
slurs and long held notes shou ld be used spariogly. EX. 3 15. Stravinsky-L' Oiseau de Feu P: 102, cd. Broude Bros.
J· ~ 80
C01I JOTd .

,v"' :Pi t
..,r 'I
Rep rod uced by pennlMion of J & W. Che. ter L td ., Lon don.

l.
288 INSTRUMENTS T HE TU BA 289
Trills are surprisingly good on the tuba, bur little use for them has
AGILITY
been found in symphonic music.
\Vere it not for the constant necessity for replenishing the wind
supply, the tuba could be said to be an agile instrument. The two ex- EX. 319. \ V agner- Prelude to Die M eistersinger
amples following show its rem arkable capacity for active movement in P: 43, ed. Philharmonia
th e low register. Sehr m.issig bewege ~ -e... ~

EX, 316. Hindcmith-Symphonic M etamorphosis BASS T \J BA g~Fh:=::S t rl~

P' 23, ed . Associated Mu sic Publishers "'/ crete.

Li\'C:ly J ::.1)6
It is to be expec ted tha t the tenor tuba can play lively figures wit h
~J~ more lightness and flexibility than can be had with the U:1SS tuba. The
following is an excerpt from the well-known characterization of
Co p yr ight 1945 b y A~iated M u s ic r u b li. h en . Inc .• :-:ew York. {;""ct b)" penni•• ion
Sanc ho Panza by Richard St rauss. The ten or tuba is wr itten as a trans-
EX. 317. Shostakovich-Sympbol1y no. 7 p. 95, ed. Leeds posing instrument . sounding a major second lower. This is a departure
Modn aro (poco allegretto ) from the usual custo m, whi ch is to w rite the parr at actual pitch.

:fln~p?S'B~RJ ~
-
m, EX. 320. Stra uss-Don Q uixot e P: 39. ed. Philharmonia

- ,...,

.J

r r

-
Cop yr ight 1945 by L<:ed . ~f u.ic Corporation, !\ ew York . U""d by permission.

\ Vide skips are negotiated with comparative ease, and are a means of
gaining interest and variety in the bass line. They may be slurred, as
-
in Ex. 3'4 or detached (Ex. 318) .

EX. 3 18. Ravel- La Va lse

Mouvt de Valse vienooee
P' 87, ed. Durand -

Rep r int .,.j WIth the pe rmlQtOn of !he cUPl nght [,,"n or. C f . Pett,. Cor po rllll ol\, Nt" York.
P~rm ;s~ion granted by L ur a n d et C ie" Paris, copyrigh t ovoners; Elkan -Vo gd, Philadel ph ia. Pa . a~fntl.
 290 INSTRU ,IIEN T S TilE TUllA 29 1

EX, 323. Stravinsky-J eu de Cartes p. I, ed, Schott

TO S G t:I~ G

Sing lc-, doublc-. and tripl e-tonguing may be empl oyed on the tuba.
., ~ ~ ~
> ~

T he foll ow ing exampl e of Bunce-tongu ing is quite unusual. , ~ - . ~

."
" f
EX. 32 1. Schocnbcrg-Er':~:JrtUng P' 64. cd . e niver sal > > >
m 1l DPt .
f l:Itt ",",--ullgr . ...
~--------
~;.
;~ ", M . ,~ I~~~
"
~ ~~

=; • f

no. ~
~ > > ~
~ :>-
, $
" I'" f~
,,>
•
.
>
~ ,
, .
>-> ' ,
., . _ ~ :> . . . ,.>
'N .
f ,","c. StUO

, ,"
~>
Cn p )'r il:hl 1911 b)' t"nj~~f'l;l l Edi tio n, ....i ~nna.; r~nc"'cd 1950 b y Arnol d ~ch<xnbt , . a m l Ed .. 'ard Steuer- » >
" "'.nn . l",...d by P<'rn li .. ion ItS .
~. u
" ~
The pianissimo staccato of the mba can be co mpared to the dou ble- I'" f
bass pizzicato. Sharp rhythmic to ngu ing may become hea vy and tend
to drag if co ntin ued long, especially in forte . no. ,
r. .
f
EX. 322. Mahler-Sympbony no. 8 p. 34. ed . Universal
>

-
~>
~

secco
..'" .-
>

Cop yrigh t 1937 by B. S,ho ll ' s S~hn ~, Ma in , . l: oed b y p~rT"i,"~ion

Cop yri,ht 191 0 and 1911 by L:nivcrsal Edi tion A. G.; ffn e...·cd 19J 7 and 1938 by Alma M&hler- Werfd .
lI'lf:d by !l<'rmiu i on.
The tuba participates in melodic basses of a br oad. expressive charac-
ter (Ex. 324), and is an indispensable adjun ct in pond erous, melo-
ORCHESTRAL USES
dramatic mu sical situ ations like th at in Ex. 325.
The most ordinary functi on of th e tuba is to contribute massive
solidity to the bass of the orchestral tutti, doubling other bass instru- EX . J24 . Prolw fietf-SY1l1pbony no. 5 p. J 2 , cd. Leeds
ments at th e unison or octave below. It often act s as bass of a quartet A ndmrc: . _
w ith three tromb ones, and as bass of the entire br ass ensemble, doubling TV.A ~® E $ · ::r
the bass tromb one, or perhaps the fourth horn. O ccasion ally, the tuba
. / rJptw .
alone supplies the bass to a wind grouping, as in the following example.
e:.Pyr ilh t 1 ~ b y Le<:dlo ~IU 1i' Cor po .ation, :-; ~ ... York . t".-ed by Permi.~;on.
292 I N S TR U M E N T S THE TU B A 293

By W llrlft,y or G. RltOl d i & Co .. cOPFigh t O...·nell

\ Vhen the tuba is used as a solo inst rument, the particular tuba
wanted- should be spec ified . In R avel's score of th e Pictures at an Ex-
hibition, the tuba solo is pr eferably played on th e euphonium, the small
Bb tuba. ye t the tuba part in the remainder of the score suggests that a
larger tuba should be used. T he solo (Ex. 326) is very difficult for the
F tuba, and players regularly usc two tubas in the performanc e of this
w ork.

EX. 326. A1oussorgsky-Ravel-Tableaux d'un e Exposition

P' 45. ed. Bocsey & Hawkes

Fig. 92. (lef t) Orchestral Tuba in F; (right ) \ Vagner Tuba in F

T HE WAG:SER TUBAS

~A
I
\ Vagn er planned to organize the brass section into four complete
Perm i~~i "n gr a n ted liy D u ra n d tl Clt _. Pari s. co p yr igh t ow lle....; l::lkan -Vo gd. P h ila d elp h ia , P il_. a,o:tnlS families, eac h having its distinctive tone color. The itorn gr oup was
completed by raising the number to eight, th e trumpets by the addition
One may conclude that the F tuba is probably the best all-around
of the bass trumpet, the tr omb ones by the addition of the contrabass
or chestral tuba. The smaller tuba should be regarded as an accessory
trombone; and finally an ind ependent family of tubas was conceived
instrument, to be specified in the score. The Eb five spaces below the
as consisting of two tenor and two bass tubas of a special typc, added
staff ( I4-foot Eb) is a safe botto m limit for all bass tu bas. T heir upper to the contrabass tuba pit ched in to-foot C.
limits vary, as has been seen, being in gene ral the eighth harm onic of
Th e ten or and bass tubas designed by Wagner, sometimes referred
th e ind ividual tu be length.
to as the Bavreuth tubas also called, in German, TValdhormuben, and
in Italian, corno tub e, arc rather more like horns than tu bas. They are
pit ch ed in c- foot BDand I a-foot F, hence t heir tube lengt hs are identi-
cal wit h horns in Bb alto and F, and with the euphonium and F tu ba.
The bore is wider than that of the horn, but not as wide as that of th e
 294 rx 5 T R U .\ 1E N T 5 THE TUBA 295
tuba . They arc equipped wirh horn mout hpieces. and the int ention was EX. P7 . Bruckner-Sy m pbollY 110. 7 P: 57, cd. Philh armoni a
th at t hey should be played as alte rnate instru ments by the fifth, sixth,
seventh. and eighth hornisrs.
T he \Vagn er tu ba is made in ellipt ical form. the bell point ing up and TE:S oa ,/" , ",
Sehr fciuIic h und Ian.....

---- • - i .... ~,

....,..
n:1l1L5 :1
to on e side (Fi g. 9 2). Four valves arc provided and arc sit uate d so th at
~ ., I ~ I .I I
p
CTr J&. d_
th ey may be opera ted with the lef t hand. as on the ho rn. The fourth
\ "3) \,(' is need ed to co rr ect pitch in the lower valve positions. a fu nction
..
~
I " .'

accomplished on the horn by the right hand in the hell. The ranges are ,
I"' i ....,..
I
I' r Ir
similar to those of horn s of th e same pitches.
T he tone of th ese instr ument s is strange and individual. imp ossible
CT"&.
---- d'"

to descr ibe. and not to be forgotten, once heard . It is a broad er. less
con centrated [One than the horn tone, and less suscept ible to modifica-
tion. Few composers after \ \ .agn cr han wr itten for the W agner tubas,
and few o rchestras possess th e instr uments. T he outstanding examples
~~

P --
CTrJ&.
__ ;~ ; 1:1 __ _~
r...,..
Ii"". ~ __il

of their use besides the Ring of the .\'ibellmgs are Strauss' Elektra, and T HE OPH ICLEIDE
the Seventh and X inrb Symphonies of Bruckner.
In the middle of the nineteenth century th e bass ophiclcide was com-
monly used to play bass parts. It is called for in scores ~Y ,\ t en.del~ohn.'
S OT.' TIOS Schumann, ~t ey erbeer, V erdi, and others, including \ \ .agne r III R,enZI.
These parts arc now played on the tuba, and the ophicleide has become
W agner's first notation for the se tubas was the logical one of writing
obsolete.
exactly as for horns in Bb alto and F, sounding a majo r second below
T he ophiclcide, in shape, resembles a met~1 bassoon, ~xccpt that it
for the tenor and a perfect fifth below fo r the bass. The bass clef
is much more widclv conical, the bell measuring about 8 inches across.
was used as in the "old not ation" for horns. Later he changed his nota-
The tube is pierced wit h large note holes, covered b~ padd ed ?is\".'S
tion to Eb for the tenor tubas (sounding a majo r sixth below), and fi b
operated by keys . Opening the holes shortens the rube as III wo~dwlllds.
basso fo r the bass tubas (sound ing a major ninth below) . The instru- Th e mouthpiece is slightly more cupped than the h?rn mouthpiece, and
merits were the same, however.
from each of the fundamentals obtained by ope nmg holes a few har-
In Bruckner's Seventh Symphony and in St rauss' Elelara, the tenor monics C3n be produced. It is said that the ophic lcide, whe n well
tu bas arc written in Bb, sound ing a majo r ninth below, th e bass tu bas
played, soun ded not unlike th e eup~onium .
in F, sounding an octave plus a perf ect fifth below (Ex . 327) . The bass ophiclcide is pit ched in either a-foot C or c-foot Bb, and
In his Ninth Sy mphony, Bru ckner wrote for the tenor tubas in Bb
its ran ge is similar to that of th e bassoon.
sounding a major seco nd lower, and fo r th e bass tubas in the bass clef
through out, sound ing a perfect fo urt h above the written notes.
T he follow ing is a familiar examp le of the \ Vagner tubas. T he unison
doublings by violas, 'cellos, and double-basses have been omitted.

C HAPTER S IXTEEN
.......
PERCUSS ION I:-:STRU .\IENTS
of percussion may be simply defined as t hose instru-
I
;o.;' ST Rl: '\ ' E:SlS
ments in which sound is produced by striking one object with
another. T he result, as concerns the art of music , varies with the
different instruments. from a pure musical tone to what all will agree
is a mere noise. " 'e shall deal only wit h instruments that have had a
fair amo unt of use by serious composers of orchest ral music. Further-
more, w e shall inclu de in t he category of pe rc ussion some inst rument s
wh ose playi ng technique is not of a per cussive nature, for the reason
that in practice th ey are assign ed to percussionists to play . Fin ally . al-
th ou gh t he piano is clearl y a percu ssion instrument, the key board in-
struments, excep t th ose play ed w ith mallets, will not be considered as
within th e pe rcussion sec tion.
The co mmo nest classification of percussion instruments divides
th em int o instruments of definite pitch (kettledrums, glockenspiel.
erc.} and th ose of inde finite pitc h (bass drum. cymbals. crc.).
A more scienti fic classification distin gui shes those wit h a vibrating
membrane (membranophones), suc h as t he var io us dru ms. an d t hose
of metal. wood, or other substances ca pable of sounding w hen struck
(idiophon es), suc h as cymbals and t riangl e.
The stu de nt of or ch estration will find a more useful guide to orches-
tral practi ce in a th ird classificat ion based on the regul arity w ith w hich
the instru ments are employed in the orchestra. In this classification
th er e ar e four groups:
(d) The sta nda rd percussion section- the instruments mos t ofte n
seen in t he largest number of scores, and most likely to be heard in an
,%
PER C U S SIO:" I:"STR U ,II E:"TS 291
average conce rt-s-ket tled rums, snare d rum, bass d rum. cymba ls. tri-
angl e, tambourine. gloc kenspiel, wood block. tam-tam.
(b) Au xiliary perc ussion instruments-instruments on ly occasion -
ally employed. to supplement or substitute fo r t hose in the stand ard
grou p--casranets. xylopho ne. teno r drum, tsntbour de Provence, bells,
an tique cym bals. vibraphone.
(c) Sou nd effects-mostly imitations, realistic or suggestive. ~f
ext ra-musical sounds. As t here is no limit to this group. a complete hst
is impossible-sleigh bells. sandpaper blocks, wind machine, rattle.
w hip. cowbells. anvil. siren. .
(d) E xotic instruments-for the most part. at present. Instruments
of Lati n-A merican origin-maracas. claves . gtiiro. bongos. timbales,
tom-to m. temple blocks.
KETTLEDRD.\IS
Fr .. timbales; It.• timpani; Ge r., Panben
The kettledrums. universally known by thei r Italian name. the
tim pan i, arc nea rly always spoken of in t he plural, since never few er
than t wo arc called for. In t he classical period, th e regu lar practice was
to specify a pair of timpa ni tu ned to toni c and domina nt. l~()da~' three
and four d ru ms nrc often de man ded . wit h nume rous alte rations In tun-
ing in the cou rse of a movement.
T he ket tledrum is of co ppe r and its hem ispherical shape resembles a
ke ttl e rest ing on a t ripod or stand. of which t he re ar e seve ral t y pes.
Stretched ac ross th e top is the c alfskin head. held in place by a meta l
hoop. an d adj ust able in tension by a set of tuning screws evenl y spac ed
ar ound th e circ um fer ence.
Tuning requires g reat skill and an unerring sense of pit ch . The tim-
pani st is consta ntl y retuning his drums. while the orchestra may be
playing m usic co mp let ely dissonant with the new tuning: In r~cent
y ears t he introd ucti on of mechani cal ket tled ru ms, or ped al tim pam, ~as
mad e this problem some w hat less difficult. By thi s inve nt ion th e tension
of th e dru mhead can be regulated with a foot ped al. so th at t he pit ch
may be c hanged eve n w hile playi ng. In Fran ce and Italy. s~me ke.t-
tied ru ms are made to be t un ed by rotating them on a vert ical axis.
a system th at lack s some of the advant ages of th e pedal timpani.
 298 I:\' STR U ~ l E :\' T S
Most orchest ra timpanists usc at least t w o mec hanical kettled rums.
and some have all thei r d ru ms thus equipped.
These developments have rendered unnecessary the practice of in-
dicatin g at the begin ning of t he sco re the numb er of timpan i need ed
and thei r initia l tuning. unless something o ut of th e ordinary is required .
such as five drums or more than on e player. Th e drumme r will. 011
looking over the pa rt . plan out which drums to usc. and the seq uence
of tunings. At the same time. the orchestrator needs to know on which
drum a ginn note is to be plaved. and what th e tuning problems are.
if the timpani :lTC to be used effectively.
SiZES
Allowing for slight departures du e to persona l preferences. the fol -
lowing :JrC the head diameters and pit ch ranges of the usual orchestral
timpani:
PER C U SS I O :\, IN S T R U ~ \ E:\' T 5 299
cot to n thread, wood. co rk, sponge. T he heads are sma ll, medium, and
large, and th ey vary in hardn ess, the hardest being w ood , the softest,
sponge . "luch variety in ton e quality and vo lume can be obtai ned w ith
the diffe rent sticks. lia rd sticks not on ly are louder but give greater
cl arity and defin ition to sof t rhythmic figures. Soft sticks produce a
w ar mer and more resonant tone. T he playe r selects the sticks most
suitable for the stvle of the work an d fo r t he special musical needs of
each pass:lge. Composers occasionally specify soft sticks (Fr., baguettes
d' epol1ge; Ir, bsccbeue di spugm; Ger., Scb-:..:.:.wnm cbl.'igel), or h.JTJ
n iclss (Fr., baguettes en bois; It., bsccbene di /egno; Ge r., H olzscbls-
gel).
DRL":\ l STROKES
T he stick rebounds aft er each st roke. X ormallv the hands alternate
in striking. hut each rhythmic pattern. whether on one drum or more
than one, will have its own set of conditions affecting the order of
striking (Fig. 9-1- ) . T he drums are arranged with the lower-pitched
drums at the player's left. All notes sound at the written pitch.

Fig. 93 Modcnro Allegro

There is a j r -inch drum. giving 8-foO[ C. Th e a j-inch drum (som e-

o.
times a a-inch ) ca n reach the upper B Stravinsky. in the Sscre du
I r l r

!lE~"~$JFF3~~rt§itzt8
Z== / I~
e •• r
•
I e I

•
r

/
1 , 1 I r l

m
1,1

Printentp s, has specified a tim p.mo piccolo, giving high ll:;, and R avel Allegrcno
I , , I , r
stipulates in VE nfam et les Sortileges a petite tim bale en re, soun d-
ing t he D above the sta ff; bur the se SITU II d rums, if available, certainly ~ H If I ¥ . 1
p
lack t he characte ristic reson ance and sono rity of timpani.
Fig. 9+
O verlap ping of the ra nges affords a cho ice of t wo drums within the
octave F-F. It should be appreciated, however, tha t th e best tone will The resonance of the timpan i is suc h t hat th e player has co nsta nt ly
be obta ined in th e middle of the ran ge of each drum, wh er e the head (0 stop prolo nged vib ratio n by touching the head o f eac h drum w it h
is neither too loose no r too taut. For example, t he 10"" F and F~ will th e fingerti ps. It is import ant t hat all not es to be staccato sho uld be
be of m uch better quality on the j o-in ch drum th an on th e as-inch . clearly marked as suc h. As a ll ad ded precaution, the Italian sccco ( dry)
mav be used with a single staccato note.
The kett ledrum roll is the drum's version of a sustained to ne. It is
STI CKS
made by t he rapid alternation of single strokes, and it is of powerful
T he timpanist sup plies himself wi th several kin ds of d rumsticks. The effect in the orch estra . T he ro ll is written as a trill, and its exac t lengt h
han dl es are wooden, and the head s of various materia ls-felt, flannel, must be carefully shown in the notat ion.
300 IN ST R U M E N T S PER C U SSION INSTR UM ENTS 301
c, EX. )2 8. T chaikovsky-Symphony no. 4 P: 64, ed. K almus
t.~ _. M od c nlfO _ai ~ ,
> > > ra., , . -----=--
~ .
IN 8~ II
I~~ 0.-: I V
P

In ( J ). each note is sharply accented , with a definite break in t he roll.

,
T he quarter note is of course a single stroke. In (b ) . the break in the .~ . II ~
roll, betwee n the measures. is unaccented, and is like a cha nge from P
do wn- to up-bow by the double-basses. In ( e), the roll is continuous,
terminating \,vithour accen t on the quarter note in the second measure.
All percussion instruments have t he fa culty of throwing inca relief
.- ,
l!ol F ,
• ,
" p
all dynamic changes. T hese should therefore be well calculated, and
indicated w it h all possible accuracy.
~
_ '- .. PI'
c...:... .. _ ~ __ ~
-~ - - _.--- .-
ORCHESTR.~L l:SES

• , , ,
The timpani ar c the only percussion inst ruments nearly always
present in a score. Their utility has been appreciated by <1 11 composers
II ...
:, ~ - :'- ~ i ........,., f~
10::::::., ~· ~
". '
in the history of or chestration. T heir most important functi on is th e
dynamic reinforcement of t he orchestral rurri, specifica lly of t he bass, Follow ing is a solo passage for fo ur drums, played by one play er.
to which they add col or and buoyancy as well . Rhyt hmic outlines are
underscored by the addition of timpani. EX. J29. Il olst- T he Planets P' 160, cd. Bcoscy & H awkes
So ft to nes arc effective in c ountless ways. In t he foll owi ng example Allegro 6---. ~ ~
the ket tledrums alone furn ish the ostina ro bass.
,,~ t£r;i4B#J~;i(~~~
" crete . .IY
l: u d by ptrmi ... ioll of J. Cur ..... ~ ... .\ SOil', Ltd .

T w o types of gl issando on th e mechanical drums arc shown in Ex .

330. At ( a), (b), and (c) , sing le strokes are given, eac h followed hy a
pedal movement cha ngi ng t he pitch of th e d rum, as indic ated, wh ile it
is srill in vib ration fro m th e single stroke. At (d), a roll is starred on the
G~, co ntinuing wh ile the pitc h is c hange d to C~ by th e pedal action .
 302 1:-: S T R U .\ 1 E:" T S P ER C U S SION II' STR U ,\I E :-: T S 30l
EX. 330. Bart(,k-Jlw ;c for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta Other special effect s includ e using snare drum stic ks on the timpani.
p. 68, cd . Un iversal striking ncar the edge of the head; and using tw o different sticks at
Ad.agio b. c. d , "" _
once.
~q .
•; .: ;\ la ny scores have called for large numbers of kettledrums, needing
.... .
." more than on e playe r. The Sc ene ;11 the Fields, in the Fantastic Sym-
I " ' r>l' r ; ~ hl 1'<3, by l ' n;>'u ",,1 b J 'l ' un. Co V} rillhl a ~~j ~n<'d 19.1<} 10 11........,. &. 113.. 1.. . 1.1<.1 \,'".,d L,
l><: , n ll ~ " "n . phony. by Berlioz. requires four players for four drums. The extreme
is doubtless reached in the score of the Berlioz Requiem, in which are
The following chroma tic passage is likewise for the pedal drum, but listed ten timp anists playing sixteen drums.
it is not a glissando. l t calls for a clear-cur pedal change on each half In th e following rhythmic passage, two players play five timpani, in-
step progression . cl uding t he timpsno picc olo.

ex . H 1. 1l' lndy-l olir d'F;te .1 IiI .U 0 1ltJg l1e 3H. Srravinskv-c-Le S,1Cre dn I'rinternps
EX. p. Il;, ed . Ru sse
A.::z ICTtt
j", 1: 6
"N' :)' , ', I+i1t£1iHf1:J41& :!jPj@ ,,~

PI CLOLO
g
IP ." l' . IP
.....,
f ~ ~- r-t~ ,
Sometimes the kett led rums arc muted IJ \, a doth or handk er chief I . 1. ~} . ,
I
- -
placed on the head opposite the striking point ( I£. coperti, covered }.
f
A t remolo may be performed on t w o drums. TI M !>
, , , ,
332. DelJussy-Suuges r-cd. jobcr r
E X. p. 1 I •
~
.\toocrc r
1<,,_ de }1 \l 5i<i" ~. Used by p¢rmi"!;on.

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CopYIlgh t 1921 b y Editi on

"M"
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"~ rn , i ,~ ;"n I" , "' I,,;n l ~r .a n lr<.l b~' E<lil;o ns j c~n j"I"' rt, [' M ;s, rr~ n (~ . r np )",illhl o ... n~ .. ; E1l.a n \,,~ ...
(:0.• Inc.. I ' h i l~ dd l, h ; ~. l 'a .• ~Il,: n ,s. TI IE S:"ARE DR U.\I
For more forcef ul accents, two d rums Illay be tuned to the same note Ident ific ation of the var ious kinds of snare drum indicated in sco res
and st ruck simultaneously, or both sticks may be used simultancnuslv is often problematical. The na mes have different meanings in different
lin rhc same d rum. Th e latter is meant in Ex. 333 . countries, so th at t ranslation s in printed scores arc someti mes mislead-
ing, and thi s is further complicate d by di vergent usage by both CO Ill-
E X. 333. ~' l a h l c r- SY 11lpbo l1Y 110. 4- p. 1+6, cd. Philha nu onia poser s and per form ers.
Pcsanre The term mare drum refers to the cha rac te ristic ap pa ra tus of gu t
(~dlu b~((h(N( :> :>
st rings , the snare s, stretched across t he under side of the lower drum-
t&~ £ii !e head and vibrating agains t it. Side drum is another ge nc ric term, derived
sr >~ ;:. >--;. ~ fr om t he pract ice of attaching the drum to a belt, an d to the right side
of t he player, for playing while marching. Dru m, in French, is caisse or
tambour; in Italian, CaH J or t-mtburo; in German, T ronnnel.

I
304 INSTRUMENTS PERCUSS ION I N S T R U ,\ I E :-I T S lOS
The French caisse claire is the smallest snare drum. being made to EX. 335. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra p. 29, cd. Boosey & Hawkes
sound as light and clear as possible. Stravinsky spe cifies large and small A1Ic~o scheeando
sizes of thi s drum in L'Histoirc du Sotdar. The name m are dru m usually 'WlIbvut """(1

means a drum slightly larger than t he ordinary caissc claire, and it cor-
responds to the Ital ian tantburo piccolo (Gcr.. Heine Trommct v. In
~UM II~d ; );Id 1 ffl lP ; B il m~
."
~ll'J ./)1 J J I J
French scores, tam bour and tambour nulitaire ( Italian. tantlntro mili-
tare) are used for snare drum, w her eas in En glish. military drum (also dim. .P
parade drum, field drum) usually means a drum larger than t he com- Copyrig ht 19~6 by ll u . kn &; Son (London) Lt d. l: ..,d b y pcrmi... ion .

mon snare drum.

Normally the drum is played with snares, maintaining its characteris-
Th e distin ctly larger and deeper side drum is call ed the tenor drum,
tic rattling sound and bright, dry tone .
or long dr um (Fr., caisse routome, It.. casse rullante, Ger., Rubrtr om-
The cylindrical shell of the snare drum, formerly of wood, is now
mel). It is the only side d rum wirhour snares, and so cannot properly
made of brass. Other side drums are of wood, as a rule. The two drum-
be call ed a snare drum.
sticks are of ha rd wo od, usually hickory, with oval- shaped tips. Sticks
T he tambour de flro"o'ence is a specia l reg ional dru m, suggestive of
with felt tips arc sometimes used on the tenor drum, and regularly on
revolutionary tim es, and best remem bered for its ostinaro pulsation in
the tamb our de Prov ence,
the Farand ole of Bizet 's L'Arlesienne, It is th e lon gest of the side drums,
and it is also some times ca lled lon g drum, or tab or . Its effect is usually
simulated by some other instrument or imitation. DRUM STROKES
In summary, it can he said that the standard small drum is th e snare
Music for snare drum, and for other percussion instruments of in-
drum, '4 or '5 inch es in diamete r an d about 6 in ch es de ep , and that
definite pitch, is written preferably on a single line, without clef, the
th e principal auxiliary is th e tenor drum (r nisse roulante'), a drum of
stems pointing either up or do w n. The regubr five-line staff is also
varying size, but about tv/icc as big as the snare drum, longer in pro-
used, since the manuscript paper on which composers work is alr eady
portion to its diam eter, and without snares. If other types are used, it
printed that way.
is well to explain them clearl y in a note in the score.
Drum strokes are combinations of single and double strokes. In the
The upper of the two parchme nt heads of the snare drum is call ed
double stroke, the stick rebounds and repeats the note . The most im-
the batter head, the lower is th e snare head . Th ey arc held in place by
porrant drum st rokes are the roll , th e flam, and th e drag.
hoops, and th eir tension is regulated by metal scre w rod s. Although th e
The roll is made up of rapidly alternating double strokes.
snare drum docs not gi\'e a tone of definite pit ch , it is an inst rument of
fairly high indefinite pitch, due to the action of the snares , whic h seem
to double the frequency of the vibrations. By means of a leve r th e snares
..
2
can be loosened , wh ereupon the pitch of the drum drops ro ug hly .1Il rrllrr lIttl l t t l l r
octave , and t he tone becomes some thingc like a torn-rum, or Indian Fig . 96
drum. This effect is called for by' marking the part "'..~.:if/)oi/t snares (h.,
scordato or senza cordc y, The second movement of Bartok's Concerto In Fig. 96 are shown two ways of writing the roll. At (a), it is writ-
for Orchestra begin s and ends with a phrase for snare dru m alone, t he ten as a tremolo (in drum notation the three crossbars mean a roll , not
snares loosened. necessarily thirty-second notes) . The notation (b) as a trill, has the ad -
vantage of showing the exact duration of the roll more vividly. In (c)
306 IN STR U ,II E NT S PE RCUSS I O N I N STR U ,\I E:-.'T S 307
the met hod of playing the roll is shown, righ t and left sticks alte rnat ing , posers in the matter of pr oper notation of drum music. It is most im-
with double strokes. T he roll could just as well begin with the lef t port ant that the composer's intentions be made as clear as possible to
stick. th e performer. Rh yt hmic differences arc especially pronounced where
R olls are kno wn by th e number of strokes ma de, counting the rerm- percussion instruments arc conc erne d.
inating single stroke. The roll in Fig. 96 is a seve nteen-stroke roll. Short
ro lls arc shown in Fig . 97 at ( a) , th e three-stroke roll . and (b), th e EX. 336. Proko fi c ff--SY111pbol1Y no . ) P: 6 2, cd. Leeds
five-stroke roll. Allegro ruarcaro

IJ. written II. pbyed

nM,"'~
M'UT"n
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i I I II Iffi' \ IWr ~i i Ifl i I I
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i 11 11 I Il.'~
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Cop)'righl 1916 by Leed s ~1usic Cor pora ti on . S~W
."
"' 011<. t: sc.d by pe rmission,
II r r lit
Fig. 97 T he rim shot, sounding like the repon of a pisto l, is made L.\Tplacing
the left stick with its tip on the head of the drum, the middle of the
The {l1.fl1l is the common stroke fo r a single accented note. " 't itreo
stick resting on th e rim, and striking it sharply with the right stick.
as a note preceded by a single grace note (F ig. gSa), it is played with
The direction to play on the rim pr odu ces an effect on the wooden
t he hand that is to strike t he principa l note held high er than the other.
dr um, but the rim of the metal snare drum has little sonority.
Although both st ick s hit practically at once, t he principal note receives
Th e snare dru m may be muffled by covering th e Latt er head with a
the accent. T his is called a closed flam. \\'hen the gra ce note falls on
cloth ( Ir., coperto). Anot her spec ial effect is obtained by using wire
the beat; it is an open flam. The open flam is not often used.
bru shes in place of drumsticks, making a rustling or shuffling sound.
.. b. c. d.
Th e sna re drum gives sharp ness and clearness of outline to rhy thm ic
figu res and acce nts in the orchestral tutti. T he ro ll is a valuable sup-
ii ~ It ) I W
It li t
flji
IItlt I~ port to a crescendo, although its effect becomes du lled quire soon if
Fig. 98 pr olonged. It is a commo n mistake to regard drums as suitable only
for loud passages. The snare dr um is outstandingly adapted for the
The drag (or ruff) gives a heavier effect than th e flam. It may han con cise execu tion of rhy thmic pattern s in soft dy nami c nu ances.
two grace notes before the beat, play ed with a double stroke (c) , or
more; as in (d ); and using single strokes. EX. 337. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagn ole P: 47. ed. Durand
T he paradiddle is not a kind of stroke, but an arrangemen t of single .nime
strokes to cause accents to fall alt ernately to right and left sticks (Fig. TA MllOt:R
A5sa.
~'~"n~1"fI'r"f.,...;~+-~~~::rt'rb'1"'~~ •
99)· pp
P~rmlss ion gr anted b )" D u rand ~t Cle.• Par is, copyrigh t o ,,"ners; Elk a n .Yo gd , Philad~lph ia, Pa., a gent s
'4
14
1
rnJ [J"'JJ I Q'TI nnf=-
t l r t l t l l tltrlrl! The drum strokes used on the snare dr um are employe d on all ot her
Fig. 99 side drums, as well as on other per cussion instruments played with
snare drum sticks.
By means of the flam, drag, and single stroke, var ious rhythmic
nuances are conveyed. Drummers arc in the habit of using th ese strokes
even when they are not written, because of the negligence of com-
308 INSTR UMENTS
THE BASS DRUM
Fr., grosse caissc; lr., cassa, gran cassa; Ger., grosse T rammel
Th e ba ss drum is made in sizes va ryi ng. in diameter of th e head. from
about 24 inc hes to 36 inches, and even 40 inches for big band drums. In
the symphony orchestra th e usu al bass drum has a diameter of 30 inch es,
th e she ll being 16 inch es wid e. more o r less. It has no snares. and th e
t w o parch ment heads arc caref ully " runed"-t hat is, ad juste d for t heir
best reso nance, by sc rew handles space d around th e rim. Th e d rum
is supported o n a specia l stand, or it may be eq uipped with sp urs to p re-
vcn r roll ing. since it is in an u p rig h t pos ition. t he hea ds in a ve rt ical
plane . .~1 o s t drummers phy w ith the rig ht hand , although th e bass d ru m
may be str uck on eith er head .
The carry ing pow er of the bass d rum is gr eat er t han that o f any other
orchestral inst rument. It is o ft en remark ed tha t its so ft ton es are felt
rather than heard, like some of th e de epest orga n pipes. \ \ "hile it is an
instrument of indefinite pitch, it f requently g ives th e illusion of so und-
ing the fundamental note of har monic groupings pl ay ed by high er in-
struments.
The bass drumstick (Fr., maillocbe; Ir.. ntm aa; Ger., K loppel) has
a wooden handle, with a fairl y so ft , larg e knob. mostly of felt. Th e
head is struck an upward or down ward glancing blow, and th e d ru m's
resonance is such that its vibration ma y need t o be sto pp ed by dam ping
with the left hand. Notes of different len gths may th er efore be written .
F or a sho rt, secco note, the damping is effected b y both the left han d
and the stick. which is kept against the head on striking.
Because of a slight lag in the bass d ru m 's responst', t he play er has
to anticipate the conductor's beat in order to so und in time. This slow-
ne ss in speaking is also detrim ental to quickly repeated notes, an d
rhyth mic figures of any co mplexity are distinctly unsuitable for t he
bass drum. The roll, written either as a trill or as a t remolo, is per-
formed b y holding th e stick in the middle and st riking altern atel y wi th
butt and knob. or with a double-headed stick, or wi th two st icks , strik-
ing the two drumhead s alt ernately. The roll is also pla yed on the bass
d rum with two timpani st icks, the effect being like a roll err a ke ttle-
drum of extraordinary depth in pitch.
PER CU S SIO;-.l I;-.lSTRU ,\IE;-.IT S 309
The bass drum may be w rit ten on a sta ff. w ith bass clef , or on a single
line, lik e th e snare drum .
Spec ial effects arc obtain ed by using snare d r um Slicks. v, ire brushes.
or bt:atin g th e drum w ith a bundle of birch rods ( C er., Uut h.: ). .\ (uf-
ftin g is accomplished by slackeni ng th e t ension on the heads. :\ k ind o f
dam per at tachme n t. regulat ed by a thumbscre w. has been invented for
the bass dru m .
T he uses o f th e bass drum arc dynamic, rhy t hmic, an d colorist ic. Irs
effe ctiveness is in versely proportionarc to the fr equen cy of its appear-
ance in t he score. Bass d ru m parts co ntain fcv..· notes.
T il E Cn ID,\LS
Fr ., cyrnbatcs; Ic.. pi/Wi, cineiti; Gcr., Bccleen
C y mhals, usu ally Turkish by tra dition. arc made of a brass alloy, in
mat c hed pa irs, in various sizes, and in grades of thickness from papcr-
thin to heavy. The cymba l player of a symphony orchestra genera lly
uses two pairs. one 15 or 16 inch es in di ameter. the ot her r8 inches.
The cym bals arc not entirel y flat, but slightly convex. so that jus t th e
o ut er edges t ouch. T he ce n t ral po rti o n o f th e disc is raised in a dome
shape, and at the very center a hol e is drilled to allow for th e att ach-
ment of a leather st rap by which the cymbal is held.
The tone of the cymbals is ringing and brilli antly metalli c. Small
and thin Chinese cymba ls used in d ance ba nds ( 13 and '4 inches) give
a sou nd desc ribed by t he ir t rade nam es s-cisb cy mbal an d sizz le cy mbst,
b ut th ese are not available in the sy mphony orc hestra cxcept by special
sp ecificat ion .
The normal single note stroke is the two-plate stroke, t he dashing of
th e t w o cymbals together w ith a swinging, brushing mo vement, not
a di rect face- to-face blo c..·. A lou d two -pl ate stro ke will cause the
cy mbals to sou nd fo r an astonishing It:ngth of t im e if they ar c held in
the air . This effect is indica ted by a tic from the note with no not e fo l-
low ing , or by t he words let ring (Fr..laisser vibrcr, It., lasciare vibmre;
G er .. klingen lassen). Sometimes a dotted line is used to show the dura-
tio n of sound wanted. Tn pianissimo the two cymbals arc barely touche d
or brushed to g ether. or t he so und may be created by merely pu lling
t hem apa rt.
310 JNSTRU~ IENTS
The staccato two-plate stroke is made by striking the cymbals
smartly together and immediately damping by touching them to the
chest. Repeated clashing makes the two-plate roll, indicated as a trill
or tremolo, and marked 2 cym., to distinguish this rather crude effect
from the roll on a single cymbal.
The single cymbal, suspended on a specially constructed b racket,
gives a variety of tone colors and rhythmic effects. It may be struck
with a snare drum stick, a timpan i stick (hard or soft), with a meta l
triangle beater, or even with the fingers. A special effect is the dance
band choke, in which the left hand grasps the cymbal, stopping its vi-
bration with each stroke of the stick. \ Virc brushes and the blade of a
penknife have been used on the suspended cymbal.
" !hen two sticks arc employed with the suspended cymbal, it is usu-
ally for the roll. T his is best done with soft timpani sticks. T he sticks
play on opposite sides of the circumference of the cy mba l, to keep it
in balance. H aving a dynamic range from the softest whisper to a trip le
forte of incand escent power, the cymbal roll is a brilliant means of
adding excitement to the orchestral crescendo. N eedless to say, it is
easily overused.
The cymba l part may be written on a single line or on a staff wit h
bass clef.
THE TA~l -TAM
This instrument, called by the same name in French, Italian, and
German. is also called t he gong. T he gong is of Far Eastern origin, and
t hose of Chinese make are preferred to T ur kish ones. It is a bronze disc,
larger th an a cymbal, with the rim turned down all arou nd, pr event-
ing t he outer edge from vibrating. \ Vhen the instrument is struck
gently, with a stick having a soft, chamois-covered head, the vib rations
start in the center and seem to grow, giving off un predictable over-
tones. It is extremely violent when struck with force .
The large tam -tam is 28 inches in diamete r. Some orc hestras have
also a smaller one measuring about 20 inches, and com posers occasio n-
ally stip ulate large and small, or low and high, tam-tams. Each is freely
suspended in a square or circu lar frame .
T he sound has been described as dramatic, evocative, quivering, and
PERCUSSION INSTRU~lENTS 3II
om inous. Soft strokes arc the most effective. Spec ial tone colors are
obtained with various sticks, such as the triangle heater. The tam-tam
should be used very sparingly, and the intended duration of sound
should be carefully marked. The part is written on a single line or on
a staff .
THE T AMBOURINE
Fr., tambour de Basque; It., t,11I1buTO basco, tamburino;
Ger., Scbettentronnnvt, T amhurin
T he tambourine is a small dr um, commonly 10 inches in diamete r,
with a single calfskin head. In the na rrow wooden shell are openings. in
wh ich are set on wires pairs of thin brass discs, called jing les.
The playing technique of the tambourine includes the following
resources:
( 0) The left hand holds up the instrument by the rim; the head is
struck wit h th e right-hand knuckles, fist, fingertips, or the back of
the hand. or it may be struck on the playe r's knee . Single strokes and
rhy th ms are played in this way, the jingles sounding a kin d of echo to
each stroke.
(b) T he tambourine is shaken in the air, causing on ly the jingles to
sound. This is called t he jing le roll. It is notated as a tremolo , sometimes
as a trill.
(c) The tip of the right thumb, moistened, describes an arc on th e
head in such a way that it rebounds several rimes, causing both head and
jingles to sound. This is called the thu mb tril l. It is recommende d that
the tremolo notation be reserved for the jingle roll, and the tr ill mark
for t he thumb trill, adding the wo rds sbaken or -unth tbe thumb, to
avoid confusion. Some players pur rosin and other substances on the
head to help in achieving the thumb trill.
(d) T he tambourine is laid, head up, on th e player's lap or on a
chair, and figures arc played near the rim with the fingers or with drum-
sticks.
The first three manners are combined in all kinds of rhythmic pat-
terns, (a) and (b) being most used. T he part is written on a single line
or on a staff with treble clef.
l12 INSTR U .~IENTS
The tambourine is w ell est ablished as a symphonic percussion instru -
ment, and its use is by no means limit ed to musica l ideas with Spanish
or Italian flavor . Its color is bright , lively , and festive. th e jingl es con-
rr iburing a spa rkle to th e pe rcuss ion ensemble. Also, it is an instrument
w ort hy of stu dy for the m:m)' delicate effects it can provide. The cam-
bourine without jingles is ra rely used.
THE WOOD BLOCK
The w ood block, also calle d C hinese block , is of Chi nese origin and
has been used orchestrally chie fly by American composers in t he
t wentieth century. It is a rectangu lar blo ck of resonant w ood . wit h a
reson ating cavity made by cutting a slot through the block. Three sizes
are usu ally made. 6 % inches, 7 y:? inches, and 8 inch es in the longes t
dimension. A hook is provided for attach ing the block to some co n-
venie nt object.
Sna re drum sticks or xy lophone mallets are used to give single taps ,
or to play rhy th ms on t he surface of the block , ove r the slot. The tone
of th e wood block is high in pitch. hard. and ~ollow . Its indefi nite pitch
varies w ith the size of the block. The pan is on a single line or staff.
THE CASTANETS
Fr.. castagnettes; It., castagnett e; Ger., Kastagnetten
The true Spanish casta nets ( castaliu e/.H) arc holl owed-out shells
of hard wood, as ebony or rosewood. Two pairs arc used in playing,
one smaller t han th e ot he r, a pair in each hand . A st ri ng, passing
th rou gh holes in t he castanets, is w ound aro und t humb and finger in
suc h a w ay t hat th e two shells can he clicke d togeth er. Great skill and
art arc exhibited by native play ers and dancers, involving t he exploita-
ti on of tone co lor as w ell as rh ythm ic virtuosity .
T he orchestra l castanets cannot be said to accomplish more t han a
suggestion of the e ffect of the native instrument s. A pair of castanets
is hinged on th e end of a handle, by means of whi ch they arc shaken
like a rattle. As is to be expected, castanets arc used most of ten to play
Spa nish dance rh ythms, bur th eir click ing sound has occasionally been
PER CUSSION INSTRU ,\IENTS III
empl oyed for purely rh ythmic purposes in absolute musi c. The part is
on a sing le line or a sta ff.
THE TRIA:\'GLE
Fr .. trim gle; lr., trisngolo; Ger., T riangel
T he triangle is a bar of round steel be nt inro the shape of an eq ui-
lateral triangle . .....ith one corner open. A numbe r of different sizes are
made, t he average orchest ral t riangle measu ring abou t 6 ~ inches on
th e side . T he left hand holds the triangle by a string passed through
one of t he closed corners, w hile the righ t hand strikes it with a short
metal rod. called t he triangle beater. Two beaters can be used if the
triangle is hung on a support. such as th e music stand . T o obtain soft
effects. a wooden stick may be used fo r a beate r.
Single strokes usually arc made on the base of t he t riangle. but some
di fferences in loud and soft nu ances are obtained by st riking ot her
poi nt s. The t riangle tri ll. writt en as a trill or tremolo. is performed by
rapid st rokes back and fo rt h with in th e uppe r ang le. Effects similar to
th e flam and th e drag may be used . as we ll as other rh yt hmic figures.
alth ough these will he more or less blurred by t he co ntin uous vibration
of the triangle.
The tone of t he t riangle is high . clear. and luminous. adding bril-
liance. sparkle. and gaiety to t he orchestral co lor. It is most pen et rating.
and ca n be heard in th e loudest t utt i. The t riang le is an inst rume nt of
indefin ite pit ch (a lthough some t riang les w rongly give a de finite not e ),
bur it will sound like up per pa rtials of wh ate ver fund amental harmony
it accom panies.
The triangle is of such outstanding effect that it must be used with
extrem e economy . The trill is especially liable to abu se, and in modern
times the triangl e trill possesses an unfortunate resemblan ce to ce rtain
elect ric bells, th e telephone bell in particu lar. The part is writt en on
a singl e line or staff.
314 I I' S T R U .\ 1E I' T S
THE GL OCKE:\SPIEL
Fr., jell de timbres, carillon; Ir., csntpsnctt i; Gcr., Gtocleenspiel
T he modern glockenspiel, commonly known as "the bells," consis ts
of thirty oblong steel slabs mo unted in a portable case. \ " hen the case
is unfolded flat on a tab le. t he arrangement of t he slabs presents the
appearance of a piano keyboard. Each piece of steel is tuned by size
so t hat a chromatic scale is available, sounding two oc taves above the
following writte n range:
J'
4"- '
Fig. wo
Some instruments arc made \\.. ith a few mo re semitones above or
below, bur it is adv isable to observe these limits. If the part is writ ten
on ly one octave below th e sounds, a note to that effect sho uld be ginn.
The sticks, called mallets, are ligh t, wit h small round heads. Th e
heads are of seve ral kinds, hard rubber, soft ru bbe r, yarn, w ood, and
even metal. Normally the glockenspiel is called upon to play only
sing le melo dic lines, using one stick in each hand, but it is poss ible for
each hand to hold rwo or three mallets to play chords.
The tones of the glockensp iel arc bri ght and silvery, like small bells.
It is ofte n difficult to say wit h certainty in w hich oc tav e its pitch is
loc ated, especially with t he high notes. Act ive figures are bl ur red by
overlapping of the sounds, but t his is a characteristic, not a defect.
Foll ow ing are two examples of part s for th e glockenspiel.
EX. 338. Debussy-La M er
fE W ~E 'cr Em r7vrJa ~
pp
P~rmis.i on l;ranl ed by lJ u f ~ n d el Ci e., P"ri,;, ro PFigh l " wners ;
P ER C U S SIO:-J II' STR U .\I ENTS 315
EX, 339- ~1a hl c r-SY JlJp h o l1 Y no. 4 p. 4 5, ed. Philharmo nia
In its earlier fo rm. the glockenspiel was an inst ru ment playe d wit h
both hands on a key hoard (used by ,\f o Z;lrt in Tbe M agic Flute). T he
kevcd glockenspiel still exists, and must be used to play parts th at can-
not he executed w it h mallets, T he mailer instrument is, however, much
superior in dynamic range and tone quality .
THE VlBRAPHO:\E
A n American dev elopment of the glockenspiel, used mostl y in dance
ban ds. is the vib raphone, played w ith ma llets on ste el bars. but der iving
its indivi dual sound from resonating tu bes and a vibrating apparatus.
Und er eac h bar is a resonatin g tube. closed below like a stoppe d pipe
and tuned to t he note above. A disc is fitted to th e ope n top end of
each resonator. and these discs arc made to revol ve hy an elect ric
motor. T he vibrato ind uced by t he revol ving discs prolongs the sound
and , together w ith t he resonat ing tubes, creates a slowly pul sating tone,
which has been liken ed by its adm irers to t he sound of an impassioned
hu man voice. It is rat he r like a 'vox bununo stop on the organ, and it
may be because of its exaggera te d swee tness that so few co mposers
ha ve sought to introd uce it into t he sym phony or chestra.
The range of the large vibraphone is four octaves up wa rd s from
p. 113, ed. D ur and a-foot C, usually w ritte n at actual pitch. Th e instrument is equip ped
with a foot-operated damping devi ce, in action mu ch lik e t he piano-
forte damp er pedal.
El l a n ,V ,,~ el . l'hi la d el p h ia, I'a .. a gen ts
J 16 INS T R U .\ 1 EN T S
BELLS
Fr.. clocbes; It., campane; G er.. Glocleen
Repeated attempts to comply wit h com posers' specifications for th e
usc of real, deep-toned church -rower bells in th e or chestra have been
unsu ccessful ch iefly because of th e enormo us Si7_C requi red in a bell
to sou nd low tone s. It wo uld be out of the qu estion to 1110 v e into a
concert hall a bell big enough to sound low er th an middl e C. Bells
have what is called a hum tone, sounding an oc tave below the fund a-
mental. or striking to ne, bur it is not relatively stro ng enough to pitch
the bell in th e lower oc tave. In most cases some kind of imit ation has
been devised, and wh ere actual bells are used th e notes are far hic hcr
in pitc h than th e composer 's directi on s would indicate. "
In general use as a substitu te for real bells arc the tubula r bells, or
chimes. T hese are hollow rubes of steel . from I to 2 inches in diameter.
var yi ng in lengt h according to pitch. and hung upon a wood en fr ame.
A set of tubular bells usually has a chromatic range as follows:
Fig. 101
A few sernirones above and below th is range can be provided by
having extra tubes made. The part is writ te n as in Fig. 10 1 . and sounds
at th e w ritten pitch .
The tube s are set in vibration by striking with a special hammer at
a point near the top.
The uses of the bells are for the most part dram atic and realistic.
Composers have always shown great interest in bell sounds, and the
student of or chestration would find it profi table to make a special study
of th e many ways these effects have been suggested with combinations
of orc hestral colors.
P ER C USSION INSTRUMENTS JI 7
TH E ANT IQUE CYMBALS
Fr., crotales, ey mbalcs antiques; It., crotali; Ge r., antiken Z imbefn
T hese modern replicas of ancient G reek instruments are small discs
of brass, some not mo re t han a hand 's breadth in diameter, thicker tha n
or dinary cymbals. wi th a raised cent erpiece by which to hold them.
Th cr arc m~de in pairs, exac tly shaped fo r specified pitches. In play ing.
on e 15 held m each hand. th e rims are struck rogcrher gently. and the
pair are allowed to vibrate. It can be seen that t wo different notes in
q uick succession.wou ld require two players. each with a pair of cym-
bals. T he sound IS a very clear and delicate bell-like tone.
Fig. 102
Figure 10 2 gives four exam ples of th e pitches w ritten for ant ique
cy mbals by four composers.
(a) Berlioz-Romeo et Juliett e, two pairs, sound ing as writt en.
( b) DeLJ ussy-L'A pres-midi d'un Fsune, sound ing an octave above .
(c) R avcl-Dilplm is et Chloe, six pairs, sounding an octave abov e.
(d ) Stravinsky-c-Ler N oces, "a ctu al pitch" noted in the score.
T HE XYLOPH ONE
Fr., xylophone; It., xiloio no, siloiono; Ger., X ylophon
The xy lophone is like a glockenspiel except that the bars are made
of ro sewood instead of steel, and modern instru ments are furnished
with perpendicular resonator s un derneath the bars. T he bars may be
flat or ro unded. The ranges of small, medium , and large xy lopho nes
arc as foll ows:
Fig. 103
ll8 I :-i S T R U ,\ 1E :-i T S P E R C U SS I ON I I' S T R U ~ I E :-iTS l l9
T he sounds are an octave above the written notes. T he exact octave,
especially of tipper roncs, is hard to determine , and oc tave transposi- SOUND EFFECTS
tions are freely used by players not possessing th e largest instrument.
Sleigh Bells (F L, grelots; lr., sonagli; G eL, Scbellrn) : real sleigh
The playing technique is similar to that of the glock enspiel. with
bells, also known as jingles, shaken or jogged by hand (i\1ahler- Sym-
round-headed mallets made in varying degrees of hardness and re-
silience. Some players become specialists on the xy lophone, and as such phony no. 4 ) .
Rattle (Fr., crecelle; lr., raganella; Ger. Ratscbcv- ratchet, whirled
develop a dazzling virtuosity. The tone cannot be called expressive, but
around by a handle, causing a wooden slat to flap against a wooden
rather it is dry and brittle, w it hout lasting resonance. Rapid scales,
cogwheel (Smuss-Till Eulenspiegcl) .
arpeggios, and figuration come out clearly without blurring.
W ind Macbine (F r., eolipbone; lr., eotiiono; Ccr., Windmoscbine),
The xylophone can be used for short solo passages, and it has many
large cylinder, contrived to make a whirring sound when turned by a
orchestral uses of a rhythmic, dynamic, an d co loristic nature. T w o
crank. Tu rni ng faster makes a crescendo and a rise in pitch (Ravel-
examples of xy lophone parts follow.
Dapbnis et Chloe).
EX. 340. Debussy-Gigues p . 29, ed. D urand IVhip (Fr. , [ouet; Ir., frusta): imita tio n of the crack of a w hip, by
clapping smartly together tw o hinged flat pieces of wood, also called

m. ~t':_ slapstick (Milhaud-c-Scccnd Symphonic Suite).

Among ot he r sound effects found in scores arc: sandpaper blocks,
rubbed toge ther to make a shuffling sound; anvils, struck with a ham-
chains, shaken or dropped to the floor ; cowbells of various sizes;
mer '' .
sirens, automobile horns, and assorted isbistles; imitations of birdcalls,
P er m l•• io n gr anted by D ur and et Cie., P u is. copyr iRht owners; Elk a n ·\'ogd, Ph ila d el p h il , Pl_. 19m ts. lion's roar, thunder; t he ticking of clocks; and the breaking of glass.
EX . HI. Copland-Appalachian Spring P' 60, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
"'=0 , , ' I EXOTIC IN STR U;llE:-iT S
L ATI N - A M ERI CAN :
.6 stCCO
Afaracas: a pair of medium-sized gourds, held one in each hand. T he
Copyr ight 1945 by Haw kes & Son (London) LI d l'sed by permi~sion
dried seeds inside rattle when th e gourds are shaken.
T he marimba may be describ ed as a more mellow xylophone. Its CI,1'Ves: a pair of short round sticks of hard wood, held so t hat the
resonating tubes are pitched an octave lower than th ose of the xylo- hollow of one hand acts as a resonating cavity when the sticks are
phone, and t he larger instruments have a four-octave range, starting st ruck toget her.
with a -foot C. The tone of t he marimba is warm and expressive, suit - G iiiro: a large gourd, sounded by scraping a stick ove r a series of
able for solo melodies. It has been used but rarely in the symphony no tches cut in th e upper surface (F r., rape guero).
orchestra, although solos with orchestral accompaniment have been Bongos: a pair of single-headed dru ms playe d by thumping wit h th e
written for it (Pau l Creston, D arius i\ lilhaud ) . fingers.
T imbales: a pair of sing le-hea de d dru ms larger than bongos, attach ed
to a special stan d and played with drumsticks, also called rom-to ms.
320 IN STR U ,\ 1E NTS P ERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 321
EX . 342. Ravel-Dllphnir et Chloe p. 307, ed. Durand
CHrXESE:
Anim'
Chinese T om-T01l1: a small drum with two pigskin heads tacked on a
lacquered shell, played with hard or soft drum sticks.
T emple Blocks: a set of five, tuned appro ximately to a pentatonic
scale, and mounted on a rail to be attached to the bass drum or a special
stand. The block s are wood, generally round in shape, with slots or
indentations, and usually lacqu ered a bright red. The mallets have flexi-
GROSSE
ble rattan handles and round heads of felt; or snare drum sticks may CAISSE

be used. The sound is hollow , between that of a gourd and that of a

wood block.
CAI SS[
I NDIAN : Q.A IRE

Indian Drum, or T0111-To111: similar to the Chinese tom-tom, but

with a single head fastened over a wooden bowl.

TilE P ERCU SSION EX S E~IBLE

Percussion instruments make their effect not only as individuals but

also as a unit, in which the effect of the whole may be describ ed as the Perm in ion granted by Durand et Cie., Paris, cop},tight ow ne....; Elkan -Voge l. Ph ilad~lph i a, Pa ,. agenla.
total of the effects of the parts. For example, when several percussion
instruments participate in a tutti passage, the fundam ental parcern of The followin g is an example of unusual and imaginative scoring for
the rhythm is not played in unison by all, but each contributes a por - percu ssion ensemble.
tion according to its individual nature. It is to be not ed in the following
example that no two instruments are given the same rhythmic pat-
tern , but that all combine to create the over-all rhythmic design.
This skillful treatment results in a maximum transparen cy and vitality,
with changing tone colors, pitch levels, and, even more important,
tone weight s, on each successive eighth-note beat.
322 I:-: S T R U ,\ 1 E l':TS
EX . 343. Hindemith-Symphonic Metamorphosis
p. 37. ed. Associated Music Publishers
-
CHAPTER SE\'E:"TEEN

T1MPOJI

, dtm. THE HARP

," Fr.. harpe; It., arpa; C er., Hart e
CH IMES

Iff ,.. dim.

~

, I . I I
TIlI-\SGL£ "
TOM-TOM
Irt , HE nineteenth -century ch rom:lt~c harp. having scp:trate strings

T
I.l.I I, I I.l.I I I
P dIm. for each half ton e. and also th e diatonic sing le-action harp,
, • are now entirely superseded by the far mo re versat ile diato nic
WOOO-BLOClt
SMAll. CYMBAL doubl e-action harp. This harp has fortv-scvcn strings tuned to the dia-
SMALL GONG
J r
P dlm·PJI
~ r tonic scale of C b major, wi th the follo win g range:
a.. r2:

'C
C-IN '<e- Dol.
W

"" Fig. 104. Harp

W
The strings are tun ed with a key, fitting pins situated on the right-
I" "" hand side of the neck of the harp. Tuning is often necessary in the
I~ _~ course of a piece, and it can even be accomplished while notes are being
------./
1'1'
played by th e left hand .
• I
"" From middle C up, the strings arc now made of nylon. The others
, are of gut, the eleven lowest being wound with wire. As a help to the

"
, . 1'1"

""
player in locating the right strings, the unwound C-strings are colored
red, the F-strings blue .

~,~
- ~ ,~
- ~ I -,",

Copy r igh t 1945 b y Associated lIl u s ic Publi . hcrs, Inc ., :-:ew Yo rk t:...,d by permission .
The harp has seven pedals for altering the pitch of the strings. The
traditional form of the harp and the arrangem ent of the pedals is show n
in the following figure .
12l
324 INSTRUMENTS THE H A R P 325
(a) (b) (c)

,~,
,
C • [ C
, I

Fig. 106. Pedal Acti on of the H arp

Fig. 105
PEDAL :-'f EC HAS I S\ {
The pedals project through openings provided with notches for
three pedal positions, and they are connected with th e mecha nism in
the neck of the harp by wires running up inside the pillar. The stri ngs
are atta ched below to the soundboard, and above to the pins on the
left-hand side of the neck. Each st ring passes over two discs having
pins that act to stop the stri ng as shown in Fig. 106.
In position (.1) the pedal is in the up per not ch, the pins on the discs
do not touch th e string, so the string vibrat es in its greatest length-
the "flat" position ( the strings being tuned to Cb major ).
In position (b ) the pedal is in the intermediate notch, and the upper
disc has turned so that the pins stop the string, raising its pitch a half
tone-the " natural position."
In position (c) the pedal is in the lower notch; the lower disc has
turned, stopping the string and raising the pitch a whole tone-the
"sharp" position.
Springs return the pedals to the upper position (flats) when they are
released by the feet from the two lower notches" Each pedal acts simul-
taneous ly on all the strings of the same lett er name. It is therefore not
possible to have C~ and Cq at the same time, except enharmcnically.
The lowest Cb str ing lacks t his mechanism. It may be tuned to an-
other pitch before playing.
Pedal changes ate made swiftly and noiselessly. A pedal may be
moved during playin g, when its particular string is not in use. Excep-
tionally, a pedal on the right-hand side may be operated by the left foot,
and vice versa, and it is even possible to move two pedals at once wit h
326 l:--'STRUMENTS THE H ARP 327
the same foot . A continuous chromaticism, necessitating an exaggerated EX. 344. Debussy- Le Martyre de Saint Sebastien P' 2 5, ed. Durand
use of the pedals, is, however, unsuitable for the harp .

PEDAL NOTATiOS

The harpist is obliged to study a new piece and plan the pedaling . Pel"ln i~s iun gra n ted by D urand et Ci e" Paris. copyri ght o", ners ; Elkan ·\"ogel, Ph ilad elphia, Pa.. age nts.

markin g the pedal changes w here th ey are to be made. For t his reason,
The enharmonic unison is a means of obtaining a richer sonority,
it is difficult to read any hut simple harp parts at sight, un less they are
especially useful for low -pitched tones, where the single string may
written by a harpi st and the pedaling is marked. It is not necessary fo r
lack body and carrying power.
a composer to indicate pedal changes but it is a wise practice, for by
this means th e practicability of chromatic movements for the harp is
EX. 345. Casella-A N ott e A lta P' I, ed. Ricordi
better unde rstood.
Lento molro, misrerioso
At the beginning of a piece the sett ing of the pedals may be indicated
by writing all seven scale degrees with their accidenrals (Fig. 107a) ;
or by arranging these in a more quickly grasped sequence, rig ht -foot
pedals above, left below, in the order of their radiation from the center
(Fig. I07b ) ; or by a diagram showing graphically the pedal positions
(Fig. J07C). In the diagram, the marks above the hor izonta l line repre-
sent pedals in the flat position, th ose on th e line are in the natural posi-
By cOllrl ~Y of C. R icordi & Co.• copyrj ghl ow ners
tion , and those below, in the sharp position .
L b. Passages containing many shar ps arc often impro ved in tone quality
F~GJ Ab I I 1" I I by playing th em enharmonically in flats. The strings are at thei r best
[~ CbOQ
I J in the flat position, at their greatest length.
Fig. 107 It is unnecessary to attempt to anti cipate in th e notation all of these
enharmonic practices. What is mor e important is to make as clear as
The initial pedal setting having been given , each subsequent pedal possible the harmonic and melodic meaning of chromatic tones. This
change is shown by announcing the new note in advance of the time may invol ve writing double flats and doubl e sharps, notes th at exist on
for playing it, e.g., F~, A q. Examples of this procedure can be seen in the harp solely in enharmo nic for m (see Ex. 346, next page).
the scores of French composers. Enharmonic tuning is fr equ ently used in th e harp glissando.

ENHARMONICS

Enharmonic equivalents, called by harpists homophones, are in con-

stant usc in harp playing, w hether or not th ey appear in the notation.
For instance, an F~ migh t be played as G b in order to avoid an incon-
venienr pedal change. Repeated notes are preferably played by alter-
nating two str ings tuned alike.
328 I N STR U .\l E NT S TH E HARP 329

EX. 346. Dukas-A riane et Barbe-BJeue p. 44' . ed. Du rand EX. 347. Debussy-Prim e111ps P: 77. cd. Durand
Assa anime Andan rino
•
, REb, F M, sa gli1l.

Ptnn lu lnn Il"U U<! by D ur and et Cie. , Fa . is, oopyr ighl o.-ne.. ; E lkU\ · \'o&<,1. Philadel phi a., Pa.., a ~nt1
Prrm l!.-~ ion Ir~nlrd by Vtlu .nd rl Ck.• P Ari... cop yrigh l ownrrs; Ellr.an ·\" ogd . Phi la dr lph ia. 1'&., l ee n(&.

THE GLISSASDQ It is not necessary to write all the notes of a glissando . One octave is
This characteristic featu re of harp technique is no less effective for sufficient to show the tuning (Ex. 348). or the tuning may be shown
having been abused. The overworked up -beat harp glissando in the by thc pedal setting only. with just the first and last notes of the glis-
orchestral tutti has become one of the worst platitudes of music, but sando written (Ex. 349).
this fact should serve to direct attention to other more tasteful and E.X, H8. R ous.<;cl-Raccbus et Ariane, Second Suite p. 97. cd . D urand
varied possibilities in th e use of glissando on the harp.
In perfonning the ordinary glissando, the hand sweeps across the
strings more or less rapidly. keeping to the middle of th e strings. th e
UtlR~b
thu mb catching each string when descending. the thi rd finger when Mi ~F& b

ascending (the rhumb is numbered first finger as in piano playing). ,.,

So,"

As this causes all the strings to soun d, the setting of all seven pedals must
be acco unte d for in the notation of th e glissando.
In th e fo llowing examp le, th e preparation of three enharmo nic tones
is noted , since th ese runings arc necessary to bri ng all th e strings in
tune wit h the diminished seventh chord. T he repeated notes resulting
are not noticeable as such when the glissando is playe d. T he setting
HP . II
for the second glissando lists only those strings that need to be changed ,
As long as the re is no ambiguity as to th e timing of the start and finish
of the scale or arpeggio, the note values chosen do not matter. T hirty-
second notes are used most often. accompanied by the indication glis- •
I'rrml»ion cr1 n1rd by DtIf&l\d n Cie ., P Ari"" cop yri gh l o,..nr <1o; Ellr.an,\" olel, P h iladelphl&, Fa., alent&.

sando.
JJO IN ST R U M E N T S THE H AR P HI
EX. 349. Ban6k- V iolin Concerto p. 47. ed. Boosey & H awk es are fingered alike-ascen ding. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 I, descending. I 2 34 I 2 3 4.
etc.
Allegro non u oppo
G'tUiO'
~
c s 0 , E, FHa, A, B / L , po E F' EX . 35 1. Berlioz- Fd1J/astic Sympbony P' 60, cd. Eulenlmrg
"' ::::J I o; :;~
~*
I
•~~i ==E= vuse AlItgro non u oppo
I' ~/ ,-=/ . ;
Cop~'righl 1946 by lI a.. k u &: Son (London) Lt d l'..,d b y pc ,mi",,;on

The har p glissand o is played with one or both hands, and may extend
ove r th e entire range of the harp. It is based on scales, chords, or any Ill' , I

arrangement of the seven tone s. Special effects arc pro duced by playing
ncar the sound board ( pres de fa table}, or bv. using . th e hands flat, in-
stead of using only one finger. Also th e hand our he reversed so that
the nails strike th e stri ngs.
Double not es and chords are playable in g lis.o.;ando.

EX . 350. Dcbussy-La .\fer P: 39. cd . D urand

-
Rt.
DO • .'of

p
P~rm l,~ion gr anted b y Durand et Cl e.. Pari~, copyr ight o>v nnl; .Elk ln ·\"OI:~1. rhi l a <1~ lphia, Pa., a gents.

FI~GER I~G

Rept int <<1 "..illl t il. p ~ ' lll i ..i<>n of the ..ole a&<n t.o for E u le n l.>ur g :"Iini ~ l \lre S.or..,: C. F . I'_teu Corpo ra -
The strings arc plucked ncar their midd le point. with the finge rt ips tion , ~_w )' o . k

and the outer edge of the rhu mb. Th e Iifrh finger is not used. On the
harp there are no fingering pacrerns suc h as tho se occasioned by the T he spacing of rhe strings in comparison with th e natural spacing of
arrangement of black and white keys on the piano keyboard. All scales th e thumb and fingers is shown in these fingerings for intervals: 1-2,
332 INSTRUMENTS THE HARP 333

seconds, thirds, and fourths; 1-3. fifths and sixths; 1-4. sevenths to EX. 353. Bartok-Violin Concerto P: 55, cd. Booscy & Hawkes
tenths.
Arpeggios may be played with one hand, but are more often per-
formed by alternating the two hands.

EX. 352. Ravel-Le Tombeau de Couperin P' '4. ed. Durand

Copyright 1946 by lb.wk eo & So n ( Lo n do n) Ltd l'std b y permis:;iun.

HAR:'\lO:SICS

Harmonics arc typical harp sounds, and they are widely used. The
only one practical is the octave harmonic, produced by stopping the
~#~.
node at one-half rhe suing length and plucking rhe upper half of the
~
~ ,. ,
string, all done with one hand. The node's location changes with the
I /
pedal position, the halfway point being found lower down when the
-I string is sharp than when it is in the flat position.
The method of playing harmonics is different in the two hands, as
a the hands are not in the same position relative to the strings. For the
Permis vion gr~ nt c<l Ly DUl'an<.l et Cl e., P a r i•. CUP)'rillh l own.,.; El ka n -\"ogel. P hil a d elph ia, Pa_. agent.
right hand, the fingers are closed over the palm, the node is stopped
Although both hands can play through the whole range of the in- by the second joint of the second finger, and the thumb plucks the
strument, rhe left hand more easily reaches the lowest strings, since string. The left hand is held open, the node stopped with the lower,
the harp rests upon the right shoulder (and between the knees) of the outer side of the palm, and the strings are plucked by the thumb or fin-
player. gers. Two and even three harmonics, if not over a fifth apart, can be
played at once by the left hand, whereas the position of the right hand
CHORDS permits the production of but one harmonic at a time.

Chords for the harp should han at the most four notes to each
hand, as the little finger is not used. The reach of a tenth from thumb
to fourth finger is like the reach of an octave in chords for the piano.
Harp chords arc normally arpeggiated slightly, from the bottom up.
If a more pronounced roll is wanted, the vertical wavy line is added.
When the notes are to be plucked simultaneously, a straight bracket
is placed before the chord, or the direction non arpeggiato is written.
•M ore often the player is left to decide these matters, according to his
musical judgment. Arrows arc used if the chord is to be arpeggiated
downwards.
JJ4 I N S T R U .\ \ E N T S TilE IlARP 335
EX. 354. Ravel- Valses N obles et Sentimentales p. 18, ed. Durand EX. 355. Debussy- N llages P: 14, cd. Johert
0
Asset len r
0 0 0
"'lo ~

HP. I
!~ PI'
00 ~ ~~ >0 0
PI'
~ 0 0--9 0 0 ~ 0 Q..o 0 0

(unison w ith f1ule)

T'u m i, ,,jo n r"r r~p r illl ;:rantcd by Editions J~an JOhNt, Paris, han ct , co p )·r igh l owne rs; Elkan -"or;:d
~ 0 ~ ! & Co ., Inc., j ' h ila<lclphiJ., I'a ., a ,>c,' ts.

t
0 0
soxs i:TOL"FF~:S
HP . II PI' ~ f
0
It is in th e nature of t he harp tha t to nes should he allow ed to vibrate.
Dry, staccato effects arc rath er the exception in its idiom. In the midd le
0 ~ ;- ;l? and low registers th e vibrations will last for some time , althou gh in
Permission gra.nted by Dur and el Cie .• Paris, topyright own ers; E lkan -\'ogel. P bib delphia, Pl.., agent!.
diminu endo, and it may he necessary to stop the sound. This is done by
H armonics are best on the strings of the midd le part of the range. damping the strinbJS with the flat of the hands, usually indicated by the
Above A (treble clef, first leger line) the strings become too short , French word hou ffe: (Ger., abddlllpfcn; Eng., damp) . Short staccato
and in the lower register the wound strings (the bottom octave and a chord s may be marked sccco, as added precaution.
fourth) do not produce harmonics of characteristic tone qua lity . The effect signified by th e French sons hOl/ffeS calls fo r a special
In the notation of harp harmonics, the written note shows the string harp technique. by which each tone is damped by the finger that has
played. A small circle is added, as in harmonics of stringed instruments, just played it, as that finger is placed in position for the next note . If
and the sound is an octave above. Some harpists prefer a notation at t he notes are not closely spaced the damping has to be done by the other
actual pitch, but if this method is followed it should be so stated in the hand. T he sound is that of a dry staccato.
score.
The sound of harp harmonics is soft and delicate, suggestive of dis- EX . 356. Stravinsk y-PersJpbouc P' 44, cd . Boosey & Hawl..cs
tan ce. It is a coloristic resource, and one that is easily covered by other J - 50 brn ..
m JTC
.
•
sounds . Another color is made by the unison of the normal harp tone

~ L,L• !
with the harmonic played on the str ing an octave below. Harp harmon- fUCC. !
HP . I
ics combine well as decorative melodic doubling of other instruments, ." tons houffif ,
i I ,

such as muted violas, and especially the flute.

'O' _ _ u
8b .zjf ~
- , ,'O"
_+ '
.. - ..
•,
~

Cop yr ir;:h l 19.'4 hy £ diti'm Rus,"" de "l u , i'l u e Rtvi«;d "",,iull ropp igh \ \ ').'0 by Boo ," y & ILtw k,'s I"c .
U""d by permi,siotl.
336 I N STR U hI ENTS T HE HA R P 337

PRES DE LA T ABL E
EX. 358. Strauss-Also Spracb 'Zaratbustra P: 38, ed. Aibl
Sehr langsam
Plucking the strings near the soundboard ( pres de fa table) gives a
metallic tone , somewhat like the sound of a guitar. H" 4-J~ '~ lIP bisbigilnulo
EX. 357 . Britten- Four Sea Interludes from Peter G rimes R(printed ",ith th( !><,rmis..ion 01 th( copyrig!:t O"'n(f'll C. F . Peters Corporation. r\:(W York.

P' 74, ed. Boosey & H awkes

Presec cc.n Iuoeo • . ; M ELODIC U SES
/n"ltmmU , , , , ,
iii The harp's tone is resonant and strong, but it cannot be said to possess

~
-(
H' ~(
r/ l- I..., ,l..,
- powers of melodic sostenuto. Melodic passages should be moderately
active in texture, and at the same time they should not contain too many
I'PP ,.I ,J
notes. The following phrase suits the harp admirab ly.
pp ===-- "~ts de III tllble
Copy rlght 19'15 by JlooM,y &; Ha ..ltu Ltd. U~d by perm ission. EX. 359. Stravinsky-Orpheus P' 35, ed. Boosey & H awkes

TR ILLS AND TREMOLOS

Repeated plucking of one string is necessarily limited in rapidity,

Ji o~
--
and harp tri lls and tr emolos are in conseq uence compa ratively' slow.
The trill can be performed by one hand (Fig. 108a) , but more rhythmi-
cally by alternating hands (b). A further aid is available in the enhar-
monic tuning of one of the notes (c). G'

Fig. 10 8

The harp tremolo most often employed in orchestral scores is that
called bisbigliando (whispering) . The fingers of bot h hands keep the
strings in a kind of delicate rustling morion, without any particular
sequence of plucking. As the term implies, the effect is appropriate in
soft nuances. Three or fou r notes wit hin the reach of one hand are
w ritte n as a tremolo.
G'
Copy righ t 1948 b y Boo sey & H awk.es. Csed by penni<.sion
The upper octave and a half, because of the short strings, is less
capab le of melodic expression. The lower midd le register is excellent .
In the following example, the harp plays the chorale melody in canon
a fift h above the muted 'cellos. There is a very soft background of
muted horns and muted violins. The passage is remarkable for the im-
pressive effect achieved with a few notes for the harp.
 nR I:" STR V .\l E:"T S T HE H A R P 339
EX. 360 . Berg- V iolin Concerto P: 83. ed. U nive rsal w ays with mallets. which may be of w oo d or leath er . Some instrument s
Adagio arc equipped with a damper pedal device.
O urside its native environment, the cimbalorn is a rare instrumen t,
mention ed here because of a few instan ces of its usc by important com-
poscr s. who have sought to introduce its highly individua l timbre and
idiom into orchestral mu sic.
T he following arc some modern works employ ing the cimbalom:
P dU~fO
Copyr iltht 19.\6 b~· Cn;,~ r~al Ed il lon .... G _ l· ... d b y pnm iu. io n
Bart ok-First R bapsody for Vi olin and Orchestra
Kodaly-H.iry l i nos Suite
Accom pan iment figures arc an eve ry day fu nct ion of the harp. T hey
StrJvinskv-Reu.zrd
ar c usually ha rmonic. bre aking up cho rds int o an end less variety of
Srravinskj--c-Rag- T im e
:trpcggios and deco rative rigurat ion for one or two harps.
Special e ffect s. suc h as t he use of a plect ru m, or the pedal porta-
memo made by moving the peda l af ter the stri ng is plucked. have not
been exploite d by o rchest ral com posers . A m ute d effe ct, not unlike the
sou nd of a harpsicho rd. has been obta ine d by wCJ\' ing a st rip of paper
bet w een th e strings. Com poser s ar e urge d to inve stigate the novel
coloristic and exp ressive resourc es developed by Carlos Salzedo. T hese
have not as y et become a part of sta ndar d harp tec hniqu e, so that no
more than ment ion can be made here of t he falling hail and thunde r
effects. the xyloflu x, xvl harm onic and xvlophonic so unds. so unds of
the ram-tam and the snare drum without snares, fluidic so unds, esoteric
sounds, ere .
.\l osr sym pho ny orchestras possess tw o harps, and two arc called for
in sco res more often t han one. The second harp provid es more rich-
ness and volume, and also it greatly facilitates rhe crnplovrncnr of the
harp in modern c hromatic harmony, where the peda l changes pose
co ntinual problems in wriring for a sing-Ic harp. Th e sco re of L'O iseau
de Feu requ ires t hree harp s, G urrelieder four, and in Die Goiter-
ddnnnerung the st ipu lated number of harps is six.

THE CL\ lBAL O,\1

T he cimbnlom (Ir. ci111/7.110 ongarese), the mod ern form of the an-
cienr dulcimer. is fo und chi efly in H ungarian gypsy orch estras, where
it is played in im pro visato ry sty le with great virtuosity. It is ge nerally
of trapezoidal shape, laid flat, and the metal strings are struck in various
 KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS HI

orchestra is raised to a position of equality. This is a flexible category,

some features of which can be noted in the solo concertos of the preced-
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
ing paragraph (the slow movement of Beethoven's Fourth Concerto).
The solo part still is played by a visiting artist, but part of the time the
piano is used as an orchestral instrument (D'lnJy-Symphony on a
French Mountain Air). For this reason, conductors sometimes prefer
KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS to place the piano within the orchestra rather than in front of it (Falla
-Nights in the Garden, of Spain).
(d) The piano as an orchestral instrument. This situation did not
come to pass until the twentieth century. The pianist is here compara-
tively anonymous and is a regular member of the orchestra (Copland-
THE PIANO Appalachian Spring).
Fr., piano; Ir., pianoforte; Ger., KJavier (e) The piano in the small orchestra. This is a further development
of orchestral composition in the twentieth century (Stravinsky-Suite
T IS assumed that the reader is familiar with the pianoforte and its

I technique. \Ve are concerned here not so much with the capacities
of the piano as a solo instrument, as with its use as an orchestral in-
strument, occupying a status comparable, for instance, to that of the
for S111all Orchestra).

ORCHESTRAL USES

harp or the flute. The chief use of the piano as an orchestral instrument is one of
There are five aspects to be distinguished in the association of the doubling. By this means an incisiveness, due to the percussive quality
piano with the orchestra: of the piano, is imparted to any instrument or group--strings, wood-
<a) The early practice of employing a pianisr to play along with wind, brass, or percussion, in all registers. The high register of the
the orchestra to give support in weak places, and to help the group piano is especially effective in contributing brilliance to the upper
keep time and rhythm. This is substantially the same role that ,vas woodwind. In the following example, two piccolos go along with the
played throughout the eighteenth century by the "maestro at the piano up to its very highest note. The left-hand part doubles three
harpsichord," who executed the realization of the figured bass on his oboes and the second violins, while the octave in between is played by
instrument and kept the ensemble together, but no special part was rhe first violins and the xylophone.
written for the player, who read from the score. As the art of con-
ducting developed, this usage died out in the early nineteenth century. EX. J6I. Copland--SYlllpiJony no. 3 P: 45. ed. Boosey & Hawkes
(b) The piano concerto, in which the orchestra plays the accompani-
ment, and is subordinate throughout to the solo piano part. Characteris-
tic examples are the piano concertos of Mozart and Beethoven. Today
a work of this type is the occasion for engaging an outstanding virtuoso
pianist, not a member of the orchestra, to play the solo part. The piano
is placed at the front of the stage.
(c) The composition for "Piano and Orchestra," in which the solo
piano retains its position of prominence while at the same time the
Copyright 1941 by Hawkes & Son ( Lon don ) LId. U&ed b y permission.
3'10
342 I N S T R U .\ l E N T S KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 34J

In the next example, the right-hand note s act as strong upper partials EX. )6+ Copland-Symphony no. I P' 8, ed. Cos Cob
to the left-hand part, which doubles two oboes and a trumpet. A bas- fl MoIra a11el!"rO ~ ~ ~ - -- - - - -
soon plays in th e octave below. There are other parts in the score. 0 e.

'f' -;' ritmico

EX. 362. •\ Iartinu-Symphony no. 4 P: 97, ed. Booscy & Hawkes
0

prTI:. t' ~
fJ Jll'IOtJ
~
Itggltr
~ ~ > ~ > > >
~ >

'fi > > > > > > > ;:: ;::. ;::

.0

--
Cop yright 1950 by H awkes & Son (London) Lt d t:5<'d by ~nn ission.

The piano is at a disadvantage associating with other instruments in

parts of a sostenuto and legato character. Better results arc obtained
Vl'I . II
DI\".
lfi I' to/ legno
-
0
if the piano part is kept in motion, in notes of not roo long duration.
Doubling of pizzicato is of course very much in its style. Here it must
be remarked that low-pitched staccato on the piano, when loud, often
~
Copyright 1931 by CCiS Co b
~
P col legno
Pr~3S,
-
Inc. l'i5<'d by permi.sio n of Arrow Pren, I nc_, incorpontin g t h~
sounds upper partials with undue prominence, creating a metallic tone Cos Cob P r~ .....

and disguising thc pitch. This depends upon the instrument, and it is
more likely to occur if a small piano is used. SOLO PASSAGES

EX. 363. Shostakovich-Symphony no. 5 P' 12, ed. Musicus The piano delivers imitative thematic figures alone, just as any other
J=91
instrument. It is also given important solo parts, sometimes demanding
a high degree of virtuosity, although no more than that expected of
other players in the modern symphony orchestra .

Cop yright lQ4S by !..(~ds '-I n. ic Corporation. :-cw York . U",d by perm i..ion .

Among the numerous possibilities fo r the combination of the piano

with other instruments, the following is particularly felicitous, with
violins playing col legno.
344 INSTRUMENTS KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 345
EX. 365. Stravinsky-Petrouchka P: 64, ed. Russe In the following, the piano carries the thematic material, over a back-
Allegro --,~ ground of repeated sixteenth notes by three horns. Strings mark cer-
tain of the melodic notes lightly.

EX. 366. Stravinsky-Symphony in Three Movements

P' ' 7, ed. Associated Music Publishers

.. '
pocomsrceta _ • • _ _ • _ _'
Copyright 1946 by Associated Music P"blisbcco. Inc., :-:cw York. U~d by permission.

•
PERCU SSIOS

Dissonant chords in the low register of the piano are used in percus-
sive rhythmic effects.

EX . 367- Bartok-Dance Suite P' 3, ed. Philh armonia

Copyright 1924 by Un iversal Edition. Copyripl assi gne d 1939 to Booaey II: Haw kes Ltd . U...,d by
pem1ission .

The piano tremolo is combin ed with rolls on bass drum and timpani.
• <C.

Copyri gh t Dy Ed iti on RUMe de Mustque. Rev ised version co"y rlghl 1'H8 by Boooo:y &: Hawkes. Uaed
by pc rm i5s ion .
 346 INS T R U ~ I EN T S KEYBOARD I N S T R U ,\I E N T S 347
EX. 368. Prokofieff-Sy 1l1phony no. 5 P: 39. ed . Leeds phony of Psalms; the extraordinary orchestra of Stravinsky's Les
No ces, comp osed of four pianos and percussion; and the use of an up-
TIMP
righ t piano, not necessarily in tune, for local color in Copland's Billy
/~ the Kid.
,
e n, • I• I. • • .>
• • In the small orchestra , or chamber orchestra, for whi ch man y wo rks
/! ! ! ! ! ! have been written in the twentieth century. the piano performs a
variety of services. It comp ensates for the absence of inst ruments like

L /f=:, b ;;;
fi '!.."'
-,..

"i•
l ,b- ~ ~,
• • • •
Cop }'r ;ght IQ46 b) " Leed s ~Iusic Corporation , Xe w Yo rl:. l'se<l b y pe rm ission.
_
t he harp and per cussion, and fills in middle parts in place of horns.
Sonorous writing like the following examp le gives. within th e perspe c-
tive of t he small orchestra, an impression of orchestr al tu tt i.

EX. 370. Copland-fUmic for the T heater p. 37. ed. Cos Cob
Allegro moho
PI A~ O A:SD IL-\ RP

Some twentieth -century com posers have shown a prefe rence fo r the
piano to be used in place of the harp. feeling perh aps that the latter
instrument con veyed a certa in romantic association they wished to
avoid . Others have combined piano and harp. and some have used a
larger groupi ng of piano, har ps, and celesta, playing har plikc arp eggio s,
broken chords, and figuration ( D' Indy-Su111mer Day on tbe st oun- :- :> -
tain; Srravins ky-c-L 'Oisc,», de Feu) . In th e next example, a deep bell
sound is crea ted by the unison of two harp s and the piano. with double-
bass pizzicato and timpani. The latt er are omitted from th e example, as
well as the held octa ve D for two bassoons, cont rabassoon, bass crOO1 -
bone, tuba, and a bass drum roll.

EX. 369. Brittcn-Sinfon ia da R equiem p. I. ed. Boosev & H awkes

Andante ben misuraro Copyr igh t 1932 by CO$ Cob P re.,. , I n c. I:sed by p e rmi >;l; ion of Arrow Pren, I nc., in cor po ratin g t he
Cos Cob P ress.

dim. Scoring fo r the piano creates some practical difficulties that shou ld
be at least recognized by the composer. T he piano tone ought to be
that of a o-foor concert grand piano . if it is to sound well in a full sym-
~
:::> ::- ~
~
::-
phony orchestra. On a stage of insufficient size a smaller instrument
may have to be used. Furthermore, to avoid much rearrangem ent dur-
Copyr igh t 1 9~2 b y Hawk e$ & So n (Lon d on ) Ltd. Used by pe rmi!l'lion.
ing a concert the piano may be placed far to the side of the stage, es-
Unusual uses of the piano are the part for piano four hands in De- pecially if its part seems to the conductor a subordinate one. This will
bussy's Printemps; the employment of two pianos in Stravinsky's Sym- pro ve most unsat isfactory whe n th e piano is combined wit h woo d-
348 I N ST R U ME N T S KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 349
winds, because of the distance. The correct position of the piano is in T he next example shows a simple but striking use of the celesta to
the center of the stage. mark the final cadence of a symphonic movement.

THE CELESTA EX. 3 7 2. Shostakovich-Sym phony 110 . 5 p. 5 I, ed. Musicus

Moderato J : 4J
The celesta may be considered a kind of keyed glockenspiel, in that , ~.

its tone is prod uced by hammers str iking steel slabs. The instrum ent
has a piano keyboa rd. and it resembles in appearance some modern
types of miniature upright piano. Each steel bar rests upon a tuned res-
'- -
onating wooden box, this feature giving the celesta a softness and
delicacy that distinguish it from the glockenspiel. There is also a
damper pedal. eEL"",
The written range of the celesta is as follows, sounding an octave
higher:

:" ,I cFL soto

VN. ~ - rtTfflgJ muud 11WTmdo

Fig. 109

The gentle tones of the celesta have a bell-like ring but do not last
long, nor can they be played stacc ato. Easily covered by other sounds
. -. .-r .
'''- '

VC. ~l PE'
~H ~
in the orchestra, they are used primarily for decorative coloristic
touches in soft nuances. In the following familiar motive, the celesta
DI' I
Cop yri ght 1Q-l5 hy
- ,'
[...,(d~
"'--
M usic Corporation, New Yor k. U~
------
n1Q1'mdo

by p"rmission.
chords are doubled by harp, two flutes and picco lo, and three solo vio-
lins, muted.

.-
EX. 37 1. Strauss-Der R osenkavalier P' 190, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
Zicmli ch langsam -

. " dim. ,

Copy right 1910 by Adolf F ursln(r , &""ign(d 1943 to Bool.(}' & Ha.""k(!, Ltd, L"l.(d by permission. ( For
Ponugal, I taly. G(nnany. Dan zig. USSR as of 1935: f urstn u , L td.• London.)
 KEY II 0 A R D J:-I S T R U .\ 1 EN T S HI
350 IN ST R U M E N T S
The cclcs~ :J. oEre? participates in harplike tracery of the kind illus- and have written fo r it in comhinatio n with th e small orchestra. There
t rated by this Barto k example . H ere it combines with harp and piano. is a tendency in th e man ufacture of contemporary harpsichords to pro-
EX. 373. Ban uk-.ttusic for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta
du ce instr uments of greater brilliance and pown , capable of sounding
wi th the large orchestra in a large hall. Th is invokes a sacrifice. how-
p. 72, ed. U niversal
ever. of at least some of the intimacy and charm characteristic of the
harpsicho rd.
T he following arc some modern works emp loy ing the harpsichord:
Falla- EI R etsblo de .1I, e,e Pedro
Falla-Concerto for H srpsicbord and Five Instrument s
,\1 artin- Petite Symp fJonie Con cerrsnte
Poulenc-Concert Cba7l1p~;tre for H arpsicbord and Orcb estrs
Strau ss-Dance Suit e after Cou perin

T ilE ORGAN
In th e time of Bach and H andel, th e organ w as an indispensable part
of rhe instrumental forc es employed in th e performance of or ato rios
........ ...,... -'-' and cantatas . whe re it was depended upon to fill ou t the real izat ion of
Copy~ i l: ht . 1937
permLUIon by l.' ni ,·cruJ Editi on. Co p yro_
"- " t a.Mil"cd 19,)9 to ~y & H ~ .. lr. " LId. Uw d by
the figure d bass, As the textu re of music became more homophonic and
harmo nic th an linear , the organ was no lon ger needed for th is func-
THE HARPSICHORD tion. It was not until th e late ninete enth century that organ parts ap-
peared in sy mphon ic scores (Saint- Sacns-S:\o'11Ipbony no. 3) ·
Fr ., clavecin; It. , cembalo , elm...icembalo; O er., Cem balo
T he organ never became an orchest ral instrument in the sense that
In th e harpsich ord the strings are not stru ck by hammers, but the pianoforte did, but rather it may be said to have been associated
pluck ed by th~ action of crow quills or leather tabs. Five to eight pedals w ith the orc hestra for certa in specia l pur poses. \Vor ks for chorus and
to operate register Sto pS, and a co up ler to combine the effects of the orc hestr a, especially th ose of a religious characte r, frequ entl y incl ude
[~O k.eyboards, afford considerable dynamic variation and octave du- the or gan ( H onegger- Le R oi f).1i:id ) , Chur ch and cathedra l scenes in
plication above and below the note played. The writ ten range of the operas seldom fail to call for th e obvious realism of org:m music (Go u-
harpsich ord is as follows: nod-Faust). In the opening sto rm scene of V erdi 's O tello, the organ
supplies anothe r realistic effect by holdin g t he low pedal no tes C, C:,
and D through fifty-three pages of score. The or gan has been employed
in symphonic works of th e grandiose, colossal ty pe, in which an over-
powering mass of sound is st riven for in the climaxes ( ~lahler-SY 1Jl­
Fig. 1 10
pbony no. 8) .
Modem compos~rs ~ave shown interest in this baroque instrument, N ot all concert halls contain organs, and organs differ widely in
perhaps because of Its Increased use in the performance of early music, tone color and resources of registration. ~ lany organ stops are imita-
352 INS T R U xt E N T S
dons of orchestral instruments, and the dynamic and coloristic po-
tentialities utilized in the combination of stops evoke a comparIson
with procedures in orchestration. The organ is too self-sufficient an
instrument to become a part of the symphony orchestra.

THE HAR~IONIUM

The harmonium is a small reed organ that can be moved. It has usu-
ally two manuals (keyboards), stops and pedals. Ahhough its tone
will not be mistaken for that of a large organ, it is used as a substitute
for the latter when none is available. The harmonium has been em-
ployed in the small orchestra to compensate for the deficiency in vol-
ume of wind tone (Strauss-Ariadne aut Naxos).
TWO
ANALYSIS OF ORCHESTRATION
THE ONDES MARTENOT
The Ondes Marrenot is an electrical instrument invented in 1928 by
Maurice Marrenot, and subsequently written for by many French
composers. The tone originates in the pulsations made by combining
two currents whose frequencies differ slightly. The resultant air waves
are amplified and sounded through a loud-speaker system. A keyboard
enables the player to obtain different notes by altering the frequencies
by the exact amount necessary. A ribbon attached by a ring to the fin-
ger is also used for the same purpose, but with the added possibility of
sounding all gradations of pitch between the notes. The range as now
constructed is practically that of the piano keyboard.
By the interposition of electrical circuits overtones can be absorbed,
so that the formant of the tone can be changed in infinite variety. The
Ondes Martenct is still in an early experimental stage, especially as re-
gards its usc as an orchestral instrument.
The following are some works employing the Ondes Marrenor:
Canteloube- Vercingetorix
Honegger-Jeanne d'Arc au Bucher
Jolivet-Concerto for Ondes Martenot and Orchestra
Messiaen-TurangaliJa
 C!IAPT ER SI SE T E EN

TYP ES OF TEXTCRE-TYP E I,
OR CHE STRAL U :-: IS O :-:

ITH knowledge of the instruments gained from the foregoing

W chapters, the student is advised to read through entire parts

for individua l instruments in any score he intends to study .
For example. let him follow the first bassoon throughout the score of
the Eroica Sym phony, noting the kind of pan given the instrument ,
techni cal features such as range and difficulty, amount of playing time
in compar ison to the whole, and especially the relation of the pan to
the rest of the score at any given moment. It would afford a view of the
orchestration as seen from the standpoint of a single instrum ent , and ir
would serve to summarize the participation of the par ticular instru ment
in the orchestral web. Familiar works should be chosen at first, and the
student should make constant efforts to hear mentally what he sees on
the printed page, correcting his pitch, if necessary. with a pitch pipe or
the piano.
The obje ctive in analysis of orchestration is to discover how the
orchestr a is used as a medium to present musical thought. Its immediate
purpose is the simplification of the score so tha t order is seen in what
to the layman is a "sea of notes." It is a means of studying how instru-
ment s are combined to achieve balance of sonority, unity and variet y
of tone color, clarity, brilliance, expressiveness, and oth er musical
values. Ultimately, the analytical process shows the differences in
orch estral style between various composers and perio ds.
The first step in analysis is the examination of the musical text ure.
apart from orchestration. to see what compo nent elements make up
Hi
 356 ANALYSIS ORCHESTRAL UNISON 357
the fabric of the music. As will be shown, these elements are usually
TEXTURE OF ONE ELEMENT
few in number. They are such features as melody, harmonic back-
ground or accompaniment, contrapuntal lines, chords, erc., and in most EX. 374. D'Indy-lstar p. 40, ed. Durand
music they are readily distinguishable.
As the second step, after the number and character of th e textural
elements is determined, the distribution of the instrum ents and sections
of the orchestra among the elements is to be not ed. Here a difficulty ~
,
IN • • II

will be encountered, owing to the fact that good orchestral music is

continually changing in the arrangement of the instruments, and often .~
~

in the type of texture as well. It is therefore nece ssary to apply the

analytical process to short sections of music at a time, sometimes to ,
only a few measures. Passages should be select ed that are most easily " / ,
comprehended in their texture and distribution, leaving the more prob- '"
lematical places until skill is acquired through practice. /
In the third step, a comparison of the elements should be made. evalu- ., """"
,
ating the result of the distribution as to balance and contrast. and re-
marking any other qualities that may become evident.
...
""
"

The fourth step is the close examination of each element taken '""
separately. This will take note of the choice and combination of tone
,
colors. doubling and spacing. reinforcing of accents, etc. It often hap- "
pens that an element is further divisible into what may be called sub- ~.

elements. '"
The importance of judging the movement as a whole should not be
lost sight of. Proportions of tutti, unity and variety of textures and '" ,
orchestral procedures, erc., are larger consid erations to be weighed
in relation to the form and content of the movement, and are not to be "". ll
und erestimated. But the inexperienced student is counseled to be pa-
tient with the analysis of short sections as a means of gaining technical
facility.
..
A word of warning is sounded against a too pedantic and literal ap- ~

proach to the analysis. One seeks an answer to the question why cer-
tain procedures are followed, bur, orchestration being an art and not
a science, one must ever be prepared to find no good reason. Some
que stion s are never answ ered. Imperfections may exist even in the
works of the masters, and these arc worth discovering, but it must not
be forgotten that the unaccountable stroke of genius is also a reality.
/
P(lm issi on granted by Dur an d el Cl( ., P u is, cop yr igbt owne rs ; EJk an-Vo~l. P b iladelph la , Pa " a gents.
\Vhen the texture is composed of bur one element. this is most fre-
quently in the nature of a melodic phrase delivered by anywhere from
one to all the instruments of the orchestra. Example 374 is an actual
358 A NALYS IS O R CH E STRAL C;\i lS O :--' 359
unison- that is, without octavcs-c-partici pared in by all th e legato in- EX. 375. Becthovcn-Sy mphol1y no. 9 p. 3, cd. Kalmus
strument s within whose range the melody lies comfortably . T he in-
strumcnrs no t playing are piccolo, two flutes. two ob oes, three trum-
pets, tuba. tim pani. cy mbals, triangle. two har ps, and double-b asses (an
~,

initial chor d for harp s and basses, wi th timpani roll, is omitted from "
the example) .
The tr umpe ts could have play ed th e melody. bur the low notes lie
in the poor er parr of their range, and th e trumpet tone would tend to
emerge from the blend of tone color. The tro mbones are asked to join
"cry soft ly in what is a strong and full general sonority.
This unison provides a rich mixed timbre, somew hat dominated by ." . •'
the powerful string tone, with violins on the G.string, and 'cellos on the
A. A kind of incandescence is co nt ributed by the tremolo of the violas. F
Even th e four horns, playi ng legato, arc absorbe d in th e over-all sound. /
,

...
~ ,

,
r
=
--=.-.
- ,
= ~

"

_.= .

Example 375 is an orc hest ral tu tti, all the instru ment s taking part in
a forceful statement of th e melodic line as it appears in th e first violins.
It is not, like th e preceding example, an actual unison, wit h all instru-
ments on the same pit ch, instead. the orchestra is distributed ove r four
360 ANALYSIS ORC HEST RA L UN ISON 36 1
octaves, so that each instrum ent may participate in its best range . Tak-
EX. 376. Stravinsky-SY11lpbony in Three MO'L'(?111cnts
ing the A of measure I , the distribution is as follows:
P: 3, ed. Associated ;\l usic Publishers
.. It I ( I)
~ vl1. l .. 11, s.n, 00. 1, d. I
,~~. ( 5)
~ va.. 00. II, d . 11, hI\. 1, up. I (5 )

..
'rC .. bn, I .. U. h.o.. II, up. u (5)
d-b.. timp. (2 )

Fig. II J

It is evident that the balance is carefully arranged. T he single flute on

top is not more than a reinforcement of the upper partial from the
lower A's. ll orns III and IV cou ld not sound the A except as a sto pped
tone of inferior quality .
Each part should be studied, dep artures from the melodic pattern
nored, and reasons sought for these departures.
T he brass instruments of the classical orchestr a presented problems
for the composer because of their limitations in available not es. If the
student will write our the pans for horns in 0 and B:, basso, and trWTI-
petS in D, as they should be if they are to follow the melodic line. he
will see th at Beeth oven had the choice of leaving our many not es, es-
pecially in the B:, horns and the trumpets, or substitu ting other notes
in preference to sacrificing the tone-weight of the brass. His soluti on
will repay careful study.
Changcs in the woodwind parts are made for reasons of range (oboe
II could not continue downward in measure 2), registers ( flute II
would be in a weak register if continued down in the same measure),
and balance (note the doubling arrangement of oboes and clarinets in
measure 4).
.J1T7-
Copyri gh t 1,..6 by A!!Soci.!~d M\lsic P\l bHshe ~> Inc... New Yor k. Used by pcrm iosion.

T he opening unison shown in Ex. 376 is not a tutti, although loud

and forceful. The trumpets and high woodwinds are reserv ed for the
consequent part of the ph rase, which follows. It is doubtful that they
could have added to the incisiveness attained by this placing of strings ,
horns. and pianoforte. To be remarked are the accent reinforcement
by the tr ombones, the bass clarinet and bassoons helping the upward
362 Al'> ALYSIS OR C B E ST R A L U x I S ON 363
ru sh of th e strings, w irh piano glissando, and th e disposition of th e In Ex. 377, the princi ple is carried further, th e melody proceeding
second violins so that they join the violas and the 'cellos on th e high in parallel mino r tri ads. Also the parallelism is emphasized by the fact
Ab· th at the soprano (flute II and clarinet I) and bass (bass clarinet ) are in
oc taves. The onl y unison doub ling is in the upper voice, and this rends
E X. 377. Dcbussy-Le Marty re de Saint Sebastien p. I. ed. Durand to gin the phr ase a pitch location in the soprano register. (This work
Lent by D ebussy is orchestrated by A ndre Caplet.)
-:<:. - o ..---.- a.
,',~
II
n. While the example can not be truly describe d as an orchest ral uni son ,
I" pp it is to be taken as an example of a texture composed of a single element.

)78. Falla-EI A mor 1J1'lIj o p . 41 , ed. Chester

1::OG. HN ° EX.

,.-
'" <gro ma n" n ""PI"
•
~
.,--...
I"
,~

pp --
:, ~
~ .

;; ;; ~.
ji...J:.9 I" . JO' #J"
-~ -e ., ~
,0
~'" r. IP

,
I" pp
,,
~ •. ~
~
~-

,.
..
/ ~
ra, ,! •
~ .. -- " "
IN Db
0 ~
I
IP - ;;;.- " [r ~
,.
:, ~
"' I~
pj...

pp ., . ~

.
,

• •
~ [--6 •,
I

~ . ~- -
'"
... - ~
'" ~
BASS
,~ -v;r C",d.j
,
r.r«";"' 4
I & 1
•9
pp
Copyri&ht for all countr ies ] . & W . Ch<'slcr Lid ., Londun

, § . a: I ff The texture of one clement may present details of interest in the

ON .
" pp
l •
Permission gran ted by Durand d C1e., Pari s, cop yrigh t own cr$; E lkan .Vogel, Ph ilad elphia, Pa., ag ents.
As th ese example s illustr ate, octave redu plication is not to be con-
side red as addi ng a new textural eleme nt. It is a widen ing of th e vertical
plane of sound, and the two voices ar e in such agree ment of upper
partials that th e car often accepts th e interval of an oct ave as a unison.
T he habitu al octave doub ling of 'ce llos and basses is a goo d illustration
of this principle.
O th er intervals may ope rate in a similar way. The common pr actice
of doubling a melody consistently in thirds or sixths does not add 2 new
melodic voice so much as a harmonic thi ckening or un derlining of the
singl e voice.
co mbinat ion of tone colors. E xample 378 is extremely simp le in its
musical material but most instructive as orchestra tion. It furnishes an
excellent exercise in mental hearing. Let the stude nt concentrate on
hearin g th e separate instruments in his mind, and then att empt to im-
agine the com bined sounds.
The double-bass harmonic sounds in unison with the viola E. An
initi al acce nt is give n by the soft staccato ho rn and the ' cello pizzicato
(note the variety of dyn amic markings) . A t the peak of the crescendo
th e chalum eau clarinet trill is add ed, the 'cello pizzicato is marked
sf orzando, and th e horn's loud, accented stopped tone gins a cuiure
effect. In the last four measures the cla rinet's role is bot h colorist ic and
dynamic.
 M ELO D Y A ND A C e O,\! P A NHIENT )65
Here the melody is given to a single instrument, the clarinet, in
CHAPTER TWENT Y its middle registcr. The accompaniment is simp le, but interesting in
the choice of tone colors to combine with the clarinet in pianissimo .
........ The harp figure is doubled by muted violas and 'ce llos, divided so that
the initia l D is played by the violas on their C-srrin g, accented. The
portamenro for the 'cellos must be delicatel y made. The horn D is a
TYPES OF TE XTURE -TYPE II, subtle aid to continuity and cohe sion, not only horizontally but also
MELODY AND ACCO Jvl PAN IMEN T vertically, being placed between the harp and the solo clarinet.

R efer to Ex. )80, page )66.

N ITS simplest and most common forrn, the texture of two elements

I is what :ve call homophonic texture, consisting of melody and ac-

compamment.
\ Ve shall find it convenient, in analysis, to designate the melod y and
the accompaniment as element A and clement B, respectively. In Ex.
380, the distribution of the orchestra between the two elements may be
EX. ) 79. Mahler-Symphony no. 4 p. ISO, ed. Philhannonia summarized as follows:
Sehr bchaglich Element A (melody ) ' ft. I, Db. I, Eng. hn., d . I and II
Element B (accompaniment ): vn. I and II, va., VC. , d-b., bn. I and II, hn.
II[ and IV
pp '
The elements are clearly differentiated in tone color, and as a pre-
caution the parts of element Bare marked pianissimo, in contrast to
the expressive indications for the melod y . The accom panim ent could,
nevertheless, overwhelm the melody unless performed wit h under-
standing. It is not possible to supply by dynamic markings those pre-
requisites of musical intelligence and sensitivity without which no or-
chestration will sound well in performance.
The octaves in element A are unevenly balanced, giving the melody
a pitch location in the upper octave. The two clarinets doubled by oboe
and English horn make a perfect balance, except for differences in
registers, and the addirion of the flute make s the upper line stronger.
The flute has also the effect of tempering a slight hardness present in
C01I ford.
th e oboe and clarin et unison in that register.
Element B is composed of the gently pulsating divided violins and
vio las (without mutes), the soft low chords for horns and bassoons in
C01/ f ord .
measures 2 and 4, and the bass. The interlocking arrangement of the
upper strings, and also that of the wind chords, arc important details,
as is, too , the partial doubling of the basses by the 'cellos.
364
 A:-;A L YS IS hi E L 0 D Y AND AC e 0 ~l PAN I hi EN T 367

EX, 380. Dcuussy-L'A pres-1I1idi d'un Faune p. t 5. ed. Kalmus EX. 38 1. Bccthovcn-Sy mpbouy 110. 1 p. 20, cd. Kalmus

.c

:
.--.--

..
" H ere element A is passed betw een flute and oboe in the uppe r octave,
and fr om clarinet to bassoon in the octave below (the st rings in measure
.- I are com pleting the pr eceding phr ase). In measure 4. the clarinet is

.. .! = - -._=
,
omitted, a possible reason being that its entry on D might sound like a
voice leadin g fr om th e oboe's C to D, carefully avoid ed by having oboe
and bassoon lead to B. \Vhen the passage is repeated a few measures
P(rm ;p iol'l g ranted by Editions J ean ] olxrt, Par i., co pyr illhl o wners; J:: lkan,\'ojl;d , Ph iladelphi a, Pa .,
" lI: ent~ later, this lower octave is played by violins, their tone and position in
th e orch estr a offering mor e contrast to the oboe. Also to be noted is
th e subtle change from unison violins in measure 2 to thi rds in measure
4. T he light staccato accompaniment is througho ut in contrast to th e
legato woo dw inds.

"
36B ANALYSIS MELODY AND ACCOMPANIMENT
EX. 31:12 . Mozart-The Marriage of Figaro: Overture P' 3. ed. Kalmus The two voices of element A are almost evenly matched, the first
Pre><" players having an advantage of registers and position as top voice. The
first violins are the strongest, and attention is called to them by their
variation from the wo odwinds in measures 3 and 4. The preponderance
of tone-weight lies in the upper octave of element A, the clarinets alone
being placed below. This use of the clarinets in the middle register is
characteristic of classical scores, where they seem often to have been
,c . I~~~ given parts later assigned to trumpets when these acquired valves.
'''''II
Element B, consisting of the one note D, can be subdivided into
three rhythmic patterns. With element A, th ese patterns compose th e
following four-parr rhythmic texture:

EJ.mm' A o J m m J.nJ J.DJ "

no ... JJJJ JJJJ J\ J\ J\ J\ "
,,_,,10,,' :\. :\M J\J\ J\JJ J\J\ J\J\ J\_
.......=.••j j j j j j j j J\ h J \ J\ JJ
Fig. 112
~ ... ,
The first violins join element B in measures 5 and 6, makin g a texture
of part writing in the cadential chords.
..... "
EX. 383. Brahms-SY 111phony no. 2 P' I, ed. Kalmus

.
.tr r ,
,
~,

"". "

It was noted in the previous chapter th at doubling a melodic line in IN '

"
parallel intervals constituted a harmonic thickening of the melody
rather than the creatio n of an independent clement (see Ex. 377). The
intervals similarly used in Ex. 382 are not literally parallel, but the tex-
ture is clearly one of only two elements, distributed as follows:
Element A (m elody): fl. I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II, vn. I
and II

va., vc., d-b.

.
Element B (accompaniment): bn. I and II, hn. I and II, rrp. I and II, timp., • •• "
370 ANALY SIS ME LD D Y A ND A CCDM PA N I ~l EN T 371
The texture of Ex. 383 may be analyzed thus: EX. 384' Schumann-Symphony no. 1 p. 76, ed. Philharm cnia
Element A (melody), rncas. 2 to 5: hn. r and II, bn. l and II ........
meas.6 to 9: fl. I and II, d . I and II, bn. I and II
Element B (bass): vc., d-b.
T he bass is thematically important , so that there is in this textu re a
suggestio n of the ty pe t o be described later as contrapuntal, combining
tvvo melodies. Element A, in measures 2 to 5, shows a harmonization
of the melody (horn I) in parts. T hese parts seem inseparable fro m
the melody even though they do not follow it in parallelism. The
variety in the number of voices, and the do ublings of horns and bas-
soons should be not iced. In measures 6 to 9, the woodwinds are evenly
balanced in a wide vertical plane. Since if is on top. th e first flute will
natura lly be heard as rhe most pro mine nt voice.

e sa e ee

Distribution in Ex. 384:

Element A (melody): ob. I, hn. I, vn. I and II
Element B (accompaniment): d . I and II, bn. I and II, va., vc., d-b.
The violins play a decorative variation of the melody simultaneously
with its exposition by obo e and horn in octa ves. T his is a not uncom-
mon orchestral pr ocedure. The violins are marked pianissimo, and the
figuration is carefully provided with rests to permit the solo instru-
ments to come through. Subsequent measures in th e score contain many
int eresting dissonances like the Eq in the third beat of measure 3.
The accompaniment is composed of three subelemenrs : the sustained
372 ANALYSIS MELODY A ND ACC O M PAN I MENT 373

tones of clarinets and bassoons; the animated harmony of the violas; The composition of the accompaniment with several subelements is
and the bass, the last being given a slight pulsation by the 'cellos. illustrated in Ex. 385.
The texture of this example may also be seen as an elaboration of Distribution:
basic four-voiced part writing. Element A (melody): fl. I and II
Element B (accompaniment): (a) Eng. hn., cl. I and II, bn. I and II
EX . 385. Debussy-La Mer P' 65, ed. Durand (b) hn. II and IV
(c) vn. I, (celesta, hp. I and II )
~,
(d ) vn. II, va., vc., (d-b.)
" The flutes are in a rather gentle register and, althoug h doub led, it
~"". seems on first sight unli kely that th ey can be heard against rhe array
"" of accompanying instruments. As a matter of fact , perfor mances prove
n . ,
'-.... II that the flutes sound with extraordinary clarity.
All the instruments of element B are placed in registers that enable
them to playas softly as nece ssary . The strings play with \rery littl e
bow, and except for the single Ci , the basses arc omitted. T he low E
in second and fourth horns can be produced in ext reme piamssiruo, the
doubling being for the purpose of steadying the low tone. The three
componems of subclement (a) overlap one another by an eight h-note's
value, with diminuendo. It is an example of a very light and tr ansparent
accompaniment.
A touch of color is added to the termination of the ph rase by the
celesta and harps. The score is marked glocke nspiel (or celesta), but
the celesta is practically always used in this piece. On the r epetition of
the phrase, the flutes are replaced by the first oboe.

..
••
, ,,
Permission granted by Durand et Cle., Pu is . eo pyright owne~; Elkan· Vogel, Pbiladelphi.., P.... agentl
 s r c o l' IJ A R Y ,I I E L OD Y 375
EX. 386. ~l oza rr-SY lllpbony in Eo, K. 54 3 P' 36, cd. Kalmus
,
Ando n«

C HA PTER T\\"EK TY-OKE /

=
/

T Y PES OF TE XTURE- T Y PE III,

SECO:-': DARY MELODY -;
/
.. p ~. ~
~-
-+--= =.~
.....
...-,---..

T EXT C RE of three elements usually con sists of a primary melody,

A
¥N_ "

a secondary melody, and accompaniment. The secondary r

melody may be a completely subordinate obb ligato (sometimes ~...1.-."'_ '
_ '_
- "'=!'; ;?-=
called ccuntcrmelody} , or it may have thematic significance giving it /
an importance equal to that of the primary melody. The decision as to
wh ich is pr imary and w hich secon dary is sometimes difficult and may
depend on persona l interpretation and taste. Th e conductor who de- /

ligh ts in "bringing out" voices intended by the com poser to remain in

The woodwind obbligato in Ex. 386 emerges after seven measures of
the background is an all too -familiar figure.
harmonic backgro und of held wind chords.
T he distribution of th e elements is as follows:
Element A (mel ody): vn.l
Element B (seco ndary melody ) : fi., d . I and II, bn. I and II
Elem ent C (acc ompan iment ) : vn. II, va., vc., d-b.
The two melodic elements arc cont rasted in timbre as well as in
melodi c outline and rhythm. The first violins easily dominate th e over-
all sonority, because of their register and energe tic bowing, and also for
the reason that th eir melody has been pre viously established to the ear
as the primary element. They stand out despite the ideal placing of the
five woodwinds in th eir best registers, with octave dou blings.
Element C contains three harmonic voices. In the first three measures,
two of these are played by the secon d violins as the on ly middle voices
to balance the bass. The latter is represented in the very resonant
174
376 ANALYSIS SECONDARY MELODY 377
octave reduplication of violas, 'cellos, and basses. Note that four-string Distribution in Ex. 387:
basses must play the Eb an octave higher. Element A (melody): fl. I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II, bn. I
and II, hn. I and II
EX. 387. Beethoven-Sy111pbony no. 7 p. 71, ed. Kalmus Element B (secondary melody): vn.J
Element C (accompaniment): (a) vn. II
(b) va., vc., d-b.
(e) trp. I and II, timp.
The rhythmic differentiation of the three elements is worthy of note.
This helps the secondary melody, sustained and legato, to detach itself
even though element A sounds both above and below it. The power of
the first violins should not be underestimated. however.
Doublings of the wind (element A) are as follows:

I. I (.)
6.. n. ab. l, 00. II, d. I (4)
d. 11, bn. I, hn, 1 (J)

Fig. 113

Notwithstanding the larger number of instruments on the next-to-

top parr, the balance is in favor of the lowest octave. because of the
much greater tone-weight of the horns in fortissimo. The clarinets act
as a link between upper and lower tone colors. In measure 5. the horns
are placed both in the upper octave, uniting on the stopped note Eb
(sounding G), and avoiding a bad stopped D in the lower octave for
the second hom.
In subelement (h) ,of the accompaniment. the 'cellos are divided so
that they support both the bass and the viola part. Trumpets and tim-
pani (subelement c) give tonic and dominant punctuation, in classic
style,
378 ANALYSIS SE C 0 N [) A R Y .\ 1 E L 0 D Y 379
EX. 388. Berlioz-Overture: T he R oman Camiual H ere the melody and seco ndary melody form a canon at the octave,
P: 7, ed. Philhar monia wi th a rime interval of one bear. Since the melodies are identica l they
arc of equal importance to the car, a slight precedence being conceded
perhaps to the one that starts first, which we have called clement A.
of'
A lso, it may have a little more tone-weight since all the instruments
---= playing it arc in actual unison, whereas those of element B are divided
in octaves (violins I and flute I on top, violins II, oboe and Engl ish
horn on the bottom). T he 'cellos are in a powerful position on the A-
string, we ll supported by bassoons and violas. T he latter are not in a
compa rab le registe r, which would have placed them an octave highe r,
on their A-string. They serve here to add warmth and body rather th an
br illiance to the unison .
Element C could be called an accompaniment of (he percussive ty pe,
a kind of harmonic coloring of the figure made by the tam bourine and
triangle (the triangle sounds higher in pitch t han the tambourine).
Brass and percussion are marked piano, as against mezzo forte fo r the
T1lP. I
rest of the orchestra. T he arrangement of the instruments on the alter-
II'D II
nating sixteent h note beats and afrcrbcats of element C is as follows :
c;:oo.NU I
'" A II

Y""u .

Fig. 114

The tenure for the basses binds all together and prevents dryness in
the accompan imen t.

Di stribution of the elements in Ex. 388:

Element A (melodv}: va. vc., bo. l and II
Element B (seco ndary melody): vn. I, vn. II, fl. I, ob. J, Eng. hn.
Element C (accompaniment): fl. II, d. I and II, hn. I, III and IV , rfp. I
and II, cornets I and II, timp., triangle.
t ambourine, d-b.
380 A N A L Y SIS S EC O x DA R Y ,\ 1 E L OD Y 381
EX. 389. l\lilhaud-'second Symphonic Suite p . '4. ed. D ura nd In th is example, the secondary melody appears in the for m of parallel
...... .-:-:-..
six-fo ur chords instead of a sing le line. T he English horn carries the
p rimary element, doubl ed t wo octaves above by t he pic colo. marked at
a considerably lower dyn amic level. The various dynamic markings in-
dicate different planes of orchest ral sound, and the effect is enhanced
by the presence also of different planes of harmony. Combined rhyth-
mic pa tterns in element C co nt ri bute to th e interest of t he textu re. both
of th e accompaniment and of th e over-all rhy t hmic str uc t ure.

, , ,
P um luion f;rUlt rd by Dllllnd el Ci t .• P ub, copyr i!hl own ers ; Elkan -Vold, Ph illddph la.. P&.. Isentl.

Distr ibution of the elements in Ex. 389:

Element A (melody): picc., Eng. hn.
Element B (seccndarv melody ) : vo. 1and II, va., vc.
Element C (accompajumenrf (0) fl: I and II, ob. I and II, cl. I and II
( b) um p.
(c) hn. I, II, and III, d-b.
 PART WRIT ING 383
The phrase shown is based on a pattern of four-voiced parr writing.
The four parts are given below, and identi fied by letter ( Fig. (J 5) .
C HAP T £ R T w E x T Y - TWO
T hese fund amental parts are known as " real" parts, as di fferentiated
fr om parts wh ich originate as doublings or ocrave red uplications.

TYPES OF T EXTUR E -TYP E IV,

PART WR ITI:\ G

Fig. 115

EX. 390 . Franck-Sym phony P' 10 0 , ed. Eulenburg The four real parts, with their octave and unison dou blings, are al-
lot ted to the thirteen wind instruments in the following manner:

r·
.~

[fl.
, ---;-- I , .--
- - - - -
• M:!' •• : _ 1 B 8 II
,
... . " A 8
8 [ b. I, cl. I Eng. hn., d. II, (ob. II)

bn. I, hn. I.
C bn. II, hn.II, (hn. Ill ) D bass cI.
In measure 3, there are irr egularities to be noted. The English hom
leaves B to follow C, and oboe II enters to play the remainder of B.
Bassoon I and horn I leave A and cre ate a new voice, ending on C:: (this
makes five real parts in th e cadence). Bassoon II and horn II change
...
n from C to B, while hom III plays the termination of C. These changes
enable some instruments to make a better diminuendo, and at th e same
time the cadenti al harmony is enriched.
T he violas add a decorative figure to th e cadence, finally joining
parr B-
It will have been noticed that the numerical d istribution of the in-
struments is far from equable. The octave doublings do not add ma-
terially to th e tone-weight of a part, but th e unison doublings do. Part
A, the melody, is obviously planned as the strongest voice. Parr D, the
bass, appears alarmingly weak. In performance, how ever, the passage
, is very successful in irs organlike sonority, if played with an ear to
Repr inted •.-jt h t he Perm iss io n of the .ole &lII:ents fo r E ulenbW III: !.f in i. tu re Scor es: C. F. Peten Corpon. - balance.
t ion . :" ew Yo rk.
l8l o
384 ANALYSIS PART WRITING 385
The part writing textu re is not to be confused wi th that of type II, _" A
in which melod y and accompaniment are two quite distinct elements
'---'
"
~
H ere, the melod y is just one of several oth erwise equal voices. 1-
EX. 391. J\ l ozart-Sy mphony in C major, K . 200 B ell:. . -'"
P: 16, ed. Philharmonia
Fig. 1 16
Menuerro
, fl 1l 1g- ~~ ,- Distribution:
n
I" r A 8 [YO.I, ob. I and II B 8 [ va.• vc.

," . .. ! vn. I I d-b.

H ....
<N C
q!' r The horns and trumpets gi\'c an illu sion of playing no other parts
th an these, despite their not being able to play the notes C~. B, A, or
F~ (w ithout recourse to sto pped notes on the horn, apparently not
TRP. " " con sidered good enough to usc) . On th e second beat of measure 2,
IN C I
'"
r they sound the only added note, G, the open fifth being a classical

,~ - '"
formula in dominant harmony for horns and trumpets.

EX. 392 . Beethovcn-Symphony no. ) p. 50, ed . Kalmus

"
\ '1<. I
. ~" ,,- ~ . ~
I ;;I

\ 'A .
I~ .~ I:E
""'>;: . -----
VG.,
H
r
The nu mber of real parts is most often th ree or four. In Ex. 39 1 there
are onl y two, as fo llows:
386 A NA L Y SIS PAR T WRI TI N G 387

H ere the texture changes from three parts in the first measure to EX. 393. Holst-The Planets P: 66, cd. Boosey & Hawkes
four parts in the third. Vi v>Ct

,........., F=i~ =~,.......,

..
l:l
~
,A A 0==
Ii.., ; ' B 1'-' ~ Iv i V
- , •.c.b n: , ,
,
D - •
Fig. 1 17

Distribut ion in Ex. 392:

meas. I and 2 me as.q meas. 4 and 5
A vn . I
[fl. vn. I

L"
8 I

8 va., bn. I (meas. a ) 8 [HI.I, cI. I

bn. I
B vn. I1 8 [ Ob. I vn.II
8 .
[ 72 va., bn. II (meas. 2)
8 [ vn. II, d. II

r[y,
bn. II U.ed by Ilermis.sion of ] . Cur"..en & Sons, Ltd.

c va.
On first sight, Ex. 393 looks to be a texture of seven parts . The effect
8 II
is, however, of but two basic melodic lines, top and botto m, mov ing
8 va.
in contrary motion. Each voice is given harmonic "thickening," the
%V3. upper moving in parallel root position triads, the lower in parallel six-

D 8 [ve. 8 [ve. 8 [ve. four chords.

d-b. d-b.
T he expressive power of the phrase is much heightened by the
variety and subtlety of this distribution. In measure 2 , the sounding of
the do uble appoggiatura in the violas, against the notes of resolution
in the bassoons, is an effect characteristically orchestral. The choice
of the oboe instead of flute II, to play th e second pan wi th flute I, is a
favorite procedure of Beeth oven.
The part-writing texture, composed of r eal parts with or withou t
d-b . doubling, is of ten found in the accompaniment element of the texture
type II. Even the primary element may he constructed in part wri ting
(see Chapter Twenty, Ex. 383) . It is also present in the structure of
cho rd connections, such as cad ences, where the voice leading of the
pan s is felt to be important. As mentioned previously, the phrase from
Schuma nn's First Symphony, quoted in Ex. 384, may be interpreted
as an elaboration of a basic pattern of four-part writing.

CHAPTER
TYPES OF TEXTUR E-TYPE V,
CONTR APUNTAL TEXT URE
CONTRAPUNTAL TEXTURE 389
The simple texture of thi s example is very common in or chestral
T\VENTY-THREE music. There are but two lines, start ing as if in canon but contin uing
in predominantly consonant int ervals, without close imitation. It is not
very different from two-voiced part writing.
Distribution in Ex. 394:
A 8 cn. I, fl. I and II, ob . I (o b. II, cl. I, at meas. 4)
vn. II, ob. II (e1. II, at meas. 4)

B 8 [~.a ., vc., bn. I and II

d-b.
cont rapun tal texture consists en tirely of melodic elements. The cadence, measures 7 and 8, is in four-voiced part wri ting.

T
HE

The melod ic lines may be designed in imitative counterpoint ,

or the y may be quite independent as melodi es. The texture EX . 395. Mo zart-Sy m pbollY ill G minor, K. 550
may be fugal, or it may present a combina tion of melodies th ematically p. 41, ed. Philharmonia
significant, perh aps previously heard sing ly, and so not new to thc ear.

EX. 394. Haydn-SY1l1phony in D (Glocken ) P: 4', ed. Eulenburg

.. . - .
Mmu<tt<>
~ ~ --;;:---

-.. ~.-
(II - II
,

<' ,
"' .. "

."
"- '
., •
,
~ ,
-p- - • ~

r
""_ Il
~ ~ •
.,
~
•
...
" Co,

,
388
390 ANALYSIS C O NTR A PUNT A L TEXT UR E 391

The contrasting patterns of the melodic rhythms, and the harmonic EX. 396. W agner-Prelude to T ristan und Isolde P' 4, ed. Kalmus
dissonances, make this an examp le of much stronger contrapuntal
effect.
Distribution in Ex. 395:
A 8 [fl.
( ob. t, cl. I, at meas. 3) B vn . I

8 [va.,
ob. I and II, d. I and II 8 L n. II (hn. I)

8 [ve. 8 L n. I and II (hn. lI)

d-b.
In measure 3. for the second half of the phrase, the oboes and clar i-
nets change to octaves, str engt hening the top pan and giving a brighter
sound than the continued unison would have made. Also the entry of
th e horns at that point strengthens line B where the bassoons are
weaker. The horns do not attempt to finish the melody, but repeat the
domi nant D as extra notes. The bassoons do not play with th e 'ce llos
and basses, as might be expected.
The vertical ranges of the two lines arc significant as orchestration .
Line A is th e bass, but with th e do ubling by the flute, and the strength
of the violas plus oboes and clarinets, it tends to sound in a pitch loca-
tion ver y near to that of line B. This impression is helped by th e plac-
ing of [he double-basses in a fairly high register.

,,
This passage is composed of three princi pal lines, with three less-
important entering voices, th e chief function of which is to add to the
sono rity in crescend o. These added parts are melodic, and the texture
is completely cont rapu nt al.

O'
392 ANALYSIS
CONTRA PUNT A L TEXT U R E 393

A 8 r:
Distribution in Ex. 396:

I, cl. I
c1. II, hn. I
D bn . J an d II (meas. 2)
EX. 397. Milhaud-Symphony no.

~·:r~
2 P: 98, ed. Heugel

B 8[VO. II E 8 [ hn. III (meas. 4)

va. hn. IV (mcas. 4)

C { bass d. (meas. a), hn. II (mC3S. 4) F En g. hn. (meas. 4)

d-b., bn . III
T he extra lines D, E, and F become much mor e significant from the
middle of measure 4, the clima x of the phrase. A t this point th e strings
cease p laying, and measure 5 is all win d tone in diminu endo. D, E, and
F may then be co nsidered as furnishing a continuation of lines Band
C.
Att ent ion is called to the rich tone color, and the predominance, of
line A, and the low pit ch of lines B and C. The few notes in measure I,
for En glish horn, first violins, and 'cellos, belong to the preceding
phrase.

R." prod uc~d

-
• •
by permission of Heugel et Cie., Puis, o...· ne" of the copyri ght.
•
The example given is a four-part texture, a fugal srrerro having two
parts in augm entation (the answ ering of the interval of a fourth by
a fifth is brought about through observance of tonal conventions of the
fugue).
 A N A L YSI S CONTRAPUNTAL TEXTURE 395
394
Distribution in Ex. 398:
Distribution in Ex. 397:
A y, vn. I, fl. I and II C % vc., trb. I A vn . I, vn. II
B vc., basscl.
D va., Eng. hn.
Ed-b., bn. I and II
8 [y, vn. I, ob. I and II, trp. I f
[ % ve .• bass cl., bn . I and II, rrb. II C hn. I and II
In this five-part counterpoint, it could we ll be advanced that the
B vn. II, cl.I D [ ruba violin melody is prominent enough to set it apart fr om the other lines.
[ One would then describe the texture as melody and accompaniment,
S va., cl. II, hn. I and II 8 d-b., contrabn.
the accompaniment being a four-voiced contrapuntal texture. The
In the last two measures, the piccolo is added to the upper part in distinction is subtle, but accented by the imitative relationships existing
time to play the F#. too high for the violins. Otherwise, the only de- in the thematic content of the four subsidiary melodies.
partures from the established arrangement are the forced octave change The doublings are unison doublings, with rwo minor exceptions. The
in the basses, and the omission of three notes, one unplayable, fo r the four notes taken an octave lower by the English horn in measure 5 are
contrabassoon. doubtless a sign that the composer did not like the sound of th e hig h
The orchestra is well balanced, with the brass to the fo re. T he bass Bb on that instrument. In the same measure the first bassoon is moved
is deep and ponderous, no doubt an intended effect. This is an excellent up an octave, perhaps to give clarity to the basses as they descend be-
example of a nearly fu ll tutti distributed among fou r melodic lines. low the G-string. The omission of the first note, in thi s bassoon dou-
bling of part E, avoids an overemphasis on the Db, which also sounds at
EX. 398. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra p. 56, ed. Boosey & H aw kes that moment in part B.

-,"

··· I~§

•..
, .
Co p yr illht 1946 by Ha.wkes & Son (London) Ltd t:sed b)' p.enllios;Oll.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE VI,
CHORDS
SOLAT E D chords-that is, ch ords affected littl e or none by voice
I leadin g-are to be stu died for the c~o ice of to ne color, th e v~ rtica l
sequence of the instruments, spacmg, balan ce, and equality of
registers. All of th ese attributes should be con sidered in relation to the
dynamic level and musical int ent of the chor d. Each chord ought to
be seen in its setting in the score.
The tone color is determined primarily by the instruments selected,
but it is also in a large measure affected by the manner in which the
instruments are combined. The chord may be scored exclu sively for
woodwinds, for brass, or for strings, or it may be scored for mixtures
of these. Chords for the ful1 orchestra (tutti chords) are common.
Pure colors, without unison doublings, may be used, or the chord may
be made up of mixed timbres. The particular sono rity of low registers,
or high, may be chos en. Emphasis may be placed on double-reed tone,
or on muted sounds. It should not be overlooked th at the harmonic
structure of the chord, its intervals, has an essential influence on its
tone color, apart from the instrumental sound.
Vertical relationships between instrumental tones are important in
securing an even vertical plane of sound, without noticeable breaks
where one tone color adjoins another. It is customary to distinguish,
in addi tion to octa ve and unison doubling, four relationships that may
exist vertically between pairs of instruments. These are overlapping,
superposition , interlocking, and enclosing.
O verlapping occurs when the lower of one pair of instruments is in
unison with the upper of a second pair.
396
CHORDS 397
In superposition, the two pairs are sit uate d one above the other with
no contact between them.
Fig. 1 19
Int erlocking is achieved by placing th e low er not e of the upper pair
beneath th e upper nore of th e lower pair.
In enclosing, both nares of one pair lie between th e two notes of th e
other pair.
~ )'Q'
enclosing : V ~ijlllll11]
Fig. III
The spacing of the chord sho uld be observ ed ; that is, wh eth er open
or close spacing is used, and w het her or nor th ere have been left any
spaces in whi ch it wo uld have been possible to place notes of th e
har mon y.
Th e balance of a cho rd is jud ged by th e relative tone-weig ht, or
carryi ng power, of each note, assum ing that the int ent is to create a
vertical plane of sound in which no to ne emerges or prot rudes per-
ce pt ibly tow ard th e hearer. An absolute judgment is rarely possible,
because of the many qu estions involved, but one shou ld form an
opinion for ref erence when the opportu nity comes to hear the chord
in an orchestra l perf orm ance. The largest contributing factors in
balance are the number of instrument s playing each note, and the rcla-
398 ANALY SI S
rive dy namic power of the individual instruments in th eir particular
registers.
The use of weak and strong registers is always to be taken into ac-
counr where wind instruments are con cerned. bearing in mind that
discrepancies are often corrected by the performers in music with
which the y are familiar.
A chord may be delibe rately overweighted in a part of its range in
order to emphasize the pitch location as low, medium, or high.
Examples of isolated chords are giHn below, in condensed score to
save space. The student is urged to examin e the ch ords in the full scores.
In the examples, all notes sound at the pit ch wr itten.
EX. 399. Weber-e-Ocerrare to DeTFreiscburz P: z.t. ed . Philhannonia
.... ~ ] 2 n..
.. H N .
t Vlol. I
- ]vw. II
.IT (strings tremolo)
Example 399: A clear and brilliant tutti chord, occurri ng in the mid -
•
dle of the overture. T he majo r triad in root position is naturally a most
resonant cho rd since its facto rs are identified with the overtones from
its lowest note. The structu re of the harmonic series is also sugge sted
by the observation that cho rds sound clearer when the lower intervals
C H O R DS 399
are the more widely spaced ones. From this standpoint, the E in the
second trombone seems less ideally placed than the other notes.
Vertical relationships: superposition-flutes, oboes; tr umpets, horns;
inrcrlocki ng-coboes, clarinets; overlapping-oboes, trumpets; trom-
bone s, bassoons. The woodwinds are placed high, above the brass, ex-
cept for the overl apping wit h the trumpets and the plac ing of the bas-
SOOIts in the lowest octave. The brass being so mu ch more powerful
than the wo odwinds, the latt er serve principally as reinforcement of
upper partials.
The tremolo strings are very brilliant as placed, so that th e chord is
quite evenly balanced throughout. Instruments not having unison dou-
bling arc oboe I, horn I, horn IV, trombone II, and bassoon II. Exc ept
for trombone II, these receive acoustic reinforcement from th e funda-
mental tone. Even the bassoon benefits by the strong difference to ne
from the octave C's.
EX . 400. Brahms-Symphony no. 3 p. 65, ed. Kalmus
Z IS . :e:
V'" . II ~
QJVS.'
Ol V.
, vc, - . 1>-1•
Example 400: A soft closing chord of a slow movement. The to ne
color is a blend of the luminosity of the high violins and flutes, with the
dark tone of the minor thi rd, played on the C-string by the violas and
doubled by the closely spaced tr ombones.
The spacing of the chord aUOYlS the ear to separate these two colors,
400 ANALYS IS CHORDS 401

th rough the omission of the G just above the horns. Such open spaces amount of crescendo to th e capacity of th e woodwind or to sacrifice
arc often found in soft chords, and they permit the overtones of lower balance to achieve th e dramatic effect want ed by th e composer.
instruments to sound. The result is less satisfactory in loud chords, as
then the overtones are not strong enough to compete with nearby in- EX. 40l. Strauss-Don Juan p. If. ed. Kalmus
struments. I Jere the unison of double-basses wit h the open 'cello C
is particularly rich in upper partials in the neighborhoo d of t he horns
and clarinets.

EX . 4 01. Berlioz-Romeo et Juliette p. 53. ed. Eulcnburg

,"
It) # J 11{N.

1'PP Joke e- D- B.
(omitted: harp ar~ggio;
glockenspiel tremolo on eve E)
Reprlnt ed ....lth th e permi ssion of th e topyri~t own e1'$ C. F. Peters Corporation. N ew Yo rk.

Example 402 : The dyn amic level marked is unusual in a com plete
<0- D- B.
P-=;tT = -.1' tutti of a large or chestra. The effect is rich and sump tuous, and could
(su. and limp. tremolo) not be obtain ed with the thinner texture of a smaller group of instru-
Repr int ed with the permission of th e so le ag enu. for Eulen bu rg ~Ii niatu rc Score s : C. F. Peters Co rpora-
lLon, N ew York. ments . Here the extreme softness of a triple piano is, of course, to be
tak en in a relative sense, as soft as possible. The instruments are not all
Example 40r : This is a chor d of medium low register. N ote the
in weak registers, bur this is not unexpected in a chor d extending over
overlapp ing in flut es, obo es, and clarin ets, and the interlock ing of vio-
so wide a range. The two high flutes are not doubled.
lin double-stops. The major thi rd overto ne is guarded against by the
This dominant major ninth is another of th ose chords that follow in
stron g doubling, even tri pling, of th e uppe r C's. The only parts left
th eir structure the interval seq uence of the harm onic series. The root
without do ubling are flute I, kettl edrum I. and th e basses. There are
appears only in the low est octave, except for th e high kettledrum's F~,
no open spaces exccpt th e bottom oc tave.
played very softly with soft sticks. From th e C~ in trombone III and
The indicated crescendo from piano to fortissimo, th en returning
'cellos upwards, all spaccs are filled with chord tones. It is of interest
to piano, introduces a serious problem of balance. The trombones and
that the three upper appearances of G#, the ninth, are not doubled
timpani can easily surpass the other winds and most str ing sections, in
(flute I, oboe I. tru mper I).
power of cr escendo. H orns can do better than woodwinds in thi s
respect, especially when th e latt er are, as here, in th eir least powerful
rcgisters. T he con ducto r will have to decide whether to limit the
402 ANALYSIS CH O RDS 403
EX. 403. Stravinsky-Sy mphonies of lVind Instruments EX, 404. \V. Schuman-Sympbony no. 3 p. 8 1, cd. G . Schirmer
p. 15. ed, Boosey & Hawkes
• oe.

,'=:::: 4 Hl< .
;".,

(X)!'n
8u
_'l_
b.ss.
.:. .:oe: n :u.

n o. II

:a: 0..1 .
§ - = = (AYJ
Example 4 0 3: A soft wind chord, hannonically a combination of Cop )'ripl 1942 by G. Sc:hlnnu. Inc.

tonic and dominant. The stopped horns, with muted tru mpets, trom-
Ex. 404: H ere the triads of C majo r and Eb major are combined into
bones, and tuba, blend on fairly equal terms with the woodwind. The
one chord. the fonner being situated in the lower registers and th e
woodwind doublings arc worth y of close study. \Vi th the high clari-
lart er in the higher pitches. The tw o components may be distinguished
net and oboes, the th ree flutes make a bright color, added [ 0 the high
by the ear as two layers of sound, an effect further faci litated through
first tru mpet. There are more open than close intervals, giving room
th e absence of the not e G between horns and trumpets. The upper
for the partials of both C and G [0 sound. The only close dissonance
wood winds are massed in"superposition above the high trumpets, fur-
is the minor second made by th e first horn against the mixed timbre of
nishing a sonority of force and brilliance for the E b part of the chord,
seco nd trumpet, clarine t, and English hom.
whereas the stri ngs and lower winds are given positions of less inten-
sity and carrying power. The entire chord is dominated by the brass
tone, and if balance is to be achieved it will be necessary for trumpets
and trombones to play somew hat under the dynamic level indicated.
EX. 405. Hindemith-SY111phony : Mathis der Maler P' 'j. ed. Schorr CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE

. , TYPES OF T EXTURE-TYPE VII,

eo 1\ 1 P LEX T EXT U R E
•
"

"" .,11
~ ,

seen how elem ent s of a texture may be themselves

W
HAVE

, divisible into smaller un its or suhc lcmcnrs. In the texture of

'" Type I, the melodic line may be " th ickened" by one or more
.,
""
" parallel intervals, and eventually be more or less completely hanno-
" nized. TIle clement of accompaniment (Type II) may be quite com-
plex, and consist of a number of separate det ails. In T ype III , more
than one secondary melody may be pr esented, th e combined melodic
elements approaching a contrapuntal texture. The number of real parts
no..
n: ••'" or melodic voices may be increased in Types IV and V.
By combining two or more of the textures we have described as
Types I to VI, a texture is created that is complex in \'arying degree.

Refer to Example 405 on facing page.

Example 4°5 : The primary element in this passage is th e chorale-like

Copyr ight 19304 by B. Schott's Soehn e,
melody played by the first trumpet. Its thematic importance has been
previously establi shed in the piece . H ere, it is pre sented as the top
lola.in~. U~d by permission.
voice in a texture of part w riting for the brass, with the added support
of the clarinets. The secondary melod y ( piccolo, flutes, oboes) , in
contrasting rhythm, is likewise th ematic, w hile a third melodic ele-
ment consists simply of a descending scale for the strings, varied by
the violins. The held pedal bass may be considered a fourth element.
405
406 ANALYSIS
The distribution of these elements may be shown in schematic form
m
as follows:
Element A (melody harmonized in part writing):
a (melody ): 8 [tr P ' I, d . I and II

hn. I, trb. I
b (parts) : hn. II, III and IV, trp. II, trb. II

Element B (secondary melody) :

8 r. fl.
ob. I and II

Element C (descending scale): 8[vn. I

8[vn. II

8[va. ,. ~,
--- ' .....••
vc. ' ~
=-
Element D (renuro bass): 8[ bn. I, rrb. III "" ,',
_ ~ T

8[ bn. II, ruba, y, d-b. .

'" m,. J,.., "0

, - - - - -- --- -
Y, d-b. "'" .. ' .J ."..

The horn and trombone do not continue their octave doubling of

the melody all the way. The part writing is in fact quite free. giving the
impression of a weaving of six pacts. However, the pans arc not at all
times independent voices (compare trumpet II and horn III in measures
t and a}.
Elements A, B, and C, are marked at different dynamic levels.
..

EX. 406. Strauss-Symphonia Domestics f facing 1

P' 24. ed. Associated Music Publishers ".•.
With au thori ution of the origi na.l pu blishers Ed. Bote &: G. Bock, Berlin , Wiesba den .
40R A NAL YS I S COMPLEX TEXTURE 409
Exam ple 406: T he t wo textu res making up this page of music arc EX. 407. Bartok-Concerto [or Orchestra
both of type II, and they nrc closely related in th ematic content. They p. I 16, ed. Boosey & Hawkes
are, how ever, clearly differentiated in meter and rhythm. and also in
general musical character. The orc hestr ation carri es out the idea of
du ality by skillful usc of tone colors and pitch levels.
The distr ibution is as follow s:
T extu re I:
Element A (melody ) : ob. d'am., Eng. hn. hn. I and II, vn. I, va.
Element B (accompaniment ): c1. I and II, hn. Ill , IV, V and VI. vn.lI
T extu re II :
Element A (melody) : ob. I and II, D cl., A cl. (meas. I ) , fl. I and
II ( fr om rncas. 2)
Element B (accompaniment ) : bn . LIl , III, and IV, timp., vc., d-b.

In texture II, a secon dary melod y enters in measure 4 (flu te III, A

clarin et ) . The Bb clar inets join element A of texture I in measur e 5·
The sonority of texture I is large and full, while texture II is heard as
thou gh in th e background. There is no octave doubling of either
melod y, excep t in measures 4 an d 5 (oboe II ) , where the two lines are
.. ~_ 1 ,....
farther apart.

,
Copyright 1946 by H aw h s & Son (London) L td. Used by permission.

E xample 407: Two contrapuntal textures are combined here, both

composed of can onic entries at a time interval of one measure. They
are contrasted in rhythm and tone color. The over-all texture is spare.
In the first two measures, the oboes reinforce the first three notes
of the flute entries. The clarinets are doubled in measure 5, because of
their comparatively weak register, and because of th eir situ ation in the
midst of so many voices.
Another kind of comp lex texture is not th e p roduct of a synt hesis
of other textures, but is an ensemble of many elements, none of whi ch
emerges as a primary element . The ear is attrac ted momentar ily to
various derails, and almost at once diverted to oth ers. Someone has aptly
 CO .\l P LEX TEXT U RE 411
called this effect of a woven musical fabric a "tapestry of sound ." Ex-
ample 40 8 is a good illustration.

EX, 4 0 8. Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Printempr [facing J

P' 9, ed . Russe

Example 408 : All of the motives and figures have been int roduced in
the preceding pages of the score, so that they are not unfamiliar to the
listener. Some pares are obviously subordinate, like the chord held by
the double-basses, and the figure for the bassoons might be regarded
•
~
as an accompaniment figure. But the separation into melodic and ac-
com paniment elements does not seem properly descriptive of the effect
of this music.
Several groupings can be made, reducing the thirty-one instrumental
parts to a considerably smaller number of clements. The following is a
classification of the elements in a hy porherical order of importance.

...,.
~
Difference of opinion is not only welcome d but encouraged.
A: D el.
B: altern ating between ob. l and D trp.
,. C: e1. I
D: Eng. hn.
E : pice. I and II, forming one line
F: ft. I, ob. 1l and Ill , e1 . Il, (later ft. in G)
G : bn. II and III, co ntrab n. Tand II, hn. III and IV, vc. I, d-b . VI
H : fl. II. c1. III, va., haying a similar fu nction
I: bass e1.
J: fl. in G, conneering later with solo vn.
.
,.
K: vc. II, d-b, 1,Il,IIl,IV, and V (chord)
The complex textu re of this type is occasionally used for the evoca-
tion of a special atmosphere, or for the suggestion of extramusical ideas
( Honegger-Pacific 231) . It may be employed as a backgro und on

.'l:~!!!!!!!i!!!~~;~;!;::~!~~!!
::c. • - which to superimpose one or more melodies.

.••.
...
~
",
 THREE
PROBLE,\IS IN ORCHESTRATION
 CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX

ORCHESTRA TION OF MELODY

N THE study of harmony, counterpoint, and other technical aspects

I of writing music, the results of practical exercises can be tested in

sound by singing, or by playing on the piano. It should be obvious
that these testing methods can have little or no value to the student of
orchestration. Nothing short of a well-rehearsed performance by a
good orchestra can show the student the one proof he needs to have-
namely, how his orchestration sounds. Even a well-intentioned "read-
ing" will very likely give him a wrong impression of the quality of his
work. Since the resources of a good orchestra arc rarely, if ever, avail-
able, the student is forced to rely upon the criticism of a more experi-
enced person, his own store of information, and the judgment of his
work by analogy with similar passages in scores.
The orchestration of piano music, although providing convenient
material, is an exercise too advanced and specialized for early stages
in the study of orchestration. The action of the pianoforte pedal can-
not, and should not, be ignored, and once the question is raised of
representing its effect in terms of the orchestra there is no end to the
vexing, not to say insoluble, problems for both teacher and student.
Exercises should be devised that present conditions similar to those
of ordinary problems that confront a composer or orchestrator. It is
also desirable that they involve contact with orchestral scores when-
ever that is feasible. Problems can be invented by the student or the
teacher. Some suggestions as to their nature will be made in these pages.

p
416 PROBLEMS ORe H ESTRA TI ON OF ,\ 1E L 0 D Y 417
Other possibilities are the reduction in the number of instruments
MELODY FOR STRINGS
in a section and the usc of solo players.
Problem 1. Melody to be scored for strings.

UNISO'S" DOUBLING

Possibilities for unison doubling in the strings are : vn. I + vn. II,
vn. I + +
va., vn. I vc., vn. II +
va., vn. II +
\T., va. + vc., vn. I +
Fig. 122 vn. II + va., vn. I +vn. II +
vc., vn. I va. + +
VC., vn. II +
va.

To derive the most benefit from exercises, one should not be satisfied
to find but one or two solutions. These arc nearly always immediately
apparent and easy, which does nor mean they may not be the best. As
many solutions as possible should be found, and their relative merits
and individual qualities appraised. In this way a technique of orchestra-
tion may be built up and expanded.
The possible solutions to a given problem will faii into three over-
lapping categories: (a) normal or natural; (b) unusual or novel; and
(c) strange or grotesque. The first of these is of course the most im-
portant, and the most difficult. The second is perhaps more interesting,
+ vc. The'cellos seem out of place in these doublings because the in-
tensity of the high tones on the A-string contrasts with the tone quality
of the other instruments. The penetrating sound of the viola A-string
can be avoided by marking the last half of the melody sui D.
The unison of violin I and violin II, with or without violas, gives
breadth and power. It is often used to maintain predominance of a
melody against a full background. The violas add much warmth and
tone-weight to the combination.
OCTAVE DO{}BLI~G

and is an essential area of inquiry for the orchestrator. The third need vn. I
s[vn. I s[va. s [vc.
nor be explored, since it is the easiest; in fact, arrangements of this son
are more often than not the product of ineptitude.
8 [vn.II va. vc. d-b.
These are the most common arrangements in octave doubling, the
SOLUTIO'S" WITHOUT DOUBLING first two requiring the placing of violin I an octave higher (Fig. 12 3a).
The combination of violas and 'cellos seems ideal for the present
The melody should be listened to mentally as played by each of the melody (Fig. 12 3b). Combining violas and basses this way is not prac-
strings, first as it is written, then in octave transposition. Transposition tical here because of the high pitch of the bass part. If the violas are
by other intervals is also to be considered. For instance. placing the part replaced by 'cellos, the part can be put in the lower octave (Fig. 123')'
a fifth lower would make quite a different effect on violas or 'cellos.
Other than octave transpositions will not usually be discussed in these
chapters, for reasons of space.
If the melody is assigned to double-basses, without transposition, it
would sound an octave lower, and although it is not impossible of
execution thus , the result would be most unusual, even strange. \Vrieren
down an octave, it is in a good range for the basses, but it would sound
better with octave doubling by the 'cellos. The melody as it stands is
entirely suitable for violins or violas.
Fig. 123
41S PROBLEMS ORCHESTRAT ION OF MELODY 419

Inversion of the natural order of pitch of the instruments (p lacing violin II to preserve balance is shown in Fig. I2 5 (a) , unison doubling
violas above violins, 'cellos above violas) is to be considered an unusual to emphasize the lower voice (b), and accenting the upper voice by the
arrangement, used for special effect. This principle applies even to same means (c) .
placing violin II above violin I.
•• VN. I b. VN. I DIV.

TWO-OCTAVE DOUBLING

sen , [vn., s[""·' Stva.

S[vn.II
va.
8 vn. II
sL sevc.
s
vc.

d-b.
The first of the above schemes carries the first violins into the ex-
VN. II DIV.

treme high range, and it is of ethereal effect. \Videning the sonority

nc.
over two octaves enriches the tone, and at the same time renders it VN.1l

more impersonal in expression. T his quality is enhanced, and an impres-

sion of aloofness imparted by omitting the middle voice (Fig. 12+2).
Octave doublings may exte nd over three and fou r octaves, Fig. 114. Fig. 12 5
(b) and (e).
MELODY FOR WOODW INDS
•• \'N. I
~ Problem 2. Melody to be scored for woodwinds.

\'N. II
nc. ttc.
•c.

T he instruments available in all problems are, unless otherwise stated,

those of the standard symphony orchestra with woodwind by threes,
four horns, three trumpets, three trombones, tuba, harp, percussion,
and strings. In the woodwind section, the third family members are
nc.
presumed to be the auxiliary instruments-piccolo, English horn, bass
v
clarinet, and contrabassoon. Needless to say, it is not expected that all
the available instruments will be used in each problem. The acquisition
Fig. 1 24 of an instinctive feeling for the orchestra as an instrument is furt hered,
however, by a continued awareness of the presence of those instru-
These resources of variety are en large d by the use of divided strings, ments that do not happen to be playing.
and by combining unison doubling with octave doubling. Di vision of
420 PROBLEMS ORCHESTRATION OF MELODY 421

SOl.UT IOS WITHOUT DOCBUSG UXISOS" DOUBLISG

To one experie nced in orchestral wr iting J melody will at once sug- Unison doubling involves the creation of mixed timbres. T his was of
gest certain instruments, or perhaps one particular instrument most less importance in dea ling w ith strings, which are far more alike in tone
suited for its performance. A composer usually creates melodies with color th an arc th e woodwind inst ruments. Furthermore, th e greater
the instruments in mind. alt hough he is conscious of the fact th at a disparity in th e different registers of each woodwind instrument ren-
melody written for one instrument can perfectly well be assigned to de rs th e matt er of th eir com bination more complex.
anoth er, with or wit ho ut mino r changes or tr ansposition. Two instruments playing in unison reinforce each ot her, but at th e
:\s for th e stu dent. he should conside r each instrument in tu rn, ob- same time each ten ds to cancel some of th e int ensity of the ot her's tone.
serve its suitability to the melody in respect to range and other technical The un ison of two instruments of the same kind possesses somewhat
points. never omitting the effort to hear mentally the sound of each Jess th an twice th e tone-weight and carrying power of one. A lso, the
instrument. Following arc some ty pical observations rele vant to prob- subtle fluct uati ons of expressive playing are bound to be in large part
lem 2. destr oyed when two play in unison.
Piccolo-sounds an octave higher; the melody is good as it stands; if Unison doublings are used for dy namic reinf orcement and to ob-
written an octave highe r, th e soun d might be too shrill, un less in large tain ne w (One colors. T he stud ent should sto re up in his memory as
combinations. many of th ese mixed timbres as he can by hearing orchestras, with
Flurc-c-compararively gende in th is range; proba bly better an octave knowledge of the scores. T hey cannot be described in words. When
higher. two instr uments of different tone colors play a melody in unison, th e
O boe-c-sraccaro and accents better th an those of the flute; excellent predominance of one or th e other color will vary throughout the
range and sty le; also suitable an octave lower. rather rough. phrase. as the rel ative int ensities vary .
English horn- parr ro be written a fifth highcr. hence too high in It will be useful to the stu dent to consider the possibilities of unison
th e pitch given ; better an octave low er ; less in charac ter than th e oboe. doubling in the following list,
Clarinet-in good range and style. especially th e sixteenth note
pice. + ft. +
ft. bn. Eng. hn. + bn.
figure; staccato a little heavier than on t he oboe. also good an octave
pice. + ob. ob. + Eng. hn. cI.+ bass cI.
below, but q uieter; pan written a major second higher.
pice. + cI. ob. + cI. cI.+ bn .
Bass clarinet-write our in both French and G erman notation (see
ft. + ob. ob. + bass cI. bass cl.+ bn.
Chapter Nine) ; ginn pitch too high. possible an ocrav e lower but best
ft. + Eng. hn. +
ob . bn. +
bass d . conrrabn.
range two octaves down ; good style, staccato a little slow .
ft. + cI. Eng. hn. + cI. bn. + conrrabn.
Basscon -c-exccllcnr one octave lower; sharp, dry staccato, appro-
priate ch aracte r; two octa ves lower playable but subdued in quality;
ft.+ bass cI. Eng. hn. + bass cI.
three octa ves lower possible bur sluggish. As far as problem 2 is concerned, oboe and clarinet cannot play high
Co nt rabassoon-part to be w ritten t wo octaves lowe r, sounds still enough to double the piccolo, unless the clarinet is asked to ascend to
another oc tave down; speaks slowly in this ty pe of music; better omit high C; and because of the first Bb, the flute cannot play an octave
some no tes; perha ps give it only the accents and slurs oc curring in lower to double the English horn, bass clarinet. or bassoon . The com-
measures 2, 3, and 4. binations with contrabassoon are not satisfacto ry for this melody.
The best rhythmic stacc ato will be obt ained with oboe plus clarinet;
422 PROBLEMS ORCHESTRATION OF MELODY 423
in the octave below with clarinet plus bassoon; and in the high
octave with flute plus piccolo.
Further possibilities are the unison doublings of three or more in-
struments.

OCTAVE DOUBLIXG

Octave doubling involves the equalizing of registers to preserve

Fig. 128
balance. Ordinarily, two instruments of the same kind, as two oboes,
do not balance an octave apart because of the difference in registers. Another often stated rule is that instruments must be kept in the
This is not a rule, but rather a caution to serve as a guide in considering natural order of pitch; namely, flute above oboe, oboe above clarinet,
individual cases. It is perhaps oftener true than not, but the peculiarities clarinet above bassoon. Inspection of almost any score will reveal vio-
of the instrument in question, the pitch of the octave, and the dynamic lations of this rule, inevitable considering the extent to which the ranges
level, affect the validity of this as a principle. overlap. There is nevertheless the prestige of usag~ to support the prin-
ciple, and those combinations we classify as normal or natural will
(Ion.. !>
b.
n FL. PI Ce. 0 •. 0 •• usually conform in a general way. Inversions of the order, when they

~ I!

r~
B
I
OB.e.
;;
ENG. HN.
prove successful in balance, come under the heading of unusual or
novel arrangements (Fig. 129).
Fig. "7

ln Fig. 127 (a), the octave C for two flutes will be in uneven balance,
whereas the octave B is quite good. The high E is much more brilliant
than the lower E. The usefulness of the auxiliary instruments is shown
by the combination of flute and piccolo, the piccolo sounding the
Fig. 129
octave above from a fingering identical with that of the flute . In (b)
the octave C, in contrast to that for two flutes, has the lower note the Doublings embracing two or more octaves may be used (Fig. 130a),
stronger of the two. The octave A is in good balance. The octave C and for special effect two instruments may play at a distance of two or
is much better balanced if the English horn replaces the second oboe , more octaves apart (Fig. I 30b).
playing a written G on the instrument.
A melody such as we are considering in problem 2, covering a range b.
Plcc.~
of an octave, needs careful attention to the matter of registers when
assigned to woodwind in octaves. Following are some workable solu-
nons. ,,,.
B1'I.

Fig. 130
p.
424 PROBLE,\IS ORCHESTRATION OF ,\ I E L O O Y 425
Unison doublings are combined with octave doublings for added
OCTAVE IX>UBLlNG
strength, to emphasize a particular pitch location, or to correct balance
that may be faulty because of disparity in registers. For example, in
Fig. 130 (a). the balan ce would be improved by doubling both clarinet
and bassoon with other instruments, the bassoon being especially at a T1lP . II TRB . III HN. II
disadvantage. Fig. 132

MELODY FOR BRASS

Problem 3. Melody to be scored for brass.
Maesrosc
~IJJ£ir.i~ Ei~
f -=~u ;
These combinations have each a slight unevenness due to differences
in registers, but they do not show the audible differences in attack ex-
hibited by the combinations in Fig. 133 (the entire melody should be
:> taken into consideration).
NN.

Fig. 131

Fig. 133
SOLUTIOS WITHOUT DOUBLISG

Trumpet-good range as written; playable an octave lower, bur first
two measures too low for good effect.
Horn-too high as written; good an octave lower; [,VO octaves lower
possible, but too low to sound well alone .
T rombonc-c-good an octave lower; also good two octaves lower but
less appropriate.
H ere the difference in articulation between the action of slides and
that of valves is quite noticeable; also the slowness of the horn to speak.
The horn also lacks tone-weight, compared with its companions in the
brass section. These discrepancies are to a large extent mitigated, or
covered, by the use of unison doubling and mixed timbres (Fig. '34) '
, II 1lU'. I. II Ifl'l . 1, III

T uba-one octave lower suitable only for the euphonium; for the
bass tuba in F, good two octaves lower; also three octaves lower if fiT -T1 <i.
T1lP. III
w ,. I I
Hl'I. II, IV
I-"
combined with heavy sonorities. etc. etc.
1- ~.,

UNISOS" OOCBLlS"G ~.,

I I I-"
T1lJl. III

The unison of two or three trumpets is excellent, and in general ,"'.

preferable to octave doubling in which the third trumpet is placed low.
Horns may play two, three, or four on the same part. If pitched two
HN. I. Ill.. TJUl. l, II etc.
ocraves below the melody as given, the second and fourth horns would
HN. II., rv, T1UI. III
play in unison . One octave below the given pitch is a good range for
the unison of three trombones. The unison of horns and trombones is
effective and normal. The fourth horn might double the tuba, two .
ct

octaves bcloc..· the melody as given. Fig. '34

426 PROBLEMS
THE GROUPS COM BIS ED
Problem 4. Melod y to be scored fo r strings , ssood-uin d , and bran.
Fig. 135
STRI:'\GS ASD W OOOW ISD
A woodwind instrument may dou ble a string sect ion at the octave
abov e or below, e.g., flute above violin I, bassoon below. T his usually
sounds well in soft nuanc es, bur when loud it is necessary to dou ble th e
woodwind part [0 balanc e the strings. The un ison doub ling of strings
by woo dwi nd is comm on. All combinations arc good. wh erever th e
ranges coin cide. Co nsidering the extent of the string ranges, th ere are
few doublings that do not offer at least a restricted possibility. The
student may compare the ranges to see what th ese are. Some unisons
of strings and woodwind seem especially congenial and colorful, al-
though it should be emphasized th at the kind of music being play ed is
of para mount importance in this respect. Also th e different intensities
will create different tone colors in different parts of the range . As il-
lustration, let the following combinations be con sidered thro ughout
the range of the wind instrument: vn. + +
fl., va. Eng. hn., vc. + bass
+
cl., d-b. contrabn.
In general, when a single woodwind is added to a string part it
serves to strengthen th e str ing to ne, and if the dy namic level is fairly
loud its own color will be mor e or less absorbed . If the woodwind is
doubled by another woodwind , th e wind tone begins noticeably to
assert itself.
BRASS AND W OODWI ND
Associating with brass, th e woodwind finds itself again in compa ny
with sonorities more powerful than its own. The horns are more capa-
ble than the heavy brass of blending with woodwind, their tone being
ORCHESTRAT ION OF MELODY 427
much less un yielding. T hey are therefore a helpfu l link between the
two groups. In piano, octave doublings are of good effect betwee n
trumpet and flute, horn and flute, oboe , or clarinet . In forte, the wood-
winds act as reinforcement of uppe r partials of the brass, and th ey re-
quire as much doubling as may be available, if a balance is to be ap-
proximated . The low-pit ch ed bassoons and bass clarinet cannot per-
fonn this fun cti on, so th ey are usually engaged in doubling the bass,
with the tuba, th ird trombon e, and fourth horn.
Unison doubling of tru mpet s by wood wind (cla rinets and oboes)
adds a certain amou nt of tone-weight, but it reduces the characteristic
br illiance o f the trumpet ton e. H orns make effectiv e unisons with clari-
nets and bassoons. \\'ood wind unisons with tro mbon es are not often
useful. The tuba combines quite well with bass clarinet and contrabas-
soon .
STRISGS, W OODWISD, ASD BRASS
Sin ce prob lem 4 does not specify a full tutti, th e melody may be
scored for only part of th e three instrumental groups, even thinly. Far
from disco uraging this type of solut ion to the problem, let us say th at
the use of pure colors, that is without much unison doubling, leads to
a more interesting, clear, and transparent orc hestral sono rity, gr eatly
to be desired. On th e oth er hand, considering the orchestr a as a wh ole
as an instrument, it is necessary to acquire some early familiarity with
th e rather commonplace process of handling large groups of instru-
ments in a norma l way.
Am ong th e many alternatives existing, two different approaches arc
suggested below. In Fig. 136(a) , the sound is con centrated in a narrow
range, one octave, and, since the effect intended is that of an orchestral
forrissimo, nearly all the instruments are used. This makes a very thick
tone, wit h much unison doubling. The instrument s of th e lowest
octave, double-basses and contrabassoon, have been omitted in the
interest of concentration in-the single octave. The tuba is omitted, and
also the seco nd and third trumpets, to save the over -all tone fr om being
comp letely that of the brass, especially in measure + The piccolo is
not used lest the rang e be widened by anoth er octave.
428 PR 0 B LE~1 S OR CHESTR ATIO :-: O F ~ IE L O D Y 429
In Fig. 136 ( b ) , the range is widene d to fo ur octaves, giving a mor e
brilliant result. A ll the instru ment s arc included (all shown at actual
pitch) .

r
a. / .1h '
~ fC
P IC C ., l FL.
I en.• rSG. 11"' _. 1 ra, &
,
6 _
~

n, !IN.
0 8. <NC. . . .I - Fig. ' 37
J I N ., BASS ci,

-
c-as. .. "'-
The follo win g melodies are co be sco red in vario us ways , for dif-
ferent combinations of strings, woodwind, and brass.
l.-I'l TRP . I, HN . I, m,TIlB. I ·A J TRP. ,
I" -- ~ TlU'. m
H S . I , III -- I --
tic. etc.
,
,. ..
I TIlB . , H:<;. II, IV
H S . 11 rv

ru"

~~ e-
-"'- Fig. ' 38

/A \ 'N . I, II, VA.

~~ ' e:
Problem 6.
I~ - I ~ VA.
r -
,C

Fig. 136
e-a. .... . "'-

In th e suggested solutions to the foregoing pr oblems, the arrang e-

Fig. ' 39
ments given arc int ended to con tinue throughout the phrase. Actually,
both un ison and octave doublings may be int ro du ced for only part of
a melo dy, for reasons of inte nsity or volume, changing color, or sudden Problem 7.
accent. Doub lings will usually acc um ulate in the course of a gr adua l
crescendo. A melodic line extending over a very wid e range will neces-
sitate joining one cone co lor to another . If possible, the joining is made
w here there is not a marked contrast of registe rs, and the pares arc Fig. 140.
overl apped by at least one note (Fig. 137) .
430 PROBLEMS
Problem 8.

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN

BACKGROUND AND
Fig. 141 ACCOMPANIMENT

HE arrangement of the accompaniment to a melody is more a

T matter of composition than of applying orchestral procedures.

The rhythmic style and the texture of the background is just
as much a part of the composer's thought as the melody itself. Har-
monically, the accompaniment supplies tonal orientation for the mel-
ody, harmonic color through the choice of chord structures, and the
motion of harmonic rhythm through the pattern of root changes. It
also supplies rhythmic designs and pulsation that establish the under-
lying rate of motion of the music, a function that can affect vitally the
musical meaning of the melody itself. The background is important in
setting an over-all mood or atmosphere.
Orchestration must confirm and enhance these musical qualities, and
it should not distort them by ostentatious display of orchestral "effects"
irrelevant to the musical meaning. The accompaniment mayor may
not be contrasted in tone color with the melody, although such con-
trast is one means of securing detachment of the melody from the back-
ground. A melody with accompaniment is very often played exclu-
sively by strings, less often by woodwinds or brass. It is valuable prac-
tice to try scoring phrases for the three groups separately.
It goes without saying that a melody should not be overwhelmed in
sound by its accompaniment. Skillfully managed, however, the accom-
paniment may be quite elaborate and still permit a melody played
softly by one or two instruments to be perfectly heard. This is what
is meant by transparency in orchestral texture. The sonority is heard as
431
 432 P RO B L E .\I S B A C K GR O U ND AN D A C CO .\I PAN t,\l E NT 433
th e total effect of a number of details. A good example may be seen in Problem 9.
Chapter Twenty, Fig. 385, from Debussy 's La ,\fer.
Allq:ro grv.lOSO
The alternatives in the arrangement of an accompaniment arc so elt melll A. ( melody)
many that copi ous perusal and analysis of orchestr al scores of all sty les
and periods becomes of prim e importa nce in a study of the sub ject . An
essential point to rem ember is th at orchestral figu ration and idiomatic
elt~nl B ( humonic backgroend)
''''ri ring originate in the techniques of the instruments. another reason
for avoiding as much as possible th e usc of piano music in the study of -
or ch estra tion . The best exerc ises are th ose which bring about closer , I
"-

con tact with scor es.

Four types of exercise are suggested :
I • •'I ake a redu cti on of a passage in a sco re, cont aining a melody

with accomp animent. Do not sho w the names of instr uments. R escor e
th e passage and compare the result with th e original. This is more
p rofitable when a second person makes the reducti on, bur one per<;on
can derive mu ch fr om the practice.
2. Supply an original melod y and harmonic backgr ound, the latter

in simp le harmonic skeleto n form, to be orchestrated fo r various instru-

mental gr oupings.
3· Similar to type 2 , bur with the kind of figuration and other details
of the accompaniment prescribed. Certain instruments may also be
stipulated.
4· Select a passage fr om orchestral literature, having a melody and Fig. I .p
accornpanimenr. Reorchestr ate the passage in different ways, radi cally
T his texture of t~.;.· o elements is to be orchestrated in the [oliou..'i JlI{ ~'jlYS:
changing the distribution of the two element s, e.g., melody in wood-
( 0 ) For strings Duly (it is understo od tbat elem ent 11 as given is th e
wind instead of strings, erc., but preserving as far as possible the ori gina l barnronic skeleton for an acconrp-mintent to be devis ed'[.
musical sty le. T his is a real composer 's problem. one that often presents ( b ) With the m elody in the -uioodwind, accompaniment in th e strings.
itself in the working our of a composition . Vari ants in the condit ions (c) W ith the melody ill the strings, accompanim ent in the woodwi nd.
(d) W ith th e groups mixed, and ,. .atb the addition of horns.
of the problem will at once come to mind. such as changing the dy-
namic level from piano to fortissimo, or transposing the passage up a
fifth, operations requiring no little readjustm ent in th e scoring. A most
valuable by -product of this exerci se will be the acquired intimate
knowledge of th e original orchestration.
434 PROBL EMS BA CK G RO U ND A ND A C COM PA NI M ENT 435
Solution (.1). Strings a/one. Doubtless the first sol ution that suggests itself will be th e obvious one
., AUtgro grazioso of assigning the given par ts as they stan d to t he string sections in norm al
------- ord er, oa., soprano, vn . I; alto , vn. II; ten or, va.; bass, ve ., w it h or w ith-
~
\IN . I

l' out double-b asses. As a ma tte r of fact, th is is an excellent arra nge ment,
and it would sound very well indeed.
!, The solut ion given in Fig. 143 is lighter in texture, and has the ad-

~ vantage of imparting a sense of motion at the beginning.

VN . II

p
~ .
~
. ~ .

. ------
Solution (b ). M elody ill the woo dwind.
------.
l'
~

- "----" .

~ 3:
P ~ .,

pin.
e-a.
l'

,
I I ~"
,
~ --- . ~.
~ .

£ § ~ Fig. 144
'-..'
This accompaniment is designed for transparency and lightness. It
can be divided into two subclements: (a) vn. I and II; ( b ) va., VC.,

,. .- l!o I•
--
~ having rests at different points. Double -basses arc often omitted in a
musical situation of this kind. The partial doubling by the flute is for
variety.

Fig. 143
436 PROBLEMS BACKGROUND AND ACCO~IPANIMENT 437
Solut ion (c) . M elody in strings. Solution (d). The groups mixed.

n .

."
""

I ~CCI. , ',!I~~!§~~~i1
I

,
'"

'""" .
Fig. 145
~ ,,~
In the solution shown, the intention was to create somewhat more in-
tere sting tone colors. The melody is played by divided first violins in
octaves, and a solo 'c ello in the octave below, the tone thus obtained
being thinner, and at th e same time more intense and personal, than if
all the first and second violins, with the fu ll 'cello section, had been
used. The bass line is ginn to the bass clarinet, partially doubled by .,
the English horn and bassoon. Clarinets and flutes contribute motion
and the remaining factors of the harmony. ' The cadential measures
show a four -voiced texture of part writing.

A warmer and more ample sonority was sought in this version. The
+
melody, start ing with the octaves, fl. I, vn. I, vc. hn ., stronger in the
horn and 'cello register, is given varied treatment from measure 4. The
quarter-note motive is passed over to the high flute, ob. I ent ering an
octave below . In measure 5 the combination is fl., vn. I, vc. +
E ng. hn.,
the latt er rep lacing hn. I, and the oboe changing to a harmo nic part.
For the last three measures the melody is in one octave, vn. I. +
ob. II,
43S- PROBLEMS BACKGROUND AND ACCO ,\\PANIMENT 439
vc: + Eng. hn., the flutes calling momentary attention to a secondary Typical solution.
vorce.
The accompaniment consists of the syncopated motive, d. I and II
+ vn. II div., based on notes of the harmony and arranged to have a
melodic curve of its own. It is joined by the horns at the cadence. This
is supplemented by the motive in the violas marking the second beats.
The bass is possibly a little [00 heavy because of the low pitch of the
double-basses. Their tone is clarified by the doubling in the bassoons,
also needed on account of the distance of the bass from the other parts.
Putting the basses in the upper octave would change the over-all sound
by increasing their melodic intensity, especially at measures 5 and 6.

Problem 10.

Allegro non Uoppo

--,.
HS . I
IN D
p

m .•

" Jtmprr

Fig. '48

Since, in the original scoring, the horn is in a rather high register, it

was decided to give the melody to 'cellos high on the A-string, modify-
H .
ing the intensity by the unison of violas, who would not be playing on
their A-string. In the accompaniment, the held tones of the strings are
Jlsmrtw r
replaced by a full horn quartet. It did not seem advisable to double
~ the initial A of the melody, as in the original, because in the new
,c situation the first horn would certainly be too prominent, as compared
I'srmprr to the first violins. The pedal A of the double-basses is well suited to
the octave of fourth horn and contrabassoon. For the arpeggio figure,
H a single instrument would be less appropriate in style than the more
psrmprr impersonal ensemble of bassoons, clarinets, and flute, considering the
Fig. 147. Brahms-Symphony no. 2 p. '9. ed. Kalmus use of both violas and 'cellos for the melody.
The passage is to be reorchestrated, changing the instrumentation assigned
to the two elements, melody and accompaniment.
440 PROBLEMS B A CK GROUND AND A C C O M P A N L\ I E N T 441
Problem II . Problem 12 .

,
dement A

Fig. ' 49
R escore the given passage in more tban one "~'ay, then compare the results
-uitb the original score, M end clssobn-c-Sy rnpbony no. 3 (Scottish), p. 11 2 ,
ed. Eulenburg.
Fig. 150 . Mo zart-Sy m phony in D, K. 504 p. 14. ed. Philhar monia
S core the phrase in three different versions for "..sood-uiind only, adding
t'U,·o hornsin one version.
442 PROBLEMS BA CK GRO UND A ND AC COMPANIM ENT 443
Problem 13. Problem 14.

'-c--::-~_
n. :,

~ ,
, .. ,* "

,. ok""", a

....- 11
Fig. 1 52

T his phrase is to be orchestrated in tv,,'o v ersions , th e m elod y to be given

t o the flute in the first v ersion, to a solo violin in the second.

•• .,
Fig. 151. Tc haikovsky-Symphony no. 4 P' 5. ed. Kalmus
R escore the passage abov e in the [oliouiing ways:
(a) Element A in the strings, element B in the woodwind, mezzo forte.
(b) For woodwind only, in close position, not over tw o octaves in
t otal spread, piano.
(c) For -uiood-unnd and boms, forte.
(d ) Elem ent A in strings and woodwind, element B in tbe brass, fortis-
simo.

CHAPTER TWE S'TY-EI GIIT
SCORI:-:G OF CHORDS
HE composer or orchestrator wh o sco res cho rds with consistent
T success from the stan dpoint of balance of tone, smoo th blend
of instrumental color, and appropriate dy namic effect, does
so because of a reliable memory of the sound made by each inst rument
at any gi ven pit ch and dyn amic level. H e does not do so because of
formulas and devic es learned from books. Cho rds for orchestr a can-
not be constructed by rule except in a very element ary sense, imitating
wh at oth ers have done before . Imitation has some value for stu dy pur-
poses, but it sho uld not be concluded tha t what sounds well in one
musical situa tion will necessarily be appropriate in another.
Especially in the combination of instru mental sounds, any stated
principle is immediately subj ect to qualification fro m so many angles
that its usefulness is brought into question. It is the aim of the pre sent
stu dy to make clear the nature of the se qualifying aspects in the scoring
of chords.
NUMERICAL BALANCE
When we say a chord is balanced we seem to imply that it forms a
flat verti cal plane of sound, with no individual voices protruding or
sounding mor e prominent than the others. It is possible to doubt that
such a chord can be written, given the assortment of instruments we
are committed to employ, and more than that, given the ch ord tones
and int er vals predetermined by our musical language. This equilibrium
of ton e is not assured simply by having th e same nu mber of instruments
.....
S CORING OF CHORDS 445
on each note of th e cho rd. In fact, the chord in Fig. ' 53 (a), with one
instrument to each note, is nevertheless quit e badly balanced .
It will be hardly necessary to point out, in chord ("'), the overpower-
ing tone of th e high notes for the three brass instruments, the com-
parative weakness of the low-pitched flutes, and the striking co ntrast
of the oboe C with th e second flute and the soft bassoon A.
A rearrangement of the same instruments is made in cho rd (b), re-
sulting in co nsiderabl e imp rovement -in the balance. T he brass are now
muc h less strident , the flutes are in bet ter position to be heard, and the
oc tave C of oboe and bassoon is a more even sound . H owever, the
ch ord remains in unsatisfacto ry balance, du e to th e di fference in
strength of woodwind and brass in fo rte. It sho uld be noted, inc iden-
tally, that the rou gh, strident qu ality of chord (a) has been sacrificed.
In (c) three more woodwinds have been add ed, making unison
doubliogs to tr y to match th e tone-weight of the brass. At th is point,
menti on must be made of the inadequacy of the horn to equ al the forte
of trumpet and trombone. T wo horns would be better th an one, but
this only helps the brass the more to overpower the woodwind.
The same cho rd is arranged for strings at (d ). In count ing the num-
ber of instruments assign ed to a part, it is th e custom to count a seerion
of strings (v iolin I, violin II, erc. } as one instrument . This is a con-
venient principle and is strongly support ed by the practi ce of com -
posers, although it admits a wide margin of error. To begin with, the
number of players to a section varies between orchestra s. Then there
is the matter of divided strings, whereby a half or a third of a section is
to be reg arded as a single instrument, as ind eed it can be, except by
com parison with another string section which happens not to be di-
vided. Finally, wh en we realize that a solo violin is entirely wort hy to
be co unt ed a single instrument (sec Chapter Two, page 63) , we see
that the computation of numerical balances is far from simp le.
These remarks are not meant to convey a sense of hopelessness or
446 PROBLEMS
futility in the effort to achi eve a balance in scoring. The fact that an
ide al ill:l)" be bey ond attainment sho uld not be a deterrent to the will
to approach it as nearly as possible. Two imp ortant points are to be
stressed here. First, a trained musical ear and musical memory are
indispensable. so that one hears mentally, and more and more accu -
rately. w hat one writes. These are acquired by un ceasing efforts and
a lifetime's experience. Second, the cooperation of conduct or and per-
fann ers plays an enormous part in the balance of sonorities. In a good
orchestra each player tries, instinctively or consciously, to make his
part sound in balance with the ochers . The better the scoring, the more
successful his endeavors will he.
BALANCE OF REGISTERS
In comparison with the winds, the string section is homogeneous in
tone throughout, although, as we know, each stringed instrument has
portions of its range that are less brilliant than others-the D-string in
all of them, for example . But in the combining of wind instruments. the
equalizing of registers is an ever-present preoccupation. In general. an
unevenness result s from the association, in a chord, of a weak with 1
strong register of the same instrument (Fig. 154'1). Likewise, combin-
ing tones of the weak register of one instrument with tones of the
strong register of another instrument will probably result in poor
balance (Fig. 'Hb).
,. Q no
b. d. 00-
MJ..,
D
an ~ n.
..,
: G;. I • .., BI
..,
Fig. '54
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that examples of chords for
instrumental combinations have validity only for the pitch at which
they are given. If a chord is transposed, the relationship of registers
changes. In Fig. 'H (C), flute and oboe will be found to be nicely
balanced, while in ( d ) the flute has a distinct advantage over the ob oe.
One may say the situation is different with each half-tone transposition .
Unison doubling can be used to strengthen the weaker voice.
SCORING OF CHORDS 447
TO~A LlTY
T here are sometimes reasons for havinz some ton es of a chord
st roncc r tha n ot hers. O ne of these conce rn; the tonal function of the
chord. In orchestration. just as in conventional harmonic theory. the
tonal deg rees of the kev ( to nic. dominant. and subdominanr}, being
structurally more impo rtant to the tonality. may be dOllhle~ more than
the modal degrees {mediant and sub rncdiant}. In (07) of Fig. I ; ; . the
single F of the first trombone is sufficient to give major identificat ion
to the harmony against ten other instrumen ts on th e r~ot and. fift h. and
the cho rd suggests the keys of A b. G o. and D o. The rm nor t.n ad at (b) ,
ha\'ing extra weight on G , migh t be cons~rued as sup~ nonJc harm ony
of the key of D major. If the extra doublmg were shifte d to ~he n,. as
in ( e) , the chord would no longer sugge st D. but rather a key In whi ch
B is a tonal degree, e.g., E min or or II minor. In a c hord like (d), pr e-
suming the int ent to be th e avoidan ce of tonality, care is ta ken not to
suggest tonality by a similar emphasis on certain c ho rd mem bers.
,. d.
• b.
Fig. '55
i SPACI~G
Overtones from the lower notes are sometimes disturbing in a chord,
and may need to be canceled by upper tones. This may be one reason
for loud chords being almost in variably in clo se po sition, with chord
tones pr esent wherever possible. If spaces were left to permit the over-
tones to sound, as in a major triad , the partials w ould hardly be stro ng
en ough for an even balance. On th e other hand , soft c ho rds in w ood -
wi nds are often att ract ively color ed by the sound of ove rto nes in open
spaces. These effects arc more oflen than not unpredictabl e, and th eir
success th e result of experiment.
Q
448 PROBLEMS
The conflict of upper partials created by close spacing in low
registers is usually avoided . It is easy to see what would be the product
in middle register overtones of the diminished seventh chord in Fig.
Is6(a). The sound is a synthesis of C major, Eb major, F~ major. and
A major.
c.
4 HN.
• H. ,
o-•. ~ TVIA UU lASS a..
r / Bb; "
Fig. 156
Such a chord might be used in a percussive effect. If the chord is put
up an octave, or better still two octaves, the overtones become very
much thinner and less noticeable. Below a -foot C, intervals smaller
than a fifth or fourth are generally avoided if clarity is desired. The
ideal spacing following the outline of the harmonic series (Fig. IS6b)
is possible only in root position major chords.
Harmonic principles of doubling are sometimes responsible for the
appearance of spaces as large as a fifth in upper parts. Figure 156( C)
observes the usage of omitting reduplication of the bass in upper voices.
BLESD OF TO~E COLORS
Factors in the smooth blending of tone colors have been described
in Chapter Twenty-four, P' 396 and following. One need bur add
here that every imaginable association of tone colors can be found use-
ful in the scoring of chords. The student should experiment with the
arrangement of chords, applying the devices of unison doubling, over-
lapping, superposition, interlocking, and enclosing, and try to judge
their effect . A general stat ement as to the relative value of these devices
in achieving an even blend of timbres ca -mot and should not be made.
SCORING OF CHORDS 449
TUTTI CHORDS
A tutti chord, employing the full orchestra, occurs most often in
forte or fortissim o, at moments of climax or in a brilliant ending. It
is inevitable that such a chord will be dominated by the brass. Con-
sequently, the first step in its construction is to make certain that the
brass as a unit will sound well. The brass section, within itself, is in
turn dominated by trumpets and trombones. Placing of the less power-
ful horns is sometimes problematical in arranging a brass chord.
Two principal methods of approach to the use of horns in a tutti
chord can be broadly discerned : (a) the four horns may be doubled
two by two and employed as two voices on an equal footing with
trumpets and trombones ( Fig. 15la ); (b) the trumpets and trombones
may first be scored as a satisfactory unit , adding the tuba on the bass. A
natural octave relationship is often to be found between trumpets and
trombones (Fig. 157b) . The horns may then be arranged in a four -part
grouping and placed alongside the heavy brass (Fig. 15)C).
.. b. ,.
n J n& l~ VN5., VA., vc, DIV.
Q
n;BA
Fig. 157
The woodwinds cannot be planned to sound satisfactorily by them-
selves, since the presen ce of the brass renders them useless in the middle
register. The high-pitched woodwind are better situated above the
brass, where they will add brilliance by reinforcing upper partials. The
low woodwind, bassoons and bass clarinet, contribute the most in their
low registers, so they are placed with the bass (Fig. 157d). The English
horn is often at a loss to find a good location, since it is not strohg in
the high register. It is given almost any doubling in preference to omit-
ting it from the tutti.
The strings are free to be placed where they will best sound as a
450 PROBLEMS SCORING OF CHORDS 451
section. They may be divided to make a richer sonority (Fig. IS7e). be written out in score, with a time value assigned and correctly no-
Let it be said at once that the chief value of this recipe for a tutti tated.
chord lies in irs utility as a commonplace from which to survey other Except in problem 18, the pitch range is optional.
and more interesting possibilities.
Problem 15'. Score the tonic triad of A major in root position, forte, for
th ese three groups, separately:
(a) Full strings.
DYXA:\IIC LEVEL (b) Full -uiood-uiind by threes.
(c) Full brass (; trp. , 4 bn., 3 trb.; tuba) .
The temptation to mark different dynamic levels for brass and wood-
wind must be resisted. If this system is used for the purpose of cor- Problem 16, Score a dominant seventh chord , built on C as a root, having
its third, E, in the bass, pianissimo, for 2 fl., 2 ob., Eng. Im. 2 cl. bass cl.,
recting the inherent inequalities in the orchestral groups it will be and 2 bn.
meaningless when called into play for legitimate special effect. Dy-
Problem 17, Score a minor triad, -untb root H, forte, for strings, wood-
namic indications arc admittedly far from logical or accurate, and the wind by threes, and four horns,
fact must be acknowledged that a forte or a mezzo forte is not a meas-
Problem 18. Score the cho rds in Fig. 158, keeping the pitches given,
urable quantity but a comparative over-all designation of a dynamic according to the listed specifications:
level to which all are bidden to adapt themselves.
• ## b
. Hi
iI'~
, d. R
ii
Muted brass and stopped horns arc more comparable to woodwind . A
in both color and tone-weight, but the capacity of the brass to play
softly, muted or not, is not to be overlooked. I" p / p .t!
Thin and thick sonorities arc not to be regarded as synonymous with
-e- -e-
soft and loud, respectively. "

RANGE A~D PITCH LOCATION Fig. 158

Orchestral chords may vary in range from the total spread in pitch (a) For 2 fl., 2 ob., :z ct., :z bn., showing interlocking.
(b) For wood-uiind by tbrees and four horns.
of the whole orchestra to a concentration within a small interval, in
(c) For three different combinations selected from isood-xmd and horns,
loud and soft nuances. The entire chord may be located in a high, (d) For full tutti.
medium, or low register. A chord of wide pitch range may be given
emphasis in the high. medium, or low register, by manipulating the
balance of tone-weight. .
We have been considering chords in an abstract sense as far as time
values are concerned, as though they were to be held long enough for
the balance and other qualities to be plainly heard. In a staccato chord,
the finely calculated blend of tone color is less important than the
placing of each instrument so that it is able to give its best staccato or
accent. In working out the problems that follow, a condensed plan of
the chord should first be made, like those shown. Then the chord should
 VOICE LEADING, COUNTER OINT 453
Solution (a). The three real parts should first be :witten out in ~oTTect
harmonic progression, as played by three of the instruments designated
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE (Fig. '594).
.. ~
s.
.. ,. d. e.

VOICE LEADIl':G AND

CO Ul':TERPO I l':T

Fig. 159

Since there remain two more string sections, the octave doubling of
interplay between the horizontal onward movement of

T
HE
the two outside parts at once suggests itself (b). Needless to add, t~ese
melodic forces and the v~rticJl s~<ltic sono.rity made by res- arc not the "consecutive octaves" of harmonic theory, but reduplica-
onance and the superposmg of intervals IS an cver-prescnt
tions of correct real parts. It is also to be remarked that the balance of
basic.fact of the art of music. Counterpoint, the combination of mel-
tone is not upset by the octave doublings.
odies, creates harmony through the coincidence of melodic tones. Har-
Anyone or all the parts may be doubled, either at the octave or at
mony creates melodic movement by the effect of progression from one
the unison, the latter having the effect of increasing the tone-weight of
vertical sonority to another. The art of orchestration is concerned at
the part doubled. Generally. care is taken to preserve the integrity of t.he
all times with the interpretation of these two opposing yet complemen-
bass part, avoiding doubling it above lest it become confused With
tary forces.
the upper voices (c), or doubling another part so low as to sound ~e­
In the preceding chapter, those elementary considerations that affect
low the bass (d). An arrangement like that in (e), having the VOIce
the vertical arrangement of chords were outlined. It is not too much to
just above the bass in octaves with the highest part, is not considered
say that any of these considerations may be overruled or superseded by
the best arrangement, since the upper voices arc too definitely sepa-
the consequences of melodic progression. The orchestra is composed rated from the bass by being thus circumscribed. Other settings can be
almost entirely of singing instrumental voices. The listener may not be
made, including those with divided strings and with unison doubling.
able to follow them all, on first hearing an unfamiliar work, but the
melodic conduct of each and every voice is of paramount importance Solution (b).
in musical coherence and meaning.
The distinction was made in Chapter Twenty-two between real
.. ••
'L
parts and reduplications of these parts brought about by octave dou-
bling. Orchestration of a texture of parr writing will illustrate the ap-
plication of this concept. a.. n
Problem 19. Score the harmonic progression I, V , Vl, in C major, piano.
1 Bioi.
for (a) strings; (b) 'Woodwind; and (c) brass. Employ a basic texture of >N.

three real parts.

452 Fig. 160
454 PROBLEMS VOICE LEADIJ-;G , COUJ-;TERPOINT 455

In Fig. 1 60 ar e show n w oodwi nd arrangements . increasing th e num-
ber of pa rts to as many as eig ht in (c.), by redup licatio n and w it hout
depart ing fr om th e original three real parts. Th e final chord of (c)
would not be th ought good in either spacing or balance if it were an
isolated chord, but as the result of voice leading it is perfectly accept-
able.
part A , violin I, B, violin II; C, viola; D, violoncello, and the double-
basses also on part D, sounding an octave lower .
The arrangement of the brass is facilitated by doubling the melody
in the tenor register:

Solution (c).
, .. b. c.

IV 6
.
I
f'
J TRB.

J ..J r, ..J
HHJ ./ l

~"
" I

Fig. 161
Fig. 163

In Fig. 1 61 (c), un ison doublings arc emp loyed on t he original th ree
pa rts, leaving un doubled t he two octave reduplications above an d t he
octave belo w in th e tu ba.
CHORALE STYLE
Problem 20. Orchestrate the following phrase, using th e full tutti of strings,
woodwind, and bmss.
On the fifth beat the shift of trombones II and III was felt to be neces-
sary for two reasons. The third trombone needed moving to the upper
octave as the bass line was getting too low for good quality of tone .
The introduction at thi s point of part B for the second trombone avoids
the effect of division described above (see Fig. 15ge).
The woodwinds will be divided between th e bass and the octave and
the unison doubling of violins and trumpets. The piccolo will be writ-
ten in its lowest octave so that it will sound no higher than the flures.

Fig. 162 Bach- Chorale: Ein' t este Burg no. 20, cd. Breitkopf & H artel

Th e chora le style is co mm on in orche st ral m usic, employing eithe r Fig. 164

small gro ups of instru ments or t he massive effec t of th e whole orch es-
The complete score is as follows:
tra. The latter seems appropriat e for the exce rpt given, with th e mass
of tone ce nte red chiefly in th e midd le or voca l register.
The strings fall quite naturally into the most obvious distribution:
456 PR OB L E~I S VOI CE LEADING , C O U N T E R P O I N T 457

CO :"TR .\ PL'S TA L SCOR ISG

Problem 21. O rchestrate th e following fragment of four-part counterpoint :

o
Fig. 166. Bach-The A rt of the Fugue: Contmpunctus X

It would be possible to score this phrase in a manner similar to that

used for the chorale, allotting all four pans to strings. woodwinds, or
brass, and combining the groups or not. The sound would be satisfac-
tory. provided the instruments were assigned pans suitable to th eir
ranges . H owever, w hen the texture is more truly contrapuntal, the
voices having been given melodic and rhythmic independence and in-
dividuality, an orchestr ation itself more contrapuntal in sty le is called
for . This is accomplished by treating each voice individually, creating
in this instance four different tone colors, each suited to the character
of its melody, and all participating in an evenly balanced sonority.
The possibilities should be exhaustively studied, each voice being
regarded as a problem in the orchestration of melody. Unison and
·· I~~ octave doublings as well as pure instrumental colors should be tried.
T he final selection will demand the exercise of taste, ingenuity, and
imagination .
The solution offer ed shows the following distribution:

Fig.• 65 A 8 [ PICC. C hn. II, va.

ob . I

8 [ Eng. hn. (from meas. J)

B fl. I D 8 [ bn. I and II

8 [ cl. I d-b.
 458 PROBLEMS VOICE L EADIN G , C OU N T E R P O IN T 459
T y pical solution: Problem 23. O rchestrate the following phrase in tuo v ersions, one piano,
for strings and wood-uiind, the other forte, using the full tutti of strings,
woodwind, and brass.
, ,
r~( "
'" I I U'

.J J .J 'lid .J n~ ~ .1 J

'"
Fig. 169. Bach-Chorale: Es ist genug '"
no. 216, ed . Brcitk opf & Han el

Problem 24. Score the f ollow ing fragment for brass and -uioodwind .

.. ,
M"' .II

... - -~ ~

"
...
., "
...
Fig. 16]

Problem 22.

.. b. ,.

Fig. 1 70. Bach-Well-Tem pered Clav ier, Book ll, Fugue no . 5

Fig. 168
rF
Score th e three given harmonic prog ressions in th e following w ay s:
(a) For full woodw ind plus two horns.
(b ) For brass and woodwind.
( c) F OT strings, 'Woodwind, and fou r horns.

'I
 460 PR OBL E~IS

PTo~~e111 2!:
ReS.:~Te th.r: folJO'U;;~lg passage so that the element 110'"...• play ed
by .1L OOd'U'111d 'U,;1!J be 111 the rtrmgs, and tbat now played by strings '".l:ilJ
be In th e ""ui:oodwind. T he complete sect ion of isood..sind by threes is to
be co nsidered euailable.

........ _-
CONCLUSION

T IS perhaps useful co repeat that no pan of this book pretends to

I exhaustive tre at ment of its subject matter. The intention has been
to present the first stages of stu dy in each chapter, in th e anticipa-
tion that th e student will in each instance continue investigations of his
own. Some suggestions may be offered as to th e nat ure of fu rther
studies.
The importance of a thorough knowledge of the instru ments can-
not be too strongly emph asized . Good writing for th e instr ume nts is
indisputably the largest single factor in good orchestration. One might
with considerable reason declare that if the parts arc well written for
the separate instruments th e ensemble is bound to sound well, and that
if the parts are poorl y suit ed to the instruments the to tal effect is bound
to be unsatisfactor y. Insufficient acquaintance wi th th e instr uments is
•• by far th e most outstanding defect to be noted in th e scores of inexpe ri-
~==- enced composers. The composer or specialist in orchestration must con-
Fig. 171 . Brahms-Variations 071 ' Theme by H aydn. p. 24. ed. Eulenburg stantly and perpetually keep adding to his sto re of information in this
department of his technique, gath ering data fr om every conceivable
source.
Analysis of scores is next in importance, and it should become a daily
habit. Sect ions taken for analy sis will be progressively lon ger com-
pared with the short fragments used in the first stages, th us affording
the opportunity of observing t he perpetual changes in texture and dis-
tribution, and the expansion and contraction of the instrumental forces
for dynamic purposes. Event ually, a whole movement will be studied
especially for the applicati on of principles of unity and variety through
or chestration. The student is advised to exercise patience, and to select
for his early analyses only th ose passages th at are clea r in th eir texture,
461
 462 ORCHESTRAT ION
unless he has the help and advice of a more experienced person. Above
all, he must g uard against being satisfied with a hasty and superfi cial
analysi s.
For practice in orchestratio n, th e inventi on of additional problems
similar to those offered is again recomm end ed. parti cularly the kind
that involve contact with standa rd scores. \Vhole pieces will evenru allv I~D EX
be orc hestrated for practice in the organization of unit y and variety of
textu re and ton e color, and in securing appr opri ateness and unity of
sty le. These pieces may be piano redu ctions of orchestr al works. either
published or made by the stude nt himself. If piano pieces arc used. they
.lbdi m pfm . H 5 ,"plJ, JJ ]
should be caref ully chosen to han as little as possible of purely pianis- accents, s.r inged instrumen t. 19-10 art ific ial harmonics, 59> 60, 7... 86-87. 10J-
tic. idiomatic w riting, and pedal effects. acccmpanimem : <OJ
2fungem~nf of , ..) 1-44' arnficial tones. JJ7
Those gifte d for composition will wish to try their hand at origin al as tex tu re, )74 -)81 . )87. ]95 A rt of th~ Fugue, Bac h, 457
pieces for orchestra. A good plan is to com pose a sketch in the form of A clarinet, 16"-165, 171- 173 A- stri ng :
A·flu clanner, 16.} 'cello, 92-(}]. 95
textural clements and then orchestrate it. H owever, it is nor suggested AiJ". V erdi. 141 viola, 68--69. 75
that one method is better than another in the personal matter of com- .i J" poinu. It violin. jJ-H
"U. 7 ar th e heel. I J
position . "U~. 7 at the point, I J
Qualities to seek in orchestration are clarity, naturalness, beauty of A/so Sp r"ch Z,"atbust,,,, Strauss, #. 1)6. au che'::"/~t , J I
Q9. 107. J87. H7 au 1"lon, I J
sound, fidelity to the original musical thought, and an imaginative scor- at t"Jlon~. IJ automobile horns, ]19
A lt tfbu . 144 4"~'ec sourdmes, H
ing of renewing interest without fussiness. The orchestration should .lto.65
have its origin in the musical material. It should not be composed of alto cbrin~f. 164 becch ette di Jegno . J99
:altO flute, 114, 144- 145 beccbeu e di SpUgno1, J99
admired sound comb inations copied from the works of others. For- aho saxophone, /85- 187 Baccbus et Ari.m~. Suomi Snire, Roussel,
mulas and "devices" are the death of creative orchestration. alto tro mbone. J69'-J70 161. ]J9
.rm Frosch, I J Bach, IS J, 161, J" 7, J/4, 454, 457. 459
The aut hor's intention will have been realized if this book is found am Grj flb,~tt. ac Bach trum pets, J64
to provide a workable basis for the expansion of knowledge of the an Amo, Brujo, u, F:all:a, 154. ] 6J baguettes d ';p ong~, J99
am Steg, JI bagu~ttes en bois, J99
of or chestration, leading in the direction of a mastery attainable, in the anacrusis, bowing, 9 b :al:a nc c:
an de, Spitu, IJ in chords, 444-446
final analy sis, only through self-reliant individual initiative and effort. sntie en Zimbeln, ]17 of regi sters, ..46
ant ique cy mbals, ] 17 bands, military, JOS, :64
Antojn~ et CUopat'~' Schmitt. 88, 2ii baritone saxophone, 185
anvils, ]19 baritone tuba, J84
s perro, J]6 Bar to k, 12 , :8.48,54.60,69. 90, '54, 159,
Apolton MUJageu, Stuvinskv, 45 JOI, J 57. J69, J7S. ]OJ, l0 4, ] 05, 330.
Appalachian Sprin ,fl, Copland. ] 18, HI )33, 339, 345, H O, ]94 , 409
A pp, emi·So, cier, L', Dubs. J6 bass. see double-bass
A prh -midi d'un Fsune, L'. Debussy, p, bass c lar inet, 114- 115. 164. 'ii-181
,I 169, ]17. ]66 orchestral uses, 4 t"...... )0. 4] 6-44 1
a puma d'erco, IJ scoring for, 'J7
erco, J) bass drum, )08-]09
A,ilJdne /lut NlJ%os, Strauss, HJ basset horn, 114, , 64, 18] - 18..
Aris ne er BIJT be .B/~u e, Dukas, p8 Bau kllJrin ett e, l 77
A,lh iennc, L'. Bizet . ]04 bassoo n. ""-11 5. 116, 14 1, 188- JOI
arma nici, ]0 au xilia ry instruments, ~0 1 -J 05
<OJ
 ORCHESTRATION
464
, IN DEX 465
bassoo n (continued ) stacc ato , 14- 19 calSa, 303, 308 violin, 55-58
br eath ing, 197 violin. 43-51 casla ru lllZ1l tt' , )04 Cbout, Pr okofieff, 67. l SI, 180
embo uchu re. 119. ' 97 Brahms. 33. 41. 49, B . 61. 67. 68. 90, 97, caltiJ"ntttt's, 3 11 cimbalom, 338-339
fingering. 18cr-1 9% 111. lB. 194, 199. J!6. 1J!. 178, 369, castanets. 311-3 13 cimbalo ongsrrse, 338
orc hestral use of. '99-:0 1, .p o-.no, -B8- 399. 438 cawniuelas, 311 cindli, }09
«, Brandm burg Conceno no. " Bach , 15Z C clarinet. 164. 165 clarinet. 114- 116, 141. 163- 177
reg s rers, 191-196 brass instruments, 106-Z14, 360 celesta, 148-150 auxiliary instru mems, 177- 187
scoring for. 11 7 breath ing. 111- 111 'cello, 8<>-97 break, the, 170
solo. 195 corne t, 107. 164- 166 accompaniment figures, 93-95 embouchure. 119
tongu ing. 113. 1Z4. 197-198 counterpoint and, 451-460 bass parts , 90. 93 fingering, 165- 167
tr ills and tremolos. 19S- 1C}9 crooks. 111 bowing. 88 grouping. 184
bass tro mbone, 169-171 embouchu re. 115-116 cho rds, 89--91 harmonics, 119
bus t ru mpet. 161, :6J finge r ing. 1 14-1 15 clefs, 84 kinds of. 164
bass tuba, 107. 108, 18"-185. 186, :!l? horn . 115- 145 C-string of. 115 orchestral uses of, 171-113, 176-177. 410-
B.21n ub4, 184 instruments included amon g. 114 divided. 95"""96 430. 4}6-44 1
bass •viol, 98 mou thpieces, 109 double-stops. 8lr9o ove rblowing , 165- 166
barter head, 304 muting. 113 finger ing'. 80-8 4 registers. 167-1 7:
Bavreueh tubas. 193 orch estral usn. 111-113 harm onic s. 85-87 scorin g fo r. I z7
"b(.ak" mouthpiece. 16J overblowing, 1OQ-110 octave doub ling. loB tones, 167. 160;1
Bec k en , 309 pitch. 116. 113-114 o rchestral uses, 91"'ilJ. 435-441 tonguing. 113. 114, 173- 17-4
Beet hoven, vii, 10, II , 15. 53. 56. 70-1 1. 94. range, 110. 11z-113 pizzicato, ~1 tr ansposinon, 165
10l}, n6, 170, 18J. 195. 197. Hg. 137. scoring fo r, 113-1 14. 414-4 3°, +I 5- .H I positions., 81-84 tr ills and tremolos. 173
141. 148, 150, 15'. H9'"""360. 36,. 376. slides, 111 range. 84-85 virtuosity, 1;'4- 175
385. ]86 tone production. 108-Z09 solo. 97. 160 Jee slsa woodw ind instru ments
piano concertos. 140, H I tongu ing, 116-1 11 tuning. 4 d.lTillette, 16}
bell. hom. z: 5 tro mbone, 167-z81 ambalo, HO clsrinei re b.Jsu, 177
bell-raising : trumpet, 146-1 64 chains. J I9 clarineno, 16J
hom . 1 40 tuba. 181-195 chalumeau rcs isttr. 167- 169 cls rineuo bauo, 177
oboe. I S] vah·C'S. 111-1I4 cha mbe r munc sty le. 6J-64 clsrone, 177
bel ls [chimes}, }16 voi..e lead ing and , 451-4 60 Charpentie r. 91 clevecin, 350
bells (g lockenspiel) , j I4-J1 5 Wagner's plan for . Z93 Ch ausson, 153 cl,r,:es, J 19
Ber g, 51, 75-76. I l j. ).11. 177. 196,158. 177. U~ alro separate instruments chimes. J I6 cl n ncembsla, 350
JJ'
Berl io z. 18, 14. Ill , Ill , 159. 171, 100, la7 .
br alS" 136
Brsucbe, 65
Chi nese blocks. 311. po
Ch inese cymbals. 309
cloches, ] 16
co i legno, 11- Zj. 106
zz6, 119. l JO, 151, 30}. ]1 7. H I, J7S. break. the, 170 C hinese gong, 310 col legno b.umra, 21
i oo breaking of glass, 319 C hinese tom-tom, po cot legno staccato. 106
a ·fla t clari net . 164- 177 breath ing: c1.,iuro, 136 col tegn o trarto, 11
B-flat hom, l }l-lH for brass instruments. 111-111 . 174, z86 cho ke, J 10 color. ton to Itt' tone co lor
B-flat t rum ~t. 1B -164 for woodwinds. 115-11 6, IS0, 197 c ho rale, 457 com plex tex ture, 405-411
B-flat tub a. 18h 191 Britten. 11, 85. 187. 161. 336. 146 Chorale: £ j,,' [este Bur~, Bach, 454 co mposition . 1: 6-11 7, 144. 18J. 4 15-4}O,
Bj/ly tbe Kid , Copland, }47 Bruckner, 17. l B . 194- 195 Chorale: Es itt gt nug, Bach . 459 445-45 1, 462
bird calls. }19 Bufftr bassoons, ISQ chords. 6, 387 contrapuntal sco ring, 457-4 60
birbiglj,mdo, 336 balance in. 397, 444-446 notation, 178- 179, 268, 194, 3°5, 309. J IO,
Bizet. }04 'cello, 89-9 1
Boehm, Theob ald, 119 caine, 30] 316, 334
double-bass, 1040 11l - IIJ score markings, ser notation
Boehm system. 119, 166- 167 caint claire, 304 dy namic level, 450 sn afro or chestration and texture
Botero, Ra vel, 161, 186 caine roulmn , J04 harp, 331 Concert Champitre for Harpsichord and
bo r nbardon , 184 Cilmpana in aria, :40 melodi c pro$rcssion and, 451 -4(00 Or chestra. Poul enc, H I
bangor, }19 Cilmpane, J 16 ran~e and pitch location. 450-4 5 I Concerto en Re, Stravinsky , 10"
Boston Symphon y Orchestra, 178 campanelli, 314 r t glsten. 446 Concerto for Har psichord and Fiv e Inurn ,
bouchi, 1}6 Ca nteloube, 351 sco ring, 4+4-451 menu, Falla. 351
bouchi -cun..,.i , 1}6 Caplet, And re, 363 spaci ng, 447-448 Concerto for O nder Marunot and O r-
bowe d tremolo. B Capriccio Espsgnol, Rimsky- Korsa kofi, as textur e, 3¢-403. 404-411 chestra, Jol ivet, H I
bowing. 7-8. 9-1} 16, S8 tonal ity , 447 Concerto for Or chestra, Bart 6k, 11. 54,
'cello, 88 Capriccio It.tlim, Tehaikcvsky, 165 tone color. 448
do uble-bass, 1°5- 106 uri/lon, ] 14 69. 154, 101, 257, 304. J05, 3940 409
turri, J'jI6, 449-4 So Concerto for O rchestra, Hi ndemith, 194.
planning the . 10 Casella. 35. 87. 171, : 61,]17 viola. 13- 74 ,,6
4M ORCHESTRAT ION IND E X 467
Concerto for Pisnoiorte and OrCheftrd , Dom er Su ire "f fer COllperin, Strauss, ]5 1 clarinet, 174 euphonium, J07, 18) , z84, z9:
Copland. 1117. 279 Deptm is er Chloe, Rani, JS. 47. 7], 134. Hute, I J6 see a/so tenor tuba
c o nsecu tiv e oc taves. 453 1) 7, 144, 145, 151, III : , J60, 317, 319, hom, :)9 Eur vantbe O verture , Webe r, 19
co n sordins cor, 35 P I oboe, ISO e vol ~ t l~lll a ry process, in inst ru ments, 65
contrabass. 911 D clar-iner, 114. 164, 181- 18: ruh a, 190 exo tic Instruments, J97, J I9-PO
co m r aba« clar-incr, 164. 18 4 D ebu ssy. 10. 13, p , ]4,69,77.88,91. Il l . d o uhling, in sco ring fo r melody, 416-4 30
cont rabasso o n. 1 14 - 11 5. ll i . :0 1-2°5 qfi, I JR, IS6. 160- 161. 161, 169, 174. d o wn-beat . bowing. 9 facti tiou s to nes, 117
o rc hest ral U SN , -t1q--.B o. 4 )9-44 1 JOI. J 19, JJO, : .p , 1.\"9,' :61. J7S. J8o, dow n- bow, 8- 10, til:! Falla, ' 504. HI , H I. 36)
contrabass t ro mbone, :!'lo---:R I 3° 1, J I4, ] 17, 318, P7, P 9· 330, 33S, dre g, 306 Falst.lfJ , V erd i, J81
conrrahass tubas. :11 :, :85. : 86 146, )6 :. J6] , 366, J7: . 4P d reif Jch gettilr, 7 Fanr~_f tic S )111pbony, Be eho z, I R, Ill, IJJ .
cont rsbbeno, 911 d h ~ch i. 11, 14 dru ms: l i1. 1Oi. )0). B I
contr aiegotro, 20 1 d ie H iil f u , 7 bass. Jo8- J09 "F artac hmenr," tro mbone, Z 7~ : i l
cont rapuntal sco rin g. 457- 460 diffe rence tone, l oS exot ic, 3' 9- P O Faun . G ou nod , H I
com rapun ral tex t ure, ,88-395. 4°4 -," : D'I ndy, 74. J35, J6), 30:, H I. 346, 357 kettledrums. J97-3 0 ) Fsu sr OUt'ertllre, Eine, \ \'agn cr . J87
C01/l rd"'l1C. 911 J it'., 6 sn are. JOj - 307 Faun Symphony, A , Liszt , 6 J
cons rebuson, :0 1 div. a J, 7 ICe al so perc ussio n inseru rnems F horn, H 7, J ]J - 1 j5
coperro, ,07 Drcerrmrenro: Le Bs iser J e la f ee, Srr avin- dru mstick s, %98- JW> 305, JoS field d ru m, ) Cl.f
Copland. ~9. 187. :.p . : 60, 279. }l B. H I, ~k\". 168, J44 O -su ing : fift h har mo nic , 19
J·B · H 7 d i" ided ~tri n p, 6-7 bass, Q8 fing e ring :
cor, : 25 d ivid ing by desks , , 'c ello, 9 J ""9) bassoon, 11l9--191
co r Imglair. 158
cor .i pinons, 12 5
dit" in j , 7
Ji ::ises, 6
viola, 68-<M;l
viohn, 51- 55
brass inst ru ment,
'cell o, 80- 84
l'
4-: IS
cor cbromsriqne, l l5 divisi, 6, 7~7), 117 "0 trum pet , 16J clarinet , 16S- 167
co r de d·alu. H5 Don [uon, St ra uss. 106. Jl8, 401 dr" bra-s mstrument, : 16 dou ble-bass, 101- 10:
Coriole nus O ';:errure, Beet hoven, 10 Don Quixote, Strauss, 11 - 1). 35, 79. UI, du, woodwind, 1JO flut e, 119-1) 1, 137
co me t. :0;-:08. : 64-:66 J )9. :81) D u b s. : 6, 94, 318 harp, 33()--BJ
corne t a piston s, :6 4 Doppe/gri ff , 6 D vorak, I I ). Jl 7 hom, zH - J H
cornet/a, :6 4 do ub le- bas' , 35. 98-1 1) oboe. 146- r., 8
como, l l5 acc o m paniment scoring for, 43 (-.H I echo tone, 17: pluck ing , J )- : 8
como d.1 caccia, HS bo w ing, 8. IOS-I06 E-R al cla rinet, "4. 164. 18 1- 18: st ringed instrument, 4-ti
corno ingleu , 158 cl efs. 10J E-Rat trum pet, :6: trum pet, l H-JH
como natu rale, lJ5 divided basses, I I :-11) eighe-foo e C, l iS tu ba, z8)
C01no rube, z9 J d o u ble -stops and c ho rds, 104 eig hth harrnon jc, H 6 vio la. 66-67
como ve ntile, 12S fingering, 10 1- 10: Elektra , Srr auss, 135, 161, 183, ISol-, J05, violin , 37- 40, 43- P
cor sim ple, 125 five-strin g. 99-100, I I ) 14). J80, : 94 wood w ind inst rument. 116- 118
Cosi Fsn T utu , Mou n . 198 harm o nics, 10:-104. 108 e mbouc hu re : first har mo n ic, J9
counter po int , 451- 460 melodic uses, 109-111 bassoon, 197 First R b.zpsod y for Violin and O rche str.z,
in tex tu re: see contra pun tal texture m ut es, 10 7- 108 brass insrru menr, JI S-116 Bar to k, 3)9
co w bel ls, 319 octave di fference, 98-99 oboe, 149-IS 1 first v iohns, 60-63
crecelle, 319 o rchestral uses, 4 16- 'P 9, 435- HI tuba, JIl6 Fiv e Orchestral Pieces, Sch oenberg, Z7J
C reston, Paul , 318 p izzic ato, 107 woodwind . 119-1:0 five-string bass, 99- 100
crooks. 11/, 116, :19 nnge, 99- 100, 10: enclosing . )96, 448 Flegealenon e, 10
c-oates, 317 solo, I I ) Fnesco, 7S !lam, 306
Ccsrring: tuning, 4 En ianr et Ies S ortjUges, L', Ravel, :7, II 3 Fleuerz unge, IJ 4
'ce llo, 93, "5 see also stringe d instrum ents engiisch H orn, IS8 !lauto, I JS
do ubl e -bass, 100 d ouble B-flat bass tuba, :86 English horn, 11 4-1 IS, 158-1 6 1, 161 !lauto cont ralto, 144
viola . 69 do uble C tuba, :8S orchestral uses, 419-4 30, 4)7- ,+4 ' !laura grande, n 8
C trumpet, 146, :47 , 153- 164- d o u ble ho rn , : 33- J45 sco ring fo r, I z7 !lau fo pi cc ol o , 14 1
cuit"e, :36 doub le reed , 149 enharmonics, harp. p6-318 flicorno basso, 184
cy m ba/es, 309 doub le-stops, 6 Entiuhrung, Vi e, Mozarr, 183 Fliitt, ' J8
cy m b~lt1 ant iques, ]17 'c ello, 89-90 eoliiono, 119 flut e, 114- I IS, 116. ' : 8-1 45
cy m bals, 309- ]10, ] 1' dou ble-bass, 104 eoUphone, 3'9 agilitY. IH- 136
vi ob.. 73-74 Erwartung, Sc hoe nbe rg, z90 embouc hure, 11 9
d"IegKij, t violi n, 55- 58 E-string : fing ering , u Q-131, 137
d.nn p, 335 doubl e-tonguing, I JJ double-b ass, 99 grou ping of, 141
D.nllp fer ~'eg, 35 ba ssoon, 197-1 98 viol in, 51-55 harm onics, 11 8, IB , 1)6- 137
D"nce Su it e, Ba rt ok, 48, 60, 169, 145 brass instrument, : 19 itouffez, 33S orchestral uses. 4J ~4 J O, 436-441
468 OR CHE STR A TION INDEX 469
flute (continued) t ro m bo ne, 274- 275 Ha rold in Italy , Berli o z, 14 int erloc king, 30. 448
overblowing, 131 vio lin. 47- 49 har p, pJ-n9 /star, D'In dy, 135, 357
scoring for, 117 Gtoc e en , 316 ch ords, 3P Ita/ian SympIJony, M endelssohn, 39. 139,
second, 1, 8- 1.1.0 glockenspiel, 314-3 15 damping of st rings, 335 '74
solo, 133- 134 gong, 310 enharrnonics, p6-]18
to ne, 131- 134 G on erdenmu mng, Die, \ Vag ner, 207. 172, finge ring, 330--33 1 lagd lJorn , 225
to ng uin g. 123-124 lJ8 glissan do. 318-no
trills and tremolos, 137- 1,8 G o uno d, HI l eanne d' A rc au BliclJer, H o negger , 352
harmo nics. 333-33 4 jete, 15
see also woodwind instruments gourds. ~ 19 not ation fo r. 326
l eu de Cartes, Stravinsky. 291
(lute en 50/, ' 44 gran cassa, 30R o rc hestral uses, 337-H8, 419 ieu de timbres, 314
flutter-tonguing, 124. no grande fllite, 11f! ped al mech an ism. 324-326 [eux , D eb ussy , 219
flute, 138 greloss, 319 pian o an d. 346--347
Gri flhr ett , 76 jingles, 3". 319
oboe, 1 51 pluc king, 9 1
grosse caissc, ]08 j oliver, 3iZ
trombone, 17:-%73 special effects , 338
grosse Flote, 128 f our d' lte a [a M ontagne, D'Ind y, 3° 1, H 6
tuba, H)O harpe, 323
f ly ing Dntcbman, T he, " 'agner. ~F grosse Tronnnel, ]08 har psich ord. 350
Fontme di R onta, R cspig hi, 168,2<)1 a-ss«; 30 H ary J,inos Suite, Koddly , 339 Kastagn ett eTl, 312
fork fingering, 11 7- 11 8 G-string: H ayd n, vii, 200, 226. 3tl8 kcrrled rums, 297-30,
[ouer, 319 bass. 98, 101, 102. 103 H eck el. \\'illiam, 162. 201 keyboard instru ments:
" 4baSJi," 113 'cello, 93 H ec kel bassoons. 189 celesta, 348-350
Four Sea Interludes from Peter Grilllcs, viola, 6S--6<) hcckelphonc, 114, 162 har mo nium. 352
Britt en, 85. :6:, 336 violin. 51-55 H eiden/eben, Ein, Strau~s.63, III, 135, 160, ha r psicho rd, Ho
Fourth Concerto, Beethoven, 14' guiro, 3' 9 180. 16 3 Ondes M arte not, 352
fourt h finge r extension, 45 guitar, QI---()l H eure Espagnole, L', R avel, 60 orga n, 35[-351
fou rth har mo nic, 19 G urrelieder, Schoen be rg, 184, 208, 2S0, Hind cmirh, 51 , 194. 156, 274, 179, 2~8. p2 , piano . Ho--H8
Franck, 9. 1 10 , ,8: see also separate inst ru ments
Frau obne Scbanrn, Die, Strauss. 18,
Frewcbiaz , Der, W eb er , 398
lJ8

half, 7
'"
Histoire d u So ldat, L', St ravins ky , 30~
Holst, 50, 145, .1 08, 241, 30 1. 38]
Klarinette, 163
K la1.·ier. 340
F renc h bassoons, ISg, u)6 half position : H oizschliigel, 299 Heine Flore, 141
French bow, 10j 'cello. 8 1 ho mopho nes, 326--318 kleine Tronnnel, 30 ~
french Conscrvaroir e system, 1-l8 do ubl e-bass, 101 ho moph onic te xtu re, 364 klin gen lassen. 309
French hom, 215 vio la. 67 Honegg er , H I. H2 K liip pel, 308
French ( notation) svstcm, 178 viol in. 45 horn, 2° 7- 108, 215-2~5 Kodal y, 104. 173, 339
fruita, 319 ' half-ru be instrum ents, 211 bass clef notation, u S K on t rabass, 98
F tru mpe t. 146. 151-1P H andel, 164 crooks, 129 K ontrsbasstuba , 185
F tuba. 191, 193 hand ho rn . 225 finger ing, 213, 1 34~235 K omraf.zgott , 201
fugue. 393 hard rticks, HJ9 gli ssand os. 239 K ornett , 264-
fu ndam en tal to ne , 29 Harfe, 323 grou pi ngs of. 140--245 k-t-k, n o
"harmonic fingering," 137 muting. 236 ku ru ku, 113
Ga lanta Dmco, Kod aly, 104 har mo nics : orchest ral uses , 240--245, 419, 4lO, 4 24 ~
gediimpft, H brass instrument, 2OQ-2 10. Hoi, 116 43°,437-44 1 iaisser vibrer, 309
G er man bassoo ns, 189. I¢ 'ce llo, 85-87. 9 1 ran ge , U 7, 233- 234 /01 meta,], 113
G erm an bow . 105, 107 doub le-b ass, 1 0 2 ~ 1 04 st opped notes. u8-1l9, 235-1 37 la ntoit ie, 7
German hom. 225 flute, 133. 136- 137 to nguing. 118. no. 238-139 lasciare vibrere, 309
G erman (nota tion) sys tem, 178- 179 h arp , 333-33 4 trills, 237-2 38 Latin-A mer ic an exo tic instru me nts, 319
gesohlagen , 22 hom, 227, 240 valve. 225, 231- 232 legato:
gestopft, 236 ob oe, 14Q v irtuo sity of. : .P - 143 bo w ing , 8- 11. 13-14
gestopft-stark anb lasen, 236 string ed instrumen t. 29- 31, 9 1 see also brass inst ru me nts trombone, 273
gestricben, 22 trom bo ne, 168-27 1 btu , wood wind, IlO let ring , 309
geteilt, 6 trump et , 246--249, 254 Hun~arian gypsy o rch est ra s, 338 L ied co n der £rde, D ,H, M ahl er , 100,237
G iglles, D eb ussy , 77. 161. 318 vibratio n d iagram, 29 hunting horn, 225 lion's roar , 319
glass, break ing of. 319 viol a, 74- 75 Liszt, 62-63
gl issando : viol in. 58--60 Iberia, Debussy, 91. zor, 280 L ohengrin, w agner, 124,231 , lJl
harp. 318-330 w oodwind instrum ent, 136- 137. see also idiophones. cce long drum, 304
hom, 239 o verblowing Impressions of Italy, Charpentier , 92 lour ; , 13-14
kettledrum, 301-302 harmoni um , 351 Indian d r um , j ao Lulu, Berg, I ¢
in natural harmonics. 59 harmony. 451 "in one bow," 9 L yric Suire, Berg, Sf
470 ORCHESTRAT ION I ND EX 471
;\fagie Flute, Th e, Mozarr, 70, 18] muring: in scoring for melody, 417-430 Overture: The Roman Carnival, Berlioz,
Mahler, Ii . 22, 36. 48-49. 50, 54. 6}. 1l6, bassoon, 19 3 octave key, 118 160. 378
95, 100, roo, I ll, '40, '5 7. IRl, 193> brass instrument, 223 offen, 236' Overture to Der Freischiirz, W eber , 398
2OZ,2°4. 1}7. 238, 140, 241, 278, 290. double-bass, 1°7-108 orf -th e -string sta ccato, 14-16, 11 O,,'erture to Wiltum Tell, Rossini, 15,97
3°2.315.319. 351, 364 horn, 236 obne Dsmoier, 35
maillocbe, ]08 kettledrum, 302 Oi seeu de Feu, L' , Stravinsky, 60, 76, 85, parade d ru m, 304
mallets, 314. 318 oboe, [57 135,258,274, 2Si, B8, WS paradiddle, 306
Ma ,Here L'Oye, Ravel. 132 .202 stringed instrument, 35 Ondcs Marrcnot. 3P par pl/pitres, 7
maracas, 319 trombone, 277 "one desk only:' 113 Parsifal, W ag ner, 71, 202
Marche au Stlpp!ice (Sym phonie Fa71- trumpet, 257-258 on the rim, 307 partials. 29
tastique }, Berlioz. 1[2 tuba, 287 on-the-srring staccato, 14, 16-[9 Partita for Piano and Or chest ra, Casella,
marimba, JIB open, 236 35, 261
Marriage of Figaro, The: Ot"erture, Mo- naturale, 21 open strings, violin, 40--41 , 57 pan writing:
zan, 123. }68 natu ral horn, 225-13° ophictcidc, l8l , 295 orchestration of, 452
marrele, 16 nicht gestopft, 236 orchestra : as texture. 369, 38: -,87, 38'). 4o~-412
mmeuuo, 16 nicbs geteilt, 6 brass section, 206- 208 Passacaglia from Peter Grimes, Britten,
.\ h rtcnot, Maurice, 352 Nights in the Garden> of Spain. Falla, 341 harp in, B8
.' ta n io, 351 Noces, Les, Srravinskv, 317, H7 keyboard instruments in, 340--343, 348- "
Pauls en, 297
'\lartinu, 342 Nocturnes: Nnsges, bebu~}.. 69 35' pa't'illon en I'air, 240
Martyre de Saint Sebastien, Le, Debussy, non arpeggiato, 332 make-up of, 3 pedals, harp. 324-326
317. ]62 non div ., 6 percussIOn section, Hfi--297 pedal tones, 2 I I
mazze, J08 nonlegato, bowing, 11- 14 pia no and the, 340--348 PeJ/las et M elis.:mde, Dcbussv, 23, 112
'\hzzeo, Rosario, 178 ncranon: string sect ion, .; percussion instruments, :</>--322
measured tremolo, 31, 33 bass clarinet, 178- 179 usc of instruments in, see separate in- aux iliarv instruments, 297
.Meistersinger, Die, Wagner, 289 bass drum, 309 struments bass drum, 308-309
melodic ph rase, as texture of one element. cvmbal, 310 woodwind section, 60-63, 1[4-115 bells, 3'6
357-3 63 harp, 326, 334 orchestral style, 6 3 castanets, 3 I 2-3 13
melody: percussion instrument, 305 orchestral tuba in F, 28~-285. 293 cvmbafs, 30l}-310, 317
and accompaniment, as texture, 364-373. sco ring fo r brass, 2Z3-2Z~, 228, 268, orchestral unison, as texture, 355-363 , 40~- drum strokes. 305-307 , 308
395. 404 -4 1 2 ' 94 4" ensemble, 310-312
arrangement of the accompaniment to, see also composition and orchestration orchestration: exotic instruments, 31Q-320
43 1 -44 ' Notte A lta, A, Casella, 327 background and accompaniment, 431- glockempicl.3 14-3 15
harmonic bass, 109- 111 Nuages, D eb ussy, 69, 302, 335 44' kettledr ums, 297- 303
problems in "Orchestration of, 415- Nutcracker Suite no. I, Tchaikovsky, 136 counterpoint and, 451-460 notation for, 305, 309, Jlo
4)0 mea ning of, vii o rchestral uses, 2<;6-297, 419
scoring for, 416-430 o (abbrev., open). 136 of melody, problems, 415-430 snare drum, 303-307
secondary, as texture, 374-381, 404- oboe, 114- 115, 116, 141, 146- 157 objective in anal ys is of, 355-356 sound effects, 319
4" auxiliary instruments, 151:1-161 practice in, 461-462 tambourine, 311-312
mernbranophones, 2¢ bell-raising, 157 qualities to seek in, ~62 tam-tam. 3[0--311
Mendelssohn, 39, 139, 174, 295, 440 breathing, 125- 126, IS0 scientific approach to. viii triangle, 313
Mer, La, D ebussy , 34, 88, lIZ, 136, 156, embouchure, 119, 14l}-151 scoring of chords. 44~-451 vib raphone, 315
160-161, 220, 241, 259, 261, 275, 314, fingering syslem, 146-148 t ext ure, see texture wood block, 312
BO . 371, 432 groupings, 155-156 voice leading and, 452-460 xy lophone, 317-J18
Mess iaen, 352 harmonics, 11 8, 149 see a/so composition and notation Peri, La, Dukes, 94
Meyerbeer, 295 muting, 157 organ, HI -352 Persephone, Stravinsky, 335
"lilhaud, 52, 59, 144, 180, 193, 318, 3'9. o rchestral uses, 155-158, 420--430, 437- Orpheus, Stravinsky, 18, 138, H7 Peter Grimes, Britten, 22, 85, 262,336
380 , 393 44' Otello , Verdi. 351 petite flute, 14'
military drum, 304 overblowing, 148--149 Otez les sourdines, H Petite SY7llphonie Concerunse, Ma rtin,
mit D.!impfer, 35 reeds, 149 ottavino,14 1 ll'
mojo ordinaria, 21 scoring for, 117 oUtlert, 236 Petroucbka, Stravinsky, J58, 176, 258, 266,
Moussorgsky-Ravcl. 100, 1 9~, 238, 292 solo, lp- ln Ouverture Solenneile, 1812, Tchaikovsky, 344
Mozarr, vii, 34, 70, 72, 123,10.183, 198, to ne. 151-154 97, 192 phonograph re c o rds, viii
249,34°,368,375, 3ll4, 389. 44 1 tonguing, 123, 124, 150--151 overblowing : phrasing, woodwind, 125-n6
Music, t h ree attitudes of performers trills and t remolos, 155 brass instrument. 209-210 piano, 296, 340--348
toward, 63-64 see also woodwind inst ru ments woodwind, 118-119, 131, 148-149, 165- compositions fo r orchestra and, 340--341,
Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta, oboe d'amore, 114, 16 1- 162 ,66 4'5
Bartok, 302, 350 octave d o ubling, 108, 362, 3¢, 451 overlapping, 396, 448 concertos fo r, 340
J f.usic for the Theater, Coplan d, 260, 347 in part writing, 383 overtones, 29 d oub ling use, 341
472
p iano (cominllcd)
harp and. 146-147
orchest ra l uses, Ho-,4J
pe rcussion effects, 3.U-H6
~()ring for. 347
solo passages, 343-145
un usual uses, H6-H7
Piano Con certo, R avel. 86
Pim o Concerto in D, op, If, Bn.hms. un
ORCHESTRATIO;-'; IN DEX 473
Pia/m ill H un gsricus, Kodalv, 17) R oum anian R bapsoJ y "0 " 2, E nesco, 78 side dru m, )03, 304
pult'uxile, 1 ' R o ussel, 540 75. 16 /. JZ9 Sieg fried Id)'ll, " '.agner , 9)
" lIpa: u tt i, Case lla, 117, 171 ruff. )06 sno iono, )17
Rub nronnnel, )04 Sin fonia da R equiem . Britt en, 187, H 6
qu adrur l.c -stops. 6 sirens. )19
q ll"l1 gm tarol , 11

radi o. mu sic broadcasts, viii-ax

r"g,m cU" , JI9
.,.
Sscre dn Primenrps, Le, St ravin sky,

Sainr-Saens. JSI
I),
75.95, loW. 145, 151. 184-0 1)9. 26) . JO),
sizzle cymbal , ) 09
sk i~, wi de. violin, 49-5 1
sleIgh be lls, )19
slides:
Pimo Co ncerto no. r. Bra h m s, 97 R.~g . Time, SIC3\"insk\', :8. J39 Sslome, St ra uss. 162 b rass instrument. 21I
" ;.1110 Concerto no. 4. Beet ho ven . 53 ripe .!tun o, ) 19 ' sett enda, 14- 15 ho m . 226
1';:11I0 Concerto ' 10. f . Beet ho ven , l!9 RoIpsoJ ie Esp"gllo fe, Ravel, 87. 94. 107, lalu fO. 15 t ro mbone, 211. 181
pia'loforu, 3010 '7S, I J9. 2SS. )0 7 Salzedo, Ca rlos. B8 viol in, 46-4 7
pianoforte pedal. 4' S Ra tsche. )19 sandpaper blocks. J19 slide trombon e. 26i
pim i. j09 rattle, ) 19 1"171 sourdines, JS slu rred stacc ato, 17
p iccolo, 114-II S. 14 1-1 44 Ravel. 25. 27, 47. 4c)' 60. 7), 86, 87. 94, sarrusophone, l0S slurring :
o rchestral U~ . 4 ' 9"",P4- ,P 6-.B O, 455 100,103.1°7. loS , II I. II) . 114. I ) : , lal1ofono. 185 bow ing for. 9
scori ng for. 117 1) 40 1J7. 145. 151. IH, 162. 175. 18: , Sax, A do lphe, 185 bnss insrru mcnt, 216
Pictures at en Esbibinon• .\Ioussorgsky - 186. '94. 201. 101, 1)8. 1)9, :55. 260, I11%0f on o, 185 trombone, : 1}
Ravel. 100, 19+0 : ,8. 19: 2RH. 29:, )07. )17, )19. ) 21. H I, 334 S,uop bon. 185 woodwind. 1: 5- 126
Pierro: Lunsire, Schoenberg. '75 real pans, J8J -J87. 452 sa xo pho ne. ItiS-1 1I7 snare drum, JOJ-)Oi
pi fton, 164 recordings, viii-ix SClJla di Scr", 1,,,; Sinioni s, Rossin i, ' 50 drum strokes, )05-)07
piston valve, In. 153 reeds: S cballt riclnrr .1/11.', 15i , 140 muffling, )07
piech : clarinet . 16) - 164 Schebcr,,:,.,Je, Rims kv-Korsa korf, 106, snare head, J04
air co lumn length and. 115-1 16. I zo o boe. 149 119, 176 . soft sticks, 299
brass inst ru me nt. ' 57. Z1 j -1I4. 16: . 169 Reger, 50 Scbellen , }19 solo style. 64
harp. JZ S reg ~rer key, 11 8 Scbcllentrommcl, J I I 1000"gll, J 19
natural order, in scoring. .P l reg lsl e rs: schmetternd, l}6 sons itoufTis , JH
pe rcuss ion instrument classi fication by. balance in c ho rds, 446 Schmitt, 88. 177 sons bsrmoniqnes, 30
use o f weak an d st ro ng, J9S Schotnbug.74- 175. 1114. l oS, 2n. 180. 290 sordmi, H
'¢ Sch ube er, C), 11. 58, 2: 11, 2i6 so und effects, percussion instrument. 19 7.
reed import ance in. I 41}-1 50 woodwind. uti. IJI-IH, 167-1 72. '92 -
in scoring for chords. 450-451 11)6. 201 Sc human. 181. 40) l '9
sna re dru m. )04 R enard , Srr avm sky , J39 Sch um a nn, J9, I B, l B . 17h 295. H I, ,Sl spacing. c ho rds, -H7-44 8
u ringed instru ment. 4- 5. 4) R rq uirm, Be rlio z, )0 ) Scb-u".nmll1c1:Ligd, 299 Spanish castane ts, ) Il
rim pan i, 29S Requiem • .\ t o un. 18) sco rdsro , J04 speaker key, liS
woodwind. 142, 146 Resp ig hi, 168, 192 scords sure, H-)6 spi ccao, 14
ph:., 1) Reublo d e .\l .:lelt Pedro, Falla. HO sco ring. Stt co mposition and notation stacc ato, 21
pizu c<2to, IJ- 2S. 75- 76. 9O-9 Z. 107 Rie ggcr, 1 10 secco, JoS. H 5 bassoo n. 19 7
Plan ers, T he, H olst. 50. 145, zoB, 141. )01, Rienzi, " 'ag ner. 1)1. 195 seconda ry melody, as te xture, J74-JS I, bo w ing , 14-1 9
l8, rim shot , J07 404 -4 U brass instr ument. 218
plu cki ng , o f st r inge d insrrumenrs, IJ -ZS Rimsk v-Korsakoff, 16. 58. 106, 178, HO. sec o nd fluee. 1)8-140 clarinet, 173
ponrictllo. viola . 76-77 264, 176 sec o nd har mo nic, 29 co nt rabassoon, 10)
portamento, 47-49 R ing des Nlbelungen, w agner, 180, 194 S econd Rhapl0d y for Vi olin and Greber- do uble -bass, 106
POI4/0'lt, 167 R oi D,J1.';d , t», Honegg er. HI tTa, Bartok, go, 159 oboe, 150-1 51
post hom, 264 ro ll : Second S ymphoni c Su ite, ,\ 1ilha ud , 51, 19J , pizzicato :IS. 24
Pou lenc, )5 1 cymbal. JIO 319. J80 slu rred. 17
poul1e. S drum, 305-)07, )08 sec o nd violi ns, 61 woodwind, 122
Pretude to Die M eistersi17gtT, wagne r, 1119 rarnbou rine, ) II sems corde, )04 Steg , 76
Prtlude to Parsifal, 'Vag ner, 71 R oman Carnh'al, The, Berlioz, 160, }7S sema sordini, H stopped nc res, horn. 128-2 29, 2H -l )7
Prelude to Tristan II1ld Isolde, Wagner, Roman numerals, to de signate smngs, 30 scnza vibrsso, 7 Strauss, Ri chard, Il- I), 21, H. 44, 47. 63,
R omantic Su ite. A , Reger. S 0 Se renade, ,"'t on rt , 18) 77. 79, 89. 1}6, 99,106,1 °7. III, lB.
19 ' ' 35. 156, 160, 161. 162. 180, 182. 18J.
Prnll;rre Rh<2psod ;e, D ebu ssy, IJ8, 174 R omeo et Juli ette, Berlioz, 200. H 6. 1)0, S eTt1I"de, Schoenbe rg. 74
prh de 14 table. BO, H 6 ) 17. 400 seve nt h harmo nic , J 10 18.., 203, 105. 118. 121, J )9, 2430 15' .
Primn np s, Debussy, 10, JZ9, }46 Ronda de Primemps, Debussy. 10 sbak en. )11 26J. 279. 2Bo, 287, 289. 194. 31C), 348.
Prokofieff, 67,110-111, 151,197.280, 291. ROlt11lu1val;tT , DtT. Strauss, 41. 71. 348 Shc srako vich, 68, 90. 101, 14). 179, ' 40, 351, )51. 4° 1, 400-407
J01. }46 Rossini, IS. 97. 150 2SS. 288. }41. H 9 St ravin sky , I). 18. 17. 28. 45, 60. 7S, 76.
Prometbeus, Beethoven, 18) rotary valve, 211 . In Sibel ics, 14. 156. 157. 170, 175 85,95, 1°4,1 11. 1)2. 135, 1)8. 145. 151•
474 ORCHEST RAT IO ~ Il"DEX
Srra vinsk v (co m inud) S ym phon y in B-liat, Chausse n. 153 SympbollY no. i. Bruckner, l B . 1Q4-. : 95 thumb tr ill, 311
158. i 68. "I . 176. IS... !J 9- z,", 156. Sy m phon y in B-li.1r, D'Ind y, :63 S ymphon y no. 7. Schu be rt, :: 8. 1; 6 thunder, 319

".
158. 16 }, :66. l i 4. 187. 191, 30 3. 304- Sy m pho ny in C, Srravmsky, :7, 73. 19 S, Sympbony no. 7. Sh ostakovich , I ..B . 179, ticking of docks. 319
)1 7. 335. 317. 339. HI , 344-347. )61,
4 02, 4 10 Symphony in C Major, M o zarr, 7:, 149,
,"
Sy71lpbony no. 8, Beetho ven. 9~
Till £lIlnupiegd , Strauss. 156. 18: , %0 3,
: 79, 319
stri ng bass, 98 3" Sympb Qny no. r, M ahler , IN4. :90, H I tim bJle5, 19i , 319
str inged instruments , )- )6 Sympbony in D (Glocken) , H ayd n. 3k8 Symphony no. B, Schub ert, II mnbre, 19
accents, IQ-10 Sympbony in D , .\ tOl.:l rt. +p Sympbony no. 9, Beethoven. IOQ. 195, ::9. tim p.Jlli. lQ?
bo w ing. 7 ~8. 9- 13 S) mphony in £ -fi.Jt , H indernirh. SI q 8. 359--360 mupsno piccolo, 30 J
'cello. 8<H;!, Symphony in E-fi<2 t, .\ tozart , 161}, J75 S ymphony no . 9, Bruc kner . 17. :94 tire, Il
characteristics of the strin gs. p-ss Sy m phony in G (PofUkenfChJ.Jg), H ayd n. Sy m phony no. 9, M ahler. 50. 106. :0,., r- k -I. 2I 9
cimbalom, HS-H9 '00
Sy m phony in G ,\f inor, .\ loza n, 70, )8c}
'3'
Symphony of PlollmJ, St ravin sky, I p 346-
1'0 .1 nn.i V erkJ.irtut1{, Straw-so '0
cou nt erpoi nt an d , -1-51-4 60 , Tomhesn Je COllpc't'in, L e. R:IHI. 103. I Sj' ,
divided st rings. 6-] Symphony in G .uinor, Ro ussel, 54 H7 331
do uble-bu s, 98- 11:1 Sy m phon y in T hree M cn'em enzr, Stravin- S )'mpboll y o n a French .l1rl/lnt olin Air, rom-rome , 3[9, 3:0
fing ering. 4-6 sky. 171. 343, 361 D't ndy, 74. HI tone ;
harrn onicsv ec- j r S ymphon y: M<2 thiJ der Jla /er , H indemit h, symphony o r chestra, see o rc he st r a hassoon, 193 - 196
harp . }lJ- B9 274> 4° 4 c ho rd s, +f i
intonat ion , 4 ) S ymphony no. I, Beetho ven, 15. lS I, 367 tol, : 16 d :Itinel . 16, . I ' M,). [7Q-181
1~:.I[o. S-- I I Sy mphony no. I , Bra hms. 3) , ::6 T02 hle.Jux d'une Exp osition , .\ lo uloSOrgsky- tlu te, 1, 1-1 H. 14_
mutes, H Symphon y no. I , Copland, HJ Rani, 100. 194. 138, : 9: harmonics. ~ Q- 31
ope n string tones, 41 Symphony no. I , ,\ hhler, 86, :,p tabor, 30-1 uuncd string'. H
sco rdsrure, }5 - ) 6 Symphony no. I , Schumann. l B . J71. 387 tsmbaur, ; 03, 30" obne. IS I- 154
scori ng for. 4 [6-.119. 'P6-4JO, 431-441 , Symphony no. I , 5ibeliu s, 175 tambour d e Basque , 3' I piccolo, 141- [45
445- 45 1 Symp hon y no. 2, Bra hm s, 67, 90, 1}3, 361}, tamb our de Prove nce, 3°-1, 305 saxophone, [86
string des igna tion. 30
string lengt h and resonance, 75
",
Symphony no. 2, ~hl h:lu d , 59, 144. 180. 393
tarubourme, 3 11 ~ 31:
tam bour (o ) m ilirJirc, 304
shape of a, : 0
tro mbo ne. :7 5- 177
tr emolo, P -H Symphony no. 1 , Schumann, 39. 1}3 T olm bllrin (0 ), 3 1 1 [ru mp['r. : ;';:-1 51)
trills. J I Symphony no. 2 , Sibehus, 14 tamburo, 303 ruba, :87. 19--1
vihraro, 7 Symp hon y no. J tEroics ), Beethoven, 56, tzmburo b.JJCo, 311 vemcal rd :n ion~ h i ps. ,¢--;9Q
viola. 65- 79 116,~ 37 tsmbur o piccolo, 304 vio la, 6;~
violin, 37-6 4 S ymphony no. J. Bra hms, 49. 53. 68, 19-10 ram-tam. 310 in wind inst rumcn rs, 115-11 6. 118- 110.
voice leading and. 4P -460 l p , 399 T annh.Jliur, \\"agner , 41. 195, 131 ~oH-~OQ
let aho se pua tc instruments Symphony no . J, Copland, 59. 141 "tapest ry of sound." ~II [o ne color, : 0- : 3, %9
string vibrations d iagram, 19 S ymphr.n y n o. ;. M ahler, 54, 178 Tch aikovs kv, 97, [ 36. 191, : 65, 301, 441 chnrds in, 396. 4-111
subrone, 171 Sym phony n o. J, Mendelsso hn, 440 te mpera ture, effec[ un w ind instruments, scordamrs fo r, l6
Suire en FIJ , Rou ssel, 7S Symphony no , J , Riegger, 110 "'0 in tex ture o f o ne ele me nt. ~61
S uiu fo r S m.lll Orche str.J, Stra vinsky, H I Symphony no. ; , Saint-Saer rs, H I temple blocks. 310 tongU ll1g :
suI G, 30. 54 Sym pbony no.;, Sc human, 181. 4° 3 tenor-bass trombo ne. 1;0 brass inwr umenr, 216-1: 1. :;8--:39. %58-
sulle tolltier.J. 10- 21 Sy mphony no. J, Schumann. 173 rencr d rum , 30~. 305 : 59· :il-:i4, :(,10
sui ponticeuo , 1 1, 77, 106 S ymphony no. J , Sibel ics. 1; 0 t enor saxophone, IllS. 186 woodwind. 1: 0-1:4. ISO-l SI. 173- 174-
sui t.lsto, 10. 106 Sy m phony no. f , Beethoven, I I . 197 t eno r trolnOOne. : I I. : 67, :60;1 197- 198
Summer D<2Y on the M ount<2in, D'In dy. Symphony no. 4, Brahms. 4 1, 61. : 78 tenor tuba, :0; , :,,~, : 8Q IOUJ. 7
3 0 ~ , 346 S ympbony no. 4, Mahler, 17. 36. 48-4 9, T cno rtuba, 18-1 tra nspa renc y. in o rc hes tral te xt ure. -I' [
superpo sit ion, 396, 448 9S, 140, 140, 30~, 3[5,3 '9,364 textu re; T restu e on l nstrnmentsuon, Berlioz
sur /a tou che, 10, 88 SymplJony n o. 4, Ma rt inu, H l chords :IS. 39(,- 4°3, 4° 4-4 11 (St rauss rcvisiou} , 152
sw ish cym bal. 309 Symphony no . 4, Sibelius, 156, 157 complex. ~0 5 -41 1 tremotm -lo, F
Sy mphoni.J Domestics, St rauss, 21, 89. S ymphony no. f . Tchajk o vsk y. 3° 1, +P co nt ra punt al, 3118--395, 4°-1-4 ': tr emolos:
l B. 161, ,.06-,.07 Sym pbon y no. $ Beeth o ven, 150. 385 melody and accompa nim e nt as. 364-)73 , brass instrument, ~ : o
S ymphonic .\fet.Jmorphosis, H indemith, S ymphony no. 1. Dvofak. II ), :17 38 7. 395, 404 -4 11 har p. 336
:79. :88, pl S ymphony no. r , Prokofieff, 197, ~9 1, 307. o rchest ral unison :IS, 355-363 . 404- 4 11 kett ledrum, 30:
Symphonie F.Jnt.JJtique, Berlioz, 18, I I:. H· part w riting as. 369, 381- 387. 389, 404- stringed instrument. P- 34. 88
I ~I. 17:, 107. J0 3, H I Symphon y no. r , Schubert, 9, 58 ,.1 : , 451 woodwind, 106. z:~. 137- 138, 155. 173,
Symphonies o f JV ind Instrum ent s, Stra- Symp bony no. 5, Shostakovich, 68, 90, 1 0 ~ , seco nda ry meludy as, 374- 311 1, 404-411 ' '19
vinsky, 40: 140, ~H, 34: , 349 tr;llISpare llcy in , 431 Tr;.J III{ ~'I, 313
Sy mplJo7ly, Fra nck. 9, [[ 0, 38: Symphon y 1/0,6, Beethoven, :50 t hird harmon ic, : 9 triangle, 3' 3
Symphony ( K. H3) , .\ tozan, 34 Symphony no, 7, Beethoven , 17°, 147, 376 t hroat ronc s. l 6<,rl i o tris ngola, J [3
 476 ORCHESTR A TIOi\: IN DEX 477
trilk tone, :S7. 294 chords. 55-58 whole- tube instruments. 2 I I
bra ss instrument. 237- 138. 159. 174. 189 rnn guing, : 18. : 20. 290 chromatic prog rc~si lln. 4z- ." W illiam T ell, Rossi ni, 15.97
harp . ,V')
,I
!>r r in ~{"tl inst ru ment,
wHHdwi nd. '37-1 3". ' 55. 173. 11)8--- 199
valve svstcm, 211 3-2H4. 294
\\'ag ner, 19 , - 294
1<'.' ::110 brass inst ru me nts
d iagrams o f. 5, 7, 55
douhlc-srops, 55-58
wind instrtnucms, see brass instruments
anJ wo..dwmd inst ru ments
fingering . }7- 40, 45, 51-51 w ind mac hine, JI9
triple' Sl"ps, 6 t u b:: b.HS::( ~), 2H4 fi~t and seco nd sec t io ns. 6o-6J If"illJ1II.,Iscbine, J I9
mplc-ronguing. u; mb, ordimure, :84 fourth finge r extensiun, 45 witho ut snar es. 304
1>.I"•«on, 11)8 tubula r hells. ; 16 gl issando. 47-49 with t he t humb , JII
bra" iustr'umcnt , 1ltrZZO lU tm ru ( til leu m ku ), 123 half po-...mon, 45 wood block. J U
clarmct, 174 'Tursngslila, .\ Icssiaen. 351 ha rmonics, 58-6> w oodwind instruments, 114- 12?
flute. 1; 6 Turkish gong. JI O int o narjo n, 43 ba.....oon. 188-w l
horn. 119 rutri, ; open su ings. 4!>-4 1 bre ;Hhi ng. 125- 126
obo e , IS O t utt i c ho rds, 396, +49'"'"45° orchestral usn. 4 16--419. 4J5-441 clarinet. 16 J-IRI
tUba . 190 III
t u tu /ru, pcrtamenro, 47- 49 contrabassoon, : 01-1° 5
T risrs n WId Isolde. \\·ag ne r. 105. 391 z cym., llo ~ ltlon techn ique• •n -5 1 c ou nterpoint and. 45: -4 60
tr omba, 146 scordawr.,l, J6 embo uc hure, I r9-l2o
trUII/h" comrsl rs; :64 Ilnis_, 6, 127 solo. 36. 6J-6.f F.ngli.sh hum, 158-1 6 r
t rombone, ~07-1 c»l. : 67- : 8, unison d ou bling. J96. 448, 454 rr dls, J I finge ring, 116-118
gli" J'hJ o, 17-f-175 in part writing. J8J roning, 4 flut e. 1l 8-14 5
m utes, : 07 in sco ring for melody, 4' 7-4 JO wide sl1ips. +9-51 hamlOnic ; .136--I J7
o rchcsrra l uSC'S, 177-180• .pl}. 410, 41"- umsom, 6 IU .rllo slringcd instruments hc ck clphone, 161
4) 0, "H up-bear, bowing. J Violin Conc erto, BJ n M.:, 28. 275, HO, ken. 118
rangc.1M-zi l up-ho w, 8- 10. 118 lB oboe. 146-1 57
slide , : I I. 11 J. :68-169 Vi olin Concer to, B«r1111\-en. 7 r oboe d'amore, 161- 162
tOllc.1 75- :77 Va1J ~, La, Ravel . 4Q. 108, 124. 20~ . 288 V io/ill Concerto, Berg. 75-76, uS. 177. o verblowing, IIR- 119
to ng uing. 118, no, 171- 174 V.rlus N ob /es et S entimemsles, RaH I. H 4 196. 258. 277. B 8 phn.sing, 125- 126
tr ills, I j..f val ves, 112- 214, 2H. 28J- 2f4. 294 Violin Concerto no . z, P roko fieff, II I piccolo. 1-1 1-144
trum pet in E·fbt as. 16) V ariaTions on .r Theme by H ay J n, Brahms. Viotine, n p itch . qz
valve, :81 1:iolino , J7
Ue stso brass mserumenrs '" reaisrers. 1: 6
Tr onrmel, ,03
T rampere, 146
vent, 118.'1 9
Vennlborn, 225
Va cnTf!, h nrix, Canteloube, H l
! "v ioli n sty le:' 4Z
vioton, n
Vi% ll a ll, 80
urrusophone. 205
saxophone, 185- 18?
scoring for, 126-127. 419'"'" 424. 4=6-+4 1.
trampcnr, 146 V er d i. 141. 2110. 181, 295. H I dolo nall~, 80 445- 45 1
t ru mpe t. Wi - loS. 146-164 vi ,l sardini, J5 viuluucelln, su 'c ello shorten ing -ho le sys tem. 116- 117
auxiliary instruments, :61-166 \"ibr Ol pho lle. J I5 voice leading, orchestration an d. 452- 460 standard and auxiliary instruments. 114.
fi:ngcrin~. 154- 155 vihrarinn v, st ring, d iagram o f, 19
141 - 141
harmomcs, 146-149, 154 vibr-ato, ~tr inged instrument, 7 \ Vag ner, 41, 58, 6J. 71. 9J. 10; . 124, 19J, tone in. " 5- 116. l18- n o
j mode rn , 153-164 " io ta. ;j . 65- 79 195, 202, 207. ZJI, IJ 1. 26J, 27:, :80, tonguing. 120-124
muted, 157-158, 179 as b'I"'s, 7 J 28 7.:89. 295, J 9~ vo ic e leading and, 451- 460
orchest ral uses, 14l}--251, 260-261, 411), bo w ing. R W ag ner ruha, :07, 285, 193-29 4 see also separate irrsrrumenrs
.po. 424- 430 charact eristics o f st r ings. 67-70 IVolld bONl, uS woodwinds by fours, 115
rangc. 247-2 49, 255-2 57 c hords. 73-74 W aldbornmben, Z93 woodwinds by t h rees , 115, 141
to ne , 255-256 clefs, 67 W a/h ire. Die: Sieg1l1l1nds LiebesJied, wood winds by twos, 114-1 15
tonguing. 120, 258-259 dou ble notes, 7G-7J \\'ag ner. 58 ' V Qz .:eck , Berg, 141
trills. 259 do uble-stops, 73- 74 W eber, 19. J98
va lve, 25' -253 fingeri ns , 66-67 W ell-Tempered Clavier, Bach , 459 xyl o phone, J17- J 18
see also brass inst ru me nts har monics, 74-75 w hip, J I9
' -I-k, 219 orc hest ra l use of, 7°, 71-73 , 416-'P9 w histl es, 319 Z auberffiite, Di e, Mozart, 70, 18J
Ill, 1l0-1l3, 216 pizzicato, 75-76
tu ba, 207-2oS, 271l, 280, 282-295 pomicelto , ?6-77
agi lity. :88-:!\l;l so lo, ;7-79
em bouchure, :1l6 tuning, 4
length and range, :84-:86 I CC slso stringed inst r um ents
muted. : 87 violin, 37-6 4. 77-79, 110
norarion fo r, 294 ac cidenta l.., 4 1
o rchestra l uses. 290-29" 419, .po, 424- bowing. H. 4J-P
"0 ch aracrcri srics o f t he st rings, 51-55
 "

ORC HESTRA T IO :'<

TWO ANALYSIS OF ORCH ESTRATION

19 · TYPES OF TEXTURE-TY PE I, ORCHESTRAL US ISO S- 355
:0. TYPES OF TEXTt:RE-TYPE II , :\lE LODY AXD ACCO :\ l -
PASI.\IEST
F O RE W O R D
36..
21 . TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE III , SECO~DARY l\ IELODY
J7+
22. TYPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE IV, PART W RIT ING J82
2 J. T YPES OF TEXTURE-TYPE v, COXTRAPUSTAL TEXTURE J88
HE true art of orchestration is inseparable fr om the creative act
2 ...

25·
T YPES OF TEXTt:R[-TYPE VI, CHORDS

TYPES OF TEXTl,"RE-TYPE VII , CO.\ lVLEX TEXTt:RE

J9 6
4° 5 T of composing music. T he sounds made by the orchestra are
the ult imate extern al manifestation of musical ideas germi-
nated in the mind of th e co mposer. One skilled in the techni que of or-
THREE· PROBLL\\S IN ORCH ESTRATION chestr ati on may practi ce a somewhat lesser art of tr anscribing for
26. ORCHESTRA.T IDS OF :\ IELODY orchestra music origi nally writt en for another medium. This can be a
4 15
fine th ough difficult art, provided the orchestrator is able to put him-
'.L BACKGROUSD AXO ACCO.\IPASL\IEST
"J I self momentarily in the composer's place, and, so to speak , to think
28. SCOR IXG OF CHOR DS the composer's th oughts. Failing this, th e result is unlikely to amount
4++
29· VOICE L EADI X G AXD COUXTERPOIN T to more th an a display of skill and craft, often of a superficial and
45 2
COSCLtiS IOS
artificial nature.
461 Orchestr ation, in the sense here employed, refers to the process of
I S DEX
4 6J writing music fo r the orchestr a, using principles of instrumental com-
bination essent ially th ose observed operating in the scores of H ay dn,
Mozart, and Beetho ven . It is a common tech nique , employed in
present-day sy mp hon ic music as well as in that o f the classical and
romanti c periods. For the present purposes it will not be considered
to embrace earlier processes based on imp rovisation, fort uito us instru-
mental balance , and the stabilizing influence of a keyboard instrument ,
with basso cont inuo .
The technical equipme nt of both composer and orchestrato r must
include a th orough knowledge of the indivi dua l instruments, their
ca pabilit ies and characteristics, and a mental conception of the sound
of each . Then th e effects and resources of instrumental combination
must be learned, invoking such matters as balanc e of ton e, mixed tone
colors, clarity in textu re, and th e like. Finally, the orches tra is to be
sensed as itself an individua l instrument, flexibly employed to present
th e music, in for m and content, with fidelity and effectiveness.
vil

•
\'111 OR C HESTRAT ION
A multitude of obstacles and unsolved prob lems has prevented the
establishment of a science of orchestration. The imperfection and
ngueness of our musical notation makes it impossible to indicate with
accuracy dyn amic and rhythmic quantities as well as pitch, to say
not hing of shades of tone color, warmth and intensity. One conse-
quence of this is the prepo nderance of the role played by the per-
formers and the conductor in the translation of written notes into
sound. It is a well-known fact that no two performances of a work
sound alike, and we find pleasure and satisfact ion in th is versatility of
music as written. But for the student anxious to know the effect in
sound of what he has put on paper, the unknown quantity of the
performe r's understanding has to be acknow ledged in his calculations.
T here are also mechanical and physical influences that cause vari-
ants in the sound of an orchestral score. N o tw o orchestras sound
alike. They may differ in the number of strings, in the quality and
make of the instruments, and quite naturally in the capabilities of
the players. A wide difference exists in the acoustic properties of the
various audito riums in which the individual orchestras habitu ally play,
and the same orchestra will sound different in a different place.
Because of this variety in the sounds produced from the same given
notes, and also because the student of orchestra tion seldom has an op-
portunity to hear those notes played at all, the stu dent works under
severe handicaps in striving to cultivate a capacity for the mental
hearing of orch estral scores.
In the event that his opportunities are limited to hearing phono-
graph records and radio broadcasts, he must be cautioned th at these
resources often have serious and misleading deficiencies. It is possible
to doubt that the usual commercial recording of a sym phonic work
can stand the test of comparison with the printed score. At least in this
writer's experience, almost every recording produces some sounds that
do not exist in the score, and fails to produ ce some of the notes primed
therein, besides showing numerous ot her discrepancies. The phono-
graph record is valuable as a means of conveying the over-all effect
of a composition, but it is an insecure medium thr ough which to
store up instrum ent al sounds in the memory, or to ascertain the sound
effect of a pri nted page of orchestration.
The shortcom ings of radio broadcasting of music are too well
F O RE W OR D IX
kn own to need description here. T he complex vicissitudes suffered by
a musical tone fro m the time it leaves the o rchest ra unti l it is perceived
by the ear of the listener all have their effect upon the q uality of the
ton e. \ Vhen recordi ngs arc broad cast, the efficiency of the initial " pick
up" is improved, but ofte n the records arc worn, and freque ntly the
pitch is clearly not the same as the pitch of the perf.o r~nan~e from
which the recording was made. T his means that a variation 10 speed
has been introduced at some stage of the recording or reproducing
process. This, in rum , means a loss of fidelity not only in pitch, bu t
also in tempo and in the tone color of each instrument .
Th rough a realization of these existing conditions, a philosophy of
musical expe rience can be for med, so that concl usions arc drawn ~ot
from one or two examples of actua l sound. but from the cumulative
evidence of many experiences, and even then held subjec t to subse-
q uent revtsron. .
T he thr ee essential aspects of the study of orchestration arc treated
in the thre e divisions of this book In Parr O ne. the instru ments and
th eir playing tec hniques are stu died in derail. In Parr .Two, an ap-
pr oach to the analysis of orchestration is suggested. and In Part T hree,
typ ical problems in orchestration are gi\'en wtih some examples of
th eir solution. _
Through out the book emphasis is placed on the method of stu dy,
the orientati on of the student's program of action . to help him in con-
tinuing furrher stu dies along the paths suggested. T he material cov-
ered is designed for a vear's course in o rchestration at the college
level. but it is the aurh~r's conviction that the subject matter is tOO
flexible to be presented as a course of graduated steps and exercises.
A present ation is called for th at will be adaptab le to varied Illusi.cal
backgrounds, although it will always be diffi cult for persons lackin g
a knowledge of harmony and counterpoint to wor k out problems in
orchestra tion. T he student should be stimulated to make acquaintance
with scores. and to develop self-reliance and initiative in seeking a
deep knowledge of the instruments and how they arc combined. Such
a pr esentation will be found . it is hoped, in this int rodu ction to the
art of orch estr ation .
B
 ORCHESTRATION
by
Books by IValter PiSIOII
HAR~10:SY

COUXTERPOIST
WALTER PISTON
PR OFES SOR Of !-t U SI C. H A RV ..... RD U~ IVERS ITY

LOKDOX
VICTOR GO LLANCZ LTD
1969
 First published No vem ber 1955
Second impression J un e 1958
T hird imp ression Ma y 1!f) 1
Fourth impression September 1965
Fifth impression M a y 1969
CO:\'TE:\'T S
575 0036 1 8

Music FOR EWORD V11

HT
70 O~E . THE I:\,STRU,\IE:\,TS OF THE ORCHESTRA
.P5 6
1965E< I. STR IS GE D ISSTRUM ESTS 3
Ccf3>'O>. 2- Til E VIOLIS 37
3· THE n OLA 6,
THE THE VJQLOSCE lLO 80
UNIVERSITY 4·
OF TASMANIA 5· THE oounU:-BASS 98
LIBRARY 6. W OODWI ND ISSTR Ul\IESTS "4
" TH E FLUT E ,, 8
7·
8. THE OBOE 146
ULL t: '...J
A_ E.... '" -,ON 9· TilE CLARINE T 16 3
RESQUt:.Ci;. M~rl n AI s CENTRS 10. THE BASSOON 188
II . BRASS INSTRUM ENTS '06
r z• THE HORN " 5
13· THE TRUMPET '4 6
'J ,67
14· THE TRO!\.IDONE

15· THE TUBA , 8,

P IU NT E D IN GREAT BRITAIN B Y 16. PERCU SSlOS IS ST RU 1\l E:s"TS '9 6
LOW E AN D BRYDONE ( P R I N T E RS) LIM IT ED, LONDO N, S . W . I O
17· THE HA RP 3' 3
18. KE YBOARD IN STR UM ESTS 340
•
I