PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS: Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary

n is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary prism

other by: having a cross sectional area dA and a length of L (Figure).
I. UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must be A. TYPES OF MANOMETER
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or in equilibrium.
gas on a body or surface, with the force acting at right Note: 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉
angles to the surface uniformly in all directions.  Absolute zero pressure is attained if all air is 𝑊 = 𝛾(𝐿𝑑𝐴)
𝐹 removed. It is the lowest possible pressure
𝑝= attainable ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐴
1 bar = 100KPa  Absolute pressure can never be negative 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
1 atm = 101.325KPa = 14.696 psi = 760mmHg  The smallest gage pressure is equal to the
negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure 𝑝2 𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝1 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾(𝐿𝑑𝐴) sin 𝜃
II. PASCALS LAW
It states that pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in
a static fluid is equal in all directions
Open manometer

Differential manometer
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾(𝐿) sin 𝜃
IV. VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE
Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in But Lsinθ = h

.: 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ
III. ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURE
Which means:
The actual pressure at a given position is called the
absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute The difference in pressure between any two points in a
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-
homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit
measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in
weight of the liquid (γ) to the vertical distance (h) between
the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric the points.
pressure. ThisDifference is called the gage
pressure.Gage pressure can be positive or negative, but V. MANOMETER
pressures below atmospheric pressure are sometimes Is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid
called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum of known specific gravity, the surface of which moves
gages that indicate the difference between the proportionally to change of pressure.
Piezometer
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
PROBLEMS:
EXAMPLE 1; A hydraulic jack is used to lift a car. If the
diameter of the plunger (point 1) is 10mm and that of the
ram (point 2) is 250mm, find the force needed to apply at
the plunger if the weight of the car is 1500kg
PRACTICE 1: A hydraulic press has a ram of 20cm and a
plunger of 3 cm diameter. It is used for lifting a weight of
30 KN. Find the force required at the plunger.
EXAMPLE 2: What is the pressure 12.5m below the
ocean? Use specific gravity for saltwater of 1.03.
PRACTICE 2: If the pressure 23m below a certain liquid is
365.76 KPa, determine its unit weight 𝛾, mass density ρ,
and specific gravity s.
PRACTICE 3: A pressure gage 6m above the bottom of the
tank containing a liquid reads 90 KPa. Another gage at a
distance of 4m from the bottom reads 103 KPa. Determine
the specific weight of the liquid.
EXAMPLE 3: An open tank contains water up to depth of
2m and above it an oil of s = 0.9 for a depth of 1m.
a. Find the pressure at the interface
b. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank
c. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.5m
PRACTICE 4: What are the gage pressure and absolute
pressure at a point 3m below the free surface of a liquid
having a density of 1.53 X 103 kg/m3 if the atmospheric
pressure is equivalent to 750mm of mercury? The specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000
kg/m3.
EXAMPLE 4: The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer EXAMPLE 7: For the three-liquid system shown,
containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while the left compute h1 and h2. Neglect the air density.
limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of s = 0.9 is
flowing. The center of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of
the mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in
the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs
20cm.
PRACTICE 5: A simple U-tube manometer containing
mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of s =0.8
and having a vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of
the manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the
vacuum pressure in the pipe, if the difference of mercury
level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the EXAMPLE 8: The hydraulic jack in the next figure is filled
left from the center of the pipe is 15 cm below. with oil at 56 lbf/ft3. Neglecting the weight of the two
pistons, what force F on the handle is required to support
EXAMPLE 5: The barometric pressure at sea level is the 2000-lbf weight for this design?
760mm of mercury while that on a mountain top is 735mm. EXAMPLE 11: In the figure shown, determine the
If the density of air is assumed constant at 1.2 kg/m3. What difference in pressure between points A and B.
is the elevation of the mountain top?
EXAMPLE 6: If the pressure at point A is 2900 lb/ft2,
determine the pressures at point B, C, and D.
EXAMPLE 9: Water flows upward in a pipe slanted at 30º,
as in nest figure. The mercury manometer reads h = 12 cm.
What is the pressure difference p1 – p2 in the pipe?
PRACTICE 6: If the pressure at point A is 98KPa abs, What
is the absolute pressure at point B? What percent error
results from neglecting the unit weight of air of 1.2kg/m3.
EXAMPLE 10: For the manometer setup shown, determine
the difference in pressure between A and B.
FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES

In the design of devices and objects that are submerged, such as dams, flow
obstructions, surfaces on ships, and holding tanks, it is necessary to calculate the
magnitudes and locations of forces that act on both plane and curved surfaces.
Consider a plane surface given on the next figure. Note that a side view is given
as well as a view showing the shape of the plane.
_
where ℎ is the vertical distance from the free surface to the centroid of the area
and p is the pressure at the centroid. Thus we see that the magnitude of the force
on a plane surface is the pressure at the centroid multiplied by the area. The force
does not, in general, act at the centroid.
To find the location of the resultant force F, we note that the sum of the

moments of all the infinitesimal pressure forces acting on the area A must
equal the moment of the resultant force. Let the force F act at the point (xp, yp),
the center of pressure (c.p.). The value of yp can be obtained by equating
moments about the x-axis:

where the second moment of the area about the x-axis is

_
The second moment of an area is related to the second moment of an area I
about the centroidal axis by the parallel-axis-transfer theorem,

_
The total force of the liquid on the plane surface is found by integrating the where y is measured parallel to the plane area to the free surface.
pressure over the area, that is,

where we usually use gage pressure. (Atmospheric pressure cancels out since it
acts on both sides of the area.) The x and y coordinates are in the plane of the
plane surface, as shown. Assuming that p = 0 at h = 0, we know that,

where h is measured vertically down from the free surface to the elemental area
dA and y is measured from point O on the free surface. The force may then be
expressed as

The distance to a centroid is defined as

The expression for the force then becomes

EXAMPLE 1: A vertical gate 1.5m wide and 3m high is submerged in water with EXAMPLE 3: Find the location of the resultant force F of the water on the
its top edge 2m below the water surface. Find the total pressure acting on one triangular gate and the force P necessary to hold the gate in the position shown
side of the gate and its location from the bottom edge. in the next figure. Neglect the weight of the gate, as usual.

PRACTICE 2: A plane area of 80

cm by 80 cm acts as an escape
hatch on a submersible in the Great
Lakes. If it is on a 45° angle with
the horizontal, what force applied
normal to the hatch at the bottom
edge is needed to just open the
hatch, if it is hinged at the top edge
when the top edge is 10 m below
the surface? The pressure inside
the submersible is assumed to be
atmospheric. EXAMPLE 6: For the gate shown in the next figure, calculate the height
H that will result in the gate opening automatically if l = 2m (neglect the
PRACTICE 1: A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5m wide is weight of the gate):
3m high. It is submerged in oil having s = 0.82 with its top base submerged to a
depth of 2m. Determine the magnitude and location of the hydrostatic pressure EXAMPLE 4: The gate in the figure shown is 1.5m wide, hinged at point A, and
acting on one side of the gate. rests against a smooth wall at B. Compute (a) the total force on the gate due to
seawater, (b) the reaction at B, and (c) the reaction at hinge A. Neglect the
weight of the gate.

EXAMPLE 2: In the figure shown, stop B will break if the force on it reaches
40KN. Find the critical water depth (h). The length of the gate perpendicular to
the sketch is 1.5m. A

EXAMPLE 5: Compute the magnitude and location of total force acting on a

regular hexagon gate shown in the next figure. Note: use the base as reference
for location
a. By using the derive formula
b. By using integration method