Chapter 1

WHAT IS politics?
• …A contested concept
• Exercise of power
• Exercise of authority - right to rule
• Making of collective decisions
• Allocation of scarce resources
• Practice of deception and manipulation

• “ACTIVITY through which people MAKE, PRESERVE, and AMEND the

GENERAL RULES under which they live.” (Heywood, 2013:2)

• A social activity that entails the making, amending, and preserving of

general rules under which they live

4 VIEWS OF POLITICS (APCP)

POLITICS AS AN ARENA
• Politics as the art of government
- Politics is what concerns the state
- Focuses on personnel and the machinery of the state
- Narrowly, to study politics is to study government
- Broadly, to study politics is to study the exercise of authority
• Politics as public affairs
- Politics is beyond government; arena
- Politics is essentially a public activity
- Politics takes place in a public/political sphere

POLITICS AS A PROCESS
• Politics as compromise and consensus
- Looks at the way how decisions are made
- According to Laver, “pure conflict is war. Pure cooperation is true love.
Politics is a mixture of both.” (Laver, 1983: 1)

|———————————|———————————-—|
Pure conflict Politics Pure cooperation

1
 - Conflict - competition between opposing forces, reflecting a diversity of
opinions, reflecting a diversity of opinions, preferences, needs or interests
- Cooperation - working together; achieving goals through collective
action
- Consensus - general agreement
- Laws - intentionally ambiguous since we are bound to disagree

• Politics as power and the distribution of resources

- Sees politics in all social activities and in every corner of human
existence
- Politics is at the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal,
public and private in all human groups, in all societies
- Politics as a struggle over scarce resources
- Domestic; in the private sphere

FACES OF POWER
1. Power as decision-making
- The stick, the deal, the kiss
- Conscious actions that in some way influence the content of
decisions
2. Power as agenda setting
- Ability to prevent decisions being made
- Ability to set or control the political agenda
3. Power as thought control
- Ability to influence another by shaping what he or she thinks,
wants, or needs
- Ideological indoctrination or psychological control
- Seen in the use of propaganda, and more generally, in the
impact of ideology

How do we study
politics?
APPROACHES (PE
A. PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION (prescriptive/normative)
• Politics used to be housed in history
• History - past politics; Politics - history in the making
• Prescribing what should be
• Armchair theorising

2
 • Justice - everything is in place

• Philosophical tradition (political philosophy) - deals with the ethical,

prescriptive, normative concerns; what should/must be or ought to
be; cannot be objective
• Focus: IDEAS
• Questions: What should be? What ought to be?
• Get answers that are subjective

B. EMPIRICAL TRADITION (descriptive)

• Gave rise to the institutional approach (formal structures); offers a
dispassionate and impartial account of political reality; descriptive;
experience is the basis of knowledge

• Focus: POLITICAL REALITIES

• What is > What should be
• Based on observations
• Paved the way for the scientific approach

CONTEXT
Munck, Gerardo “The Political Present & Comparative Politics”, in Munck &
Snyder (Eds). Passion Craft, and Methods in Comparative Politics. Maryland,
Johns Hopkins University Press 2007

• John Burgess - Father of Political Science at the Columbia University

• Empirical tradition inspired political scientists to separate from history as a
discipline
• Main focus of the discipline: INSTITUTIONS

• Institutions - From the old institutionalist perspective, was the government

C. BEHAVIORALISM
• Made the study of politics “scientific” and value-free; peaked in
the 50s and 60s; explanatory, utilize objective and quantifiable
data
• Treat cases in an inductive way; gather data —> create a theory

D. RATIONAL-CHOICE THEORY

3
 • Formal political theory; relies heavily on economic models that
assume individuals are rational, self-interested and calculating;
insights on voters, lobbyists, bureaucrats
• Individuals are rational actors; Human beings are self-interest
maximizers
• People make the best calculating decisions;
• DEDUCTIVE

E. NEW INSTITUTIONALISM
• Until the ‘50s, there was old institutionalism; then the Behavioural
revolution (60s and 70s) led to its marginalisation; what is new about
“new institutionalism”? Revival of institutionalism in the 1980s;
- Sets of rules which guide and constrain the behaviour of
individual actors
• Institutions that shape and constrain the behaviour of people
• Considers factors in all aspects of societal environments and formal
institutions
• Informal structures shape the formal structures which in turn
shape the informal structures
• Theda Skocpol

F. CRITICAL APPROACHES
• Critical, contest the status quo, they go beyond the positivism of
mainstream (behaviouralism, institutionalism, rational choice)
political science; have shared antipathy towards mainstream
thinking
• All critical of the mainstream

THERE ARE 2 MAJOR APPROACHES

1. INTERPRETIVIST WAY
2. SCIENTIFIC WAY

• Concepts, models, and theories - building blocks of Political Science

• Concepts - know how to define

• Models - know how to describe
• Theories - know how to theorize; hypothesis, explanation
• Recommendations - prescribe with basis
• Predict

LEVELS OF CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

4
1. CONCEPTS
2. MODELS OR MICROTHEORIES
3. MACROTHEORIES
4. IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS / PARADIGMS

Realms of politics
• Spatial independence vs. Spatial interdependence
• Although Heywood’s book “adopts a holistic approach” (spatial
interdependence) - (what goes on within and between states impact on
each other) - “it considers the interactions of politics from a primarily
domestic perspective”.

Chapter 2

IDEOLOGIE
• A term coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy during the French Revolution
• Referred to a new science of ideas

MEANINGS OF IDEOLOGY:
• A political belief system
• An action-oriented set of ideas
• The ideas of the ruling class
• The world view of a particular social class or social group
• Political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interest
• Ideas that situate the individual within a social context and generate a
sense of collective belonging
• Ideas that situate the individual within a social context and generate a
sense of collective belonging
• An officially sanctioned set of ideas used to legitimise a political system
• An all-embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth

HEGEMONY
• Implies ideological domination

IDEOLOGY

5
• A coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for organised political
action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify, or overthrow the
existing system of power (Heywood)
• All ideologies
1. Offer an account of (critique of) the existing order, in the form of a
“worldview”
2. Advance a model of desired future, a vision of the good society
(alternative vision)
3. Explain how political change can and should be brought about (how to
get from “a” to “b”) (course of action)

3 CLASSICAL IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS

• LIBERALISM (Lockean view)
• CONSERVATISM
• SOCIALISM

• Western Tradition is characteristically liberal

• Developed in order to influence and shape emerging industrial society
• Three different views of the Industrial revolution
• Contrasting ideologies because they emerged at the same time

Category LIBERALISM CONSERVATISM SOCIALISM

1. Critique of the A reaction against A reaction against A reaction against
social order Absolutism (absolute the growing pace of the emergence of
monarchic rule) Economic and industrial capitalism
Political change

2. Vision of future A constitutional and The ancien regime: A Socialist society

society representative Absolutism based on common
government; a ownership; classless
minimal or private-property less
nightwatchman state society

3. Theory of Through negative Restoration of the 1. Through a

political change liberty; non- social order; Revolution
interference; autocratic and 2. Through
establish a reactionary; change Evolution
constitution to limit in order to conserve 3. Through welfare,
governmental redistribution of
powers wealth and
economic
management

LIBERALISM

6
 • Traced their ideas to John Locke
• Saw the Industrial revolution to be positive since it allowed individuals to
flourish
• Constitution — specifies clearly the division and separation of powers in
order to limit the power of the government
• Montesquieu
• Political and legal rights and equality
• Equal opportunities to realize their unequal potentials

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
• Favoured negative liberty — freedom from oppression, freedom from
torture associated with absolute monarchic rule
• A commitment to an extreme form of individualism
• Atomist view of individuals
• Negative view of freedom
• Laissez faire economy (Smithsonian)

MODERN LIBERALISM
• Positive view of liberty — right to education, etc
• More sympathetic attitude towards state intervention
• Positive view of freedom
• Neoclassical economy (Keynesian)
• Support for the ‘big’ government rather than ‘minimal’ government
• State intervention, in the form of social welfare, can enlarge liberty by
safeguarding individuals from the social evils that blight individual
existence
• Liberalism + welfare and redistribution

CONSERVATISM
• Human beings are viewed in a pessimistic way
• Believed in monarchy because people cannot be trusted with the higher
good; people are greedy and selfish
• Did not like the industrial revolution —> do not trust human being’s
rationality
• Look at your representatives with trust; entrust responsibilities to leaders
and that they will pursue your interest
• Value government and the authority
• There is wisdom in traditions; Why change them?

I. PATERNALISTIC CONSERVATISM
• Autocratic and reactionary; rejects any form of reform

7
 • Espouses the principles of organism, hierarchy and duty
• Supported the nobility during the French Revolution (right side)
• Wanted everything in the status quo
• Individuals are not to be trusted because of their unreliable rationality

II. NEW RIGHT

• Shift from state to market oriented forms of organisation
• Willingness of some parts of the conservative to change; if only to
conserve
• Somewhat reformist

> NEOLIBERALISM
• Came after the modern liberals
• Entrepreneurial in character
• To roll back the frontiers of the state
• Unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and
widespread prosperity
• The nanny state/welfare state breeds a culture of dependence
and undermines freedom
• In support of a strong but minimal state
• Right of center
• Privatisation, deregulation, liberalisation
• Admit that government is the problem
• If you keep the services at the minimum, these functions will be
met at the state
• Allow private sector to step in — allow liberalisation
• Remove taxes
• Prevent the establishment of a big government that is a nanny
state, where people are dependent on the government

> NEOCONSERVATISM
• Reasserts 19th Century Conservatism and social principles
• To restore authority and a return to traditional values
• Against permissiveness, the self and doing one’s own thing
• Tendency to be skeptical about multiculturalism
• Similar to paternalistic conservatism; just a more evolved version
• Right wing

SOCIALISM
• Common ownership, no private property
• Foundational equality

8
 • Equality of outcome; Everyone should be able to reach the finish line

I. MARXIST

> CLASSICAL MARXISM

• Has a fundamentalist, utopian and revolutionary character
• Materialist conception of history
• Economic determinism
• Historical change was dialectic (due to the competing forces/class
struggles) and results in a higher state of development
• Belief that the proletariats will be able to realise fully and be
consciously aware of their exploitative condition so they will be
able to lead themselves via the revolutionary path
> ORTHODOX COMMUNISM
• Marxist-Leninist — modified the Marxist doctrines
• Development of the idea of the Vanguard party for the working
class
• Believed that the proletariats will not be able to realise their
fullest potential because of the possibility of them to be
influenced by the ruling class
• Leadership of the communist party to lead them
> NEO-MARXISM
• Marxism as a humanist philosophy
• Separate from the economic sphere — cultural, social
• Find a conflict relationship
• Realise their potential as individuals of being aware of their
condition

II. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY

• Reformist and revisionist
• Evolutionary New Social Democracy (neo-revisionist)
• Social democracy + Neoliberalism

9
 POLITICAL SPECTRUM OF IDEOLOGY

<—————————————————————————————————————>
Communism Socialism Liberalism Conservatism Fascism

Left Right
“Equality” “Freedom”
Collective Individual
Collectivist Laissez faire

(socialist economic system) (capalist economic system)
Communism Fascism (ultra-nationalist)

HORSESHOE MODEL

Source: Heywood, Andre. Political Ideology: An Introduction. NY: Palgrave

Macmillan. 2012 p. 144

LIBERALS — see the state as a neutral arbiter amongst the competing interest and groups
in society, a vital guarantee of social order; while classical liberals treat the state as a

10
necessary evil and extol the virtues of a minimal or nightwatchman state, modern liberals
recognise the state’s positive role in widening freedom and promoting equal opportunities

CONSERVATIVES — link the state to the need to provide authority and discipline and to
protect society from chaos and disorder. Hence their traditional preference for a strong state

other ideological traditions

FASCISM
• A revolt against the ideas and values that had dominated western
political thought (e.g., rationalism, progress, freedom, equality)
• Has an anti-character
• Core theme: image of an organically unified nationalism community
• Various forms of fascism:
- An extreme form of statism — Mussolini
- Founded on the basis of socialism (belief in a superior race) —
Hitler

ANARCHISM
• Political authority in all its forms, especially in the form of a state, is both
evil and unnecessary
• Preference for a stateless society in which free individuals manage their
own affairs through voluntary agreement and cooperation
• Based on liberal individualism and socialist communitarianism
• Extreme form of liberalism and socialism
• High regard for human beings and believe that they should be kept
extremely free
• Even though individuals are left alone, they are capable of working
harmoniously with others — communitarianism
• Order is not necessary because there is no chaos

FEMINISM
• First-wave feminism — Liberal Feminism
- 1840s and 1850s
- Reformist
- Women’s suffrage movement
• Socialist Feminism
- Relationship between the sexes is rooted in the social and economic
structure
- Analysed inequality from the economic structure that was capitalist
• Second-wave Feminism

11
 - 1960s
- Radical and revolutionary demands to enhance the social role of
women in a patriarchal society where sexual oppression is the
fundamental feature of this society
- Agains the patriarchal system of society and wanted social gender
equality even in the personal sphere
- Liberalist, socialist and radical schools of feminist thought
• Third-wave Feminism
- Talk about the differences among men and women and differences
among women

GREEN POLITICS
• Peaked in the 1970s
• Concerned about the damage done to the natural world by the
increasing pace of economic development
• Ecocentric worldview that portrays human beings as merely part of
nature
• Extreme form: deep ecologism
• Revolt against industrialisation

1. Deep Ecology
- Most radical
- Think that it is the environment that matters
- Against humanitarian aid
2. Social Ecology
- Ecosocialism
- Ecoanarchism
- Ecofeminism (the degradation of the environment is attributed
to the patriarchal system)
3. Modernist Ecology
- Willing to work within the system
- Advocates for a limit in the industrialisation

<——————————————————————————————————-—>
Deep Ecology Social Ecology Modernist Ecology

COSMOPOLITANISM
• 1990S ideological tradition
• Ideological expression of globalisation
• A belief in a world state

12
 1. Moral Cosmopolitanism
- Liberal cosmopolitanism (people have obligations towards all
other people in the world, e.g., human rights)
- Socialist cosmopolitanism (attempt to universalise civic and
political rights, hence support for humanitarian intervention;
attempt to universalise market society)
2. Cultural Cosmopolitanism
- Highlights the extent to which people’s values and lifestyles
that have been reconfigured as a result of intensified global
interconnectedness
- Accepting of challenges in terms of culturalism
- Open to multiculturalism & intercultural marriages

NON-WESTERN IDEOLOGICAL
TRENDS
POSTCOLONIALISM
• Sought to give the non-western world a distinctive political voice
separate from the universalist tendencies of liberalism and socialism
(e.g., Gandhi’s political philosophy on religious ethic of non-violence and
self-sacrifice)
• Ideology of the third-world states

• 1st world states (RIGHT); 3rd world states (MIDDLE — illiberal; low regard
for freedom and equality)

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM
• Islam fundamentalism or political Islam
• The goal is to establish an Islamic state based on the principles of shari’ a
law (e.g., Iran-first Islamic state)
• Islamism has been a vehicle for expressing anti-westernism (against
western education which is secular)

ASIAN VALUES
• Fuelled by the emergence of Asian economic superpowers (tiger
economies)
• Drew attention to differences between Asian and western value systems
• Offered a vision of social harmony, cooperation grounded in loyalty, duty
and respect for authority

13
BEYOND DUALISM
• Influenced by Buddhist and Taoist thoughts
• All concepts and objects lack “own being””, highlighting intrinsic
interdependence
• The world is a characterised by absolute unity of opposites
• Stresses integration and oneness

Chapter 3

STATE — political & legal entity

• Borders
• Sovereignty: a) internal s. (people recognising people in the government)
b) external s. (recognize external component of the state)
• Government
• People (population)
• Outside the state there is anarchy, wherein there is an absence of
government

DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN
DEFINING THE STATE (HEYWOOD)
IDEALIST
• Hegelian view of the state: as an ethical community underpinned by
mutual sympathy — ‘universal altruism’
• Fails to distinguish institutions that are part of the state and those that
are outside of the state
FUNCTIONALIST
• Focuses on the role of purpose of state institutions — function:
maintenance of social order
• The set of institutions that uphold order and deliver social stability
• Looks at the state’s functions
ORGANIZATIONAL
• Defines the state as the apparatus of government in its broadest sense
• The set of institutions that are responsible for the collective organization
of social existence and are funded at the public’s expense
• 5 features: sovereign, public, and exercise in legitimation, an instrument
of domination, a territorial association
INTERNATIONAL
• Views the state as an actor on the world stage

14
 • The basic unit of international politics
• Highlights the dualistic structure of the state
• Deals with the state’s outward-looking face — its relations with other
states and its ability to give protections against external attack
• 4 features: defined territory, permanent population, effective
government, capacity to enter into relations with other states)
HEYWOOD’S DEFINITION OF A STATE
• A political association that establishes sovereign jurisdiction within
defined territorial borders and exercises authority through a set of
permanent institutions

OTHER DEFINITIONS OF THE STATE

• A political community formed by a territorial population which is subject
to one government (Hague and Harrop)
• Organization that issues and enforces binding rules for people within a
territory (Newton & Van Deth)
• Centralized authority and locus of power (O’Neil)
• Organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory
(Weber)

15
4 RIVAL THEORIES OF THE STATE
PLURALIST STATE
• Liberal tradition
• The state acts as an umpire, an impartial/neutral arbiter or referee in
society
• State is nonpartisan; no biases
• State as a melting pot
• Optimistic view of the state

• Susceptible to the influence of various groups and interests, and all social
classes
• Neo-pluralism
• State in favour of the business groups
• Unfair advantage of the business sector

CAPITALIST STATE
• Marxist tradition
• The state is nothing but an instrument of class oppression
• An instrument of the ruling class to oppress other classes

• Neo-Marxist view
• State is a dynamic entity that reflects the struggle for hegemony
• More structuralist
• Dynamic entity that reflects the struggle for power

LEVIATHAN STATE
• Associated with the New right, the neoliberal view
• Sees the state as an overbearing nanny desperate to meddle or interfere
in every aspect of human existence
• Parasitic growth that threatens individual and economic liberties
• An autonomous or an independent entity that pursues its own interests
(“big government”, enlargement of the bureaucracy)

PATRIARCHAL STATE
• (Liberal feminist) positive view of the state
• State intervention is needed as a means of redressing gender inequality
and enhancing the role of women

16
• Radical feminist? — a more critical view of the state
• State institutions are embedded in a wider patriarchal system
• State power reflects a deeper structure of oppression in the form of
patriarchy — instrumental view
• The state is an agent or tool used by men to defend their own interests
and uphold the structures of patriarchy

ROLES OF THE STATE

• Minimal state — the ideal state of classical liberals: has 3 core functions
as “nightwatchman state”; to maintain social order, to ensure that
contracts are enforced; to provide protection under external attack
• Developmental state — the state that intervene in economic life in order
to promote industrial growth and economic development
• Social-democratic state — aims to bring about broader social
restructuring along the principles of fairness and equality
• Collectivised state — brings the entirety of economic life under state
control
• Totalitarian state — is the most extreme forms of interventionism; the
construction of an all-embracing state which penetrates every aspect of
human existence
• Religious state — uses the state as an instrument of moral and spiritual
regeneration

RETREAT OF THE STATE

• What factors led to the impression of the so-called “retreat of the state”?
• Rise of globalisation (3 views: led to the decline of the state as a
meaningful actor; remain as a principal actors or; simply transformed
the state) economic globalisation
• Rise of international migration and the spread of cultural globalisation
(made state borders permeable)
• Rise of non-state actors (TNCs) and growing importance of
international organisations (WTO, EU, ASEAN), political globalisation
• Weak states, failed states

RETurn OF THE STATE

• State’s capacity to maintain domestic order and protect its citizens from
external attack
• Perceived threat of transnational terrorism
• Imposition of tight border controls as counter-terrorism strategy

17
 Chapter 4

TWO PATHS OF POLITICAL ORGANISATION (STATE) (O’NEIL)

1. DEMOCRATIC RULE
• Consensus — individuals band together to protect themselves and
create common rules
• Leadership is among people
2. AUTHORITARIAN RULE
• Coercion — Individuals are brought together by a ruler, who imposes
authority and monopolises power
• Security through domination

DEMOCRACY
• People, rule by many, popular sovereignty, representation
• Rules, limits, laws, rule of law
• Rights, freedom, statue of liberty, Bill of Rights
• Elections, ballots, consent, legitimacy
LEGITIMACY
• Broadly means rightfulness
• The grounds on which governments may demand obedience from
citizens
• Legitimacy — as a sociological phenomenon

3 types of authority (weber) - tcr

1. TRADITIONAL
• Does not guarantee competence of leader
• Primogeniture — passing of traditional authority
2. CHARISMATIC
• People obey people because of his or her grace
3. RATIONAL-LEGAL
• Based on rules and laws —> institutionalised

IN DEFINING DEMOCRACY
• A system of rule by the poor and the disadvantaged
• A form of government in which people rule directly and continuously
• A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than
hierarchy and privilege
• A system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing inequalities
• A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule

18
 OTHER MEANINGS
• A system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minorities by
placing checks upon the power of the majority
• A means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the
popular vote
• A system of government that serves the interests of the people
regardless of their participation

GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
• “that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that
government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish
from the earth.”
PEOPLE
• Ancient Greek view (exclusive citizenship)
• Modern view (adult citizens; the general will rather than particular will;
the majority; cosmopolitan democracy
HOW SHOULD THE PEOPLE RULE?
• “government by the people”
• Ancient Greek democracy: Direct Democracy
• Modern: Representative Democracy
• “government for the people?
• Totalitarian democracy (plebiscitary democracy)
HOW FAR SHOULD POPULAR RULE EXTEND? (government for the people)
• What is the proper realm of democracy? (public-private sphere)
• Disagreements (depends on view of politics and ideology)

MODELS OF DEMOCRACY - cpdp

1. Classical Democracy
• Ancient Greek or Athenian democracy
2. Protective Democracy
• 17th-18th C — “Lockean democracy”
• Democracy for the protection of the people from the encroachments of
government
• A government by consent (representative assembly)
• However only the propertied could vote
3. Developmental Democracy
• 18th-19th C: Rousseauist: “obedience of a law one prescribes to oneself”
• “obedience to the general will”
• Requires political equality and economic equality
• Shaped the idea of “participatory democracy”
JSMill

19
 • Capitalist
• Father of the Press — wrote the book On Liberty
• Broader popular participation — inclusive citizenship with the
exception of those who are illiterate - “a deliberate democracy”
4. People’s Democracy
• Marxist-inspired democracies
• Against the capitalist/bourgeois democracy
• Social equality (equal outcomes) > political equality (equal opportunities)
• 20th C: Leninist-inspired democracy — power to the Communist party
(the vanguard of the working class)

FEATURES OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

— Indirect and representative democracy guaranteed through regular
elections founded on political equality
— Based on competition and electoral choice

THEORIES OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY -

pecnm
1. Pluralism
• Masidonian democracy — “rule by multiple minorities”
• Robert Dahl — rule by the many or “polyarchy” —party competition and
articulation of interests
2. Elitism
• Classical elite models of Pareto, Mosca and MIchels: elite rule
• Rule by the privileged minority (elite rule as a good thing)
• Coherent elite model of C.
• Wright Mills — “power elite model”
• Schumpeter’s Competitive or democratic elitism — elite rivalry —
fractured elite model
• Modern elites (negative view)
3. Corporatism
• Integration of economic interests into government
• A design to secure the cooperation and support of major economic
4. New Right
• Advocates the free market
• Protective democracy — a defence against arbitrary government
• Liberal democracy — bad thing (a lot of pressure for governments to
fulfil)
5. Marxism

COSMOPOLITAN DEMOCRACY?
• Requires the construction of a world parliament

20
 • Or through a reform of existing international organisations

Chapter 5

NATION
• CULTURAL DIMENSION
• “a group of people that are bound together by a common language,
religion, history and traditions”
• primordial
• Shared ethnicity
• POLITICAL DIMENSION
• “a group of people who regard themselves as a natural political
community expressed through the quest for sovereign statehood
• “natural” —> citizenship by birth
• Shared citizenship
- Jus sanguinis (natural born citizens)
- Jus soli (birth place)
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSION
• “a group of people distinguished by a shared loyalty or affection in the
form of patriotism”
• Patriotism — psychological attachment to one’s nation, literally, a love
for one’s country
• Shared loyalty
• Constructed — artificial

• Nation — “collection of people bound together by shared values and

traditions, a common language, religion, and history, and usually
occupying the same geographical area”
• Diaspora — people outside the territorial area but are still considered
a citizen of their country of origin
• Nations have both natural and artificial features
• NATIONS AS CULTURAL COMMUNITIES
• Primary concept of the nation (primordial bonds that bind a collection
of people together)
• Emphasises ethnic ties and loyalties
• Inherited ethnic identity
• Refers to self-assertion of an existing cultural identity
• Nation possesses a “Volksgeist”
• NATIONS AS POLITICAL COMMUNITIES
• Emphasises civic loyalties and political alliances
• Hosbawn’s “nation as invented traditions”

21
 • Anderson’s modern nation as “imagined community”
• Requires voluntary acceptance
NATIONALISM
• Not a single phenomenon but a series of nationalisms
• Broadly, nationalism can be defined as “the belief that the nation is a
central principle of political organisation”
• Acknowledges the importance of the nation

CULTURAL NATIONALISM POLITICAL NATIONALISM

Ethnic or cultural entity A group of people bound by shared
citizenship, regardless of their cultural,
ethnic, and other loyalties

Importance of language Emphasis on civic loyalties and political

allegiance

Natural and organic entity An “imagined community”

Based on a romantic belief in the Rational and principled; unifying quest for
nation as a unique, historical and national liberation and freedom
organic whole
Bottom-up form of nationalism Top-down form of nationalism

VARIETIES OF NATIONALISM (LCEA)

• LIBERAL NATIONALISM
- Principled form of nationalism which proclaims that each and every
nation has a right to freedom and self-determination
- All nations are equal
- Every nation can liberate itself from any kind of occupation
• CONSERVATIVE NATIONALISM
- Form of traditionalism; inward-looking and insular
- Nation is “invented” and defined by political leaders by ruling elites
with a view to manufacture consent or to engineer political
- passivity
- Sees the nation as an organic entity that is rooted largely in the
idea of a shared past
- Nationalism that is a defence of values and institutions that have
been endorsed by history
• EXPANSIONIST NATIONALISM
- Antithesis of liberal nationalism
- Arises from a sentiment of intense, hysterical nationalist
enthusiasm; sense of exclusivity

22
 - Integral nationalism, “the nation is everything, the individual is
nothing”; militaristic and expansionist in character
- Integral nation-an exclusive ethnic community bound together by
voluntary political allegiance
• ANTICOLONIAL AND POSTCOLONIAL NATIONALISM
- Early forms of anti-colonialism (anti-European) drew heavily on
classical liberal nationalism (with aspiration for national
determination)
- Later on, aspirations became economic and political in
character, hence, influenced more by socialist thought (Anti-
ruling (capitalist) class)
- More recently, this form evolved into a fundamentalist
character (Anti-Western voice)
- Promotes values of community and cooperation

VIEWS OF THE NATION

<—I————————————I——————————I—————————I————>
Multiculturalism Liberalism Conservatism Fascism

<———— inclusive exclusive ————>

Internationalist ultranationalist

NATION-STATE
• A form of political organisation — autonomous political community
bound together by bonds of citizenship and nationality
• A political ideal — as a principle or ideal type; nations as natural
communities
• For liberals and most socialists, it is largely fashioned out of civic loyalties
and allegiances
• For conservatives, it is based on ethnic and or organic unity


23
 Chapter 6

POLITICS IS INTERTWINED WITH ECONOMICS

• Politics affects economic outcomes
• Economics affects political outcomes
POLITICAL ECONOMY
• Study of the interaction of politics and economics
• Focuses on the relationship between states and markets
• As a method, it entails the use of theories in economics to analyse
politics
• Examines how different economic systems affect institutional and
political arrangements and are in turn affected by a process of political
decision-making

Different approaches to political economy (SCM)

• STATE-CENTRIC POLITICAL ECONOMY

- Developed out of Mercantilism
- Sometimes called economic nationalism
- Looks at economic markets as not natural, they are constructed by
the state in a social context
- Strategy and policy: to build up state’s wealth, power and prestige
through protectionist policies; protect infant industries from unfair
competition from stronger economies
- Key economic actor: the state

• CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

- Derives from the writing of Smith and Ricardo
- Based on liberal assumptions about human nature
- Believes that individuals are naturally self-interested creatures or
utility maximisers
- The invisible hand brings supply and demand into line with one
another
- Leave the economy alone and let the market manage itself policy
(laissez faire) (assumption: perfect competition)
- Key economic
- Actors: individuals


• MARXIST POLITICAL ECONOMY

- Portrays capitalism as a system of class exploitation

24
 - Defined classes in terms of economic power
- Capitalism’s quest for profit can only be satisfied through the
extraction of surplus value from its workers through the mechanism
of capitalist exploitation (by paying them less than the value their
labor generates)
- Capitalism has an inherent instability as it experiences inherent crisis
of overproduction
- Key actors: social classes

Two rival economic systems

• CAPITALIST ECONOMY
- Based on private ownership and organised by the market (capitalist
West)
• SOCIALIST ECONOMY
- Based on state ownership and organised through a system of
economic planning (communist East)

VARIETIES OF CAPITALISM (ESS)

1. ENTERPRISE CAPITALISM
• American business model
• Pure capitalism: sees the market as a self-regulating mechanism;
shareholder capitalism
• Liberal market economy
• No state intervention
• Profits go to industries and absence of regulation
• Laws must help industries, not hinder them
• Industries can handle themselves by addressing these demands
2. SOCIAL CAPITALISM
• Central and Western Europe
• Believes that state intervention should be used to protect infant
industries from the rigors of foreign competition
• Form of stakeholder capitalism that takes into account the interests of
workers and those of the wider economy
3. STATE CAPITALISM
• Japan, East and SEAsian tigers
• Capitalist economy wherein the state plays a crucial directive role
• Collective capitalism
• Capitalism without political liberalism

Central issue:
To manage (Keynesian) or not to manage (neoliberal) capitalism

25
 Alternatives to capitalism (smg)
1. STATE SOCIALISM
• Also known as economic Stalinism
• Directive planning or centrally planned economy
• A state of collectivisation
• Form of socialism in which the state controls and directs economic life
• In theory, in the interests of the people
2. MARKET SOCIALISM
• Reconciles the principles of socialism with the dynamics of market
competition
• An economy in which self-managing enterprise operate within a
context of market competition supposedly delivering efficiency without
exploitation
3. GREEN ECONOMICS
• Ecological or green alternatives
• Capitalism and socialism are alternative ways of exploiting nature to
satisfy the interests of mankind
• The goal is to recast economic priorities on the basis of sustainability

GLOBALIZATION
• Emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness that means our
lives are increasingly shared by decisions and actions taken at a distance
from ourselves

FORMS OF GLOBALIZATION (ECN)

1. ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
2. CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION
3. POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

2007-2009 FINANCIAL CRISIS

• What is its significance?
• Was it rooted in the:
1. Inappropriate lending strategies of the US banking system (high-
risk loans to poor payors)
2. In the nature of enterprise capitalism (the need for financial
regulation)
3. In nature of the capitalist system itself (which is unable and
prone to crisis)?

26
 Chapter 7

• POLITICS is a social activity

• As a means of resolving conflict… is the process through which conflicts
of society are articulated and perhaps resolved

HOW CAN SOCIETY SHAPE POLITICS?

• The distribution of wealth and other resources in society conditions the
nature of state power
• Social divisions and conflicts help to bring about political change in the
form of legitimation
• Society influences public opinion and the political culture
• The social structure shapes political behavior, who votes, how they vote,
who joins parties

• “Modern society appears to be characterised by ‘hollowing out’ of social

connectedness, a transition from the ‘thick connectedness of close social
bonds and fixed allegiances to the ‘thin’ connectedness of more fluid,
individualised and social arrangements”

• From industrialism to post-industrialism

• Industrialism changed societal structure from the fixed social
hierarchies to economically-based class divisions and their
irreconcilable conflict—transforming “class” as the most significant
social division (capitalist and working class)
• Post-industrialism (Daniel Bell, 1973) and the spread of IT-based
network relationships and the decline of Marxist class politics have
encouraged the “thinning of social connectedness” and the rise of
individualism; post-industrial societies are characterised by the
transition from a labor theory of value to a knowledge of theory of
value

• “Two-thirds, one-third society” (Hutton)

• “contented majority” (John Kenneth, Galbraith, 1992)
• Post-material concerns — beyond the material concerns
• “underclass”? (one-third society) Movie: Tinimbang ka ngunit kulang
(1974 picture directed by Lino Brocka)
• People who suffer from multiple deprivation; the underclass
suffers less from poverty and more from social exclusion
• Underclass — the faction-less in Divergent

27
 • New technology and the information society (the third information
revolution—the advent of new media; technologies of connectivity); what
are the implications of this? No such thing as society?
• “Network society” (Castells) — rise of network corporations, network-
based social movements and netizens

• “There is no such thing as society…only individual men and women and

their families.” — Margaret Thatcher
• The thinning of social connectedness
• One view: rise of individualism, egoism and atomism—linked to a
weakened community and sense of social belonging; to a weakening of
social duty and a moral responsibility
• Other views? Mark of social progress; higher levels of social awareness,
self-knowledge and contemplation


IDENTITY POLITICS
• Cultural differences within a society
• The politics of difference; its foundations were laid by the postcolonial
theories
• “A style of politics that seeks to counter group marginalisation by
embracing a positive and assertive sense of collective identity”
• Seeks to assert “pure” or “authentic sense of identity”

PRINCIPLES OF SHAPING IDENTITY

(OTHER FORMS OF DIFFERENCES)
• Race and ethnicity
• Gender
• Religion
• Culture

RACE AND ETHNICITY

• Developed as a struggle against colonialism
• Race — a group of people who share a common ancestry and one blood
• Ethnicity — sentiment of loyalty towards a distinctive population, cultural
group or territory

CULTURAL DIVERSITY
• International migration; growing number of refugees; growth of
diasporic communities
• These phenomena led to the growing number of countries with multi-
ethnic, multireligious or multicultural character

28