New Era University

Integrated School Department

PROJECT
IN
BASIC CALCULUS

Submitted by :
Marxon Q. Rafael
Matt Sarenas
Janry Paras
Rick Rekko Talao
Hanz Valdez

Submitted to :
Mr. Virgilio P. Maranan
Professor
 BASIC
INTEGRATIONS
As with differentiation, there are some basic rules we can apply when
integrating functions. If you are familiar with the material in the first few
pages of this section, you should by now be comfortable with the idea
that integration and differentiation are the inverse of one another. This
means that when we integrate a function, we can always differentiate the
result to retrieve the original function. Unfortunately, the reverse is not
true. Once we differentiate a function, any constant term in that function
simply vanishes, because the derivative of any constant term is zero.
This is something we need to keep in mind when we think about how we
will go about integrating a function, because it means our answer will
always contain a constant of unknown value. We call this constant
the constant of integration, C .

We have already talked about the power rule for integration elsewhere
in this section. This rule is essentially the inverse of the power rule used
in differentiation, and gives us the indefinite integral of a variable raised
to some power. Just to refresh your memory, the integration power rule
formula is as follows:

x n+1
∫  n
ax dx = a
n+1
+C

This formula gives us the indefinite integral of the variable x raised to

the power of n, multiplied by the constant coefficient a (note
that n cannot be equal to minus one because this would put a zero in the
denominator on the right hand side of the formula). This rule alone is
sufficient to enable us to integrate polynomial functions of one variable.
We simply integrate each term separately - the plus or minus sign in
front of each term does not change. The indefinite integrals of some
common expressions are shown below. Note that in these
examples, a represents a constant, x represents a variable,
and e represents Euler's number (approximately 2.7183). Note also that
the first three examples in the table are derived from the application of
the power rule.
Indefinite Integrals of some common Functions
A constant value a:

∫ a dx = ax + C
A variable x:

x 2
∫ x dx =
2
+C

The square of a variable x 2:

x 3
∫  2
x dx =
3
+C

The reciprocal of a variable  1/x:

∫
1
dx = ln (x) + C
x

The exponential function e x:

∫e  x
dx = e x + C

Other exponential functions a x:

a x
∫  x
a dx =
ln (a)
+C

The natural logarithm of a variable ln (x):

∫ ln (x) dx = x ln (x) - x + C
The sine of a variable sin (x):

∫ sin (x) dx = -cos (x) + C

The cosine of a variable cos (x):

∫ cos (x) dx = sin (x) + C

The basic rules of integration, which we will describe below, include

the power, constant coefficient (or constant multiplier), sum,
and difference rules. We will provide some simple examples to
demonstrate how these rules work.
 The Power Rule

The power rule for integration, as we have seen, is the inverse of the
power rule used in differentiation. It gives us the indefinite integral of a
variable raised to a power. Here is the power rule once more:

x n+1
∫ ax n dx = a +C
n+1

Let's look at a couple of examples of how this rule is used. Suppose we

want to find the indefinite integral of x 3. Applying the power rule, we
get:

x 4
∫ x 3 dx = +C
4

Sometimes it is not quite so obvious that we can use the power rule to
find the indefinite integral of a function. Suppose, for example, that we
want to find the indefinite integral of the expression 3√x. How do we use
the power rule to integrate the cubed root function? It's actually quite
easy. All we need to do is to rewrite the expression so that we get x to a
power. There is a standard formula that allows us to express the nth root
of a number a in index form (i.e. as a raised to a power):

n
√a = a  1/n

Applying this formula to 3√x we get:

3
√x = x  1/3

We can now apply the power rule to get:

3x 4/3
∫ x 1/3 dx = +C
4
 The Constant Coefficient Rule

The constant coefficient rule (sometimes called the constant multiplier

rule) essentially tells us that the indefinite integral of c · ƒ(x),
where ƒ(x) is some function and c represents a constant coefficient, is
equal to the indefinite integral of ƒ(x) multiplied by c. We can express
this formally as follows:

∫ c ƒ(x) dx = c ∫ ƒ(x) dx

The constant coefficient rule essentially allows us to ignore the constant

coefficient in an expression while we integrate the rest of the expression.
For example, let's suppose we want to find the indefinite integral of the
expression 5x 2. The constant coefficient rule tells us that the indefinite
integral of this expression is equal to the indefinite integral
of x 2 multiplied by five. In other words:

∫ 5x 2 dx = 5 ∫ x 2 dx

Now we just apply the power rule to x 2:

 2 5x 3
5 ∫ x dx = +C
3
 The Sum Rule

The sum rule tells us how we should integrate functions that are the sum
of several terms. It basically tells us that we must integrate each term in
the sum separately, and then just add the results together. The order in
which the terms appear in the result is not important. We can state this
formally as follows:

∫ (ƒ(x) + g(x)) dx = ∫ ƒ(x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx

You may be wondering at this point why the rule is written in the way
that it is. It is quite important to realise here that, in a function that is the
sum of two (or more) terms, each term can be considered to be a
function in its own right - even a constant term. Suppose we want to find
the indefinite integral of the polynomial function ƒ(x) = 6x 2 + 8x + 10.
Applying the sum rule, we get:

∫ (6x 2 + 8x + 10) dx = ∫ 6x 2 dx + ∫ 8x dx + ∫ 10 dx

= 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 10x + C
 The Difference Rule

The difference rule tells us how we should integrate functions that

involve the difference of two or more terms. It is essentially the same as
the sum rule in that it tells us that we must integrate each term in the
sum separately. The only difference is that the order in which the terms
appear is critical, and must not be changed. We can state this rule
formally as follows:

∫ (ƒ(x) - g(x)) dx = ∫ ƒ(x) dx - ∫ g(x) dx

Let's look at an example. Suppose we want to find the indefinite integral

of the polynomial function ƒ(x) = 4x 3 - 18x - 7. Applying the sum rule,
we get:

∫ (4x 3 - 18x - 7) dx = ∫ 4x 3 dx - ∫ 18x dx - ∫ 7 dx

= x 4 - 9x 2 - 7x + C

The sum and difference rules are essentially the same rule. If we want to
integrate a function that contains both the sum and difference of a
number of terms, the main points to remember are that we must integrate
each term separately, and be careful to conserve the order in which the
terms appear. The plus or minus sign in front of each term does not
change. Alternatively, you can think of the function as the sum of a
number of positive and negative terms, and just apply the sum rule.
Order is then unimportant - you just need to be mindful of the sign of
each term.
Basic Integration Formulas
The fundamental use of integration is as a continuous version of
summing. But, paradoxically, often integrals are computed by viewing
integration as essentially an inverse operation to differentiation. (That
fact is the so-called Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.)
The notation, which we're stuck with for historical reasons, is as peculiar
as the notation for derivatives: the integral of a function f(x) with
respect to x is written as

∫ f(x) dx
The remark that integration is (almost) an inverse to the operation of
differentiation means that if
𝑑
f(x) = g(x)
𝑑𝑥
then

∫ g(x) dx = f(x)+ C
The extra C, called the constant of integration, is really necessary,
since after all differentiation kills off constants, which is why integration
and differentiation are not exactly inverse operations of each other.
Since integration is almost the inverse operation of differentiation,
recollection of formulas and processes for differentiationalready tells the
most important formulas for integration:
And since the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives,
the integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals:

∫ f(x) + g(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx

And, likewise, constants ‘go through’ the integral sign:

∫ c ⋅ f(x) dx = c ⋅ ∫ f(x) dx
For example, it is easy to integrate polynomials, even including terms
like √x and more general power functions. The only thing to watch out
1
for is terms x−1 = , since these integrate to lnxln x instead of a power
𝑥
of x. So
Examples
Example: what is the integral of sin(x) ?

From the table above it is listed as being −cos(x) + C

It is written as:

∫ sin(x) dx = −cos(x) + C
Evaluate the following integral.

Solution
There are two ways to proceed with this example. For many, the first thing that they
try is multiplying the cosine through the parenthesis, splitting up the integral and
then doing integration by parts on the first integral.

While that is a perfectly acceptable way of doing the problem it’s more work than we
really need to do. Instead of splitting the integral up let’s instead use the following
choices for uand dv.

The integral is then,

This is the only indefinite integral in this section and by now we should be getting
pretty good with these so we won’t spend a lot of time on this part. This is here only
to make sure that we understand the difference between an indefinite and a definite
integral. The integral is,
Recall from our first example above that all we really need here is any anti-derivative
of the integrand. We just computed the most general anti-derivative in the first part
so we can use that if we want to. However, recall that as we noted above any
constants we tack on will just cancel in the long run and so we’ll use the answer from
(a) without the “+c”.
Here’s the integral,

Recall that we can’t integrate products as a product of integrals and so we first need
to multiply the integrand out before integrating, just as we did in the indefinite
integral case.
In the evaluation process recall that,

This one is actually pretty easy. Recall that we’re just integrating 1!.