Introduction to Transport

Materials
MM3ITM – Lecture 1

Dr E.H.Yap
EngHwa.Yap@nottingham.edu.my
Room BB33

Acknowledgement: Dr K. T. Voisey
 Lecture 1

• What are transport materials?

• Overview of course structure
• Teaching resources
• Assessment details

• Materials classes
• Materials definitions and concepts
• Fracture
 What are transport materials?
• Metals
– High strength steel – automotive
– Ni superalloy turbine blades
– Al alloys – aeroplane skins

• Polymers
• Composites
• Ceramics

• Demanding operating conditions

– Gas turbine
• RR Trent 892 T > 1500°C, up to ~ 20,000 rpm
– F1 monocoques
• Lightweight chasis and survival cell
 Transport as a driver for materials
research
• Aerospace/Automotive
– requirement for new materials  research and development
– innovations in specialised fields then incorporation into
consumer transport

• Aerospace
– Military  Civil
– Jet engine, superalloys

• Automotive
– F1  Domestic
– Polymer comoposites
Trent 900
www.rolls-royce.com/civil_aerospace
 2 key concepts
Valid for all types of transport…......................

• Lighter is cheaper
– less fuel wasted transporting car/plane instead of its
contents

• Engines: Hotter is better

– Thermodynamics Efficiency increases with
operating temperature
 Requirements of transport
materials
• Materials that can cope with demanding
conditions
but we need to consider…………
• Cost
• Environmental pressure – legislation
– Restriction on processes – eg CrVI plating
– Carbon taxes
– Recyclability (ELV)
 End of Life Vehicle Directive
(2000/53/EC)
• Came into force October 21st 2000
• 80% reuse and recycling, by weight, from January 1, 2006
• 85% reuse and recycling, by weight, by January 1, 2015

• Targets for vehicles produced before January 1, 1980, can be

lower than the given figure for the 2006 target, but no lower
than 75% recovery and 70% recycling.

• The Commission will amend existing European regulations on

new vehicles to ensure that they are at least 85% recyclable

http://www.letsrecycle.com/legislation/endofLife_vehicles.jsp#seven
 Operating conditions: aircraft

Boeing 747 (2005)

Skin Landing gear Gas Turbine

Pressure Load bearing High temperatures
difference Corrosion resistant High rates of rotation
Thermal cycling High strength steel Ni superalloys
Al alloy
 Material usage-aircraft
Al alloys
Commercial
90
80
Ti alloys Al alloys
Material usage (weight %)

Steel
70
Composites
Increasing use of
60
Other composites
50
40
30 Military
20
10 Material cost less
0 important
Boeing Boeing Airbus F22
747 777 380
More Ti alloys,
(1969) (1994) (2005) composites
Eurofighter Structural Materials

CFC 40% (Surface Area 70%)

Aluminium Alloy 20%
Titanium 12%
GRP 10%
Aluminium 18%
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic

“ Delivers a low mass robust product ”

Provided by Eurofigh
Operating conditions 2: automotive

Maybach 62
Body panels Cylinder
Corrosion resistant High temperature
Dent resistant Wear resistant
Galvanized steel sheet Cast iron
Material usage-automotive
 Material usage-automotive
• Wide variety of different car types
• Industrial lobbies – steel vs aluminium etc
• Recycling legislation – steel vs aluminium

• F1 cars
– Extra 1kg  + 0.03s/lap
– 2005 British Grand Prix (60 laps)
– Montoya beat Alonso by 2.7s
– still the winner if 1.5kg heavier?

– Ultra low weight

– Carbon fibre composites
 Average 1997 Car Material Breakdown
Battery 1%
Glass 3%
Tyres 3% Other 1%

Rubber 2%
Process Polymers 1%
Carpets/NVH 1%

Plastics 9%

Fluids 2%
Electrical Parts 1%
Heavy Non Ferrrous 2%

Light Non Ferrous 6%

Ferrous Metal 68%

Data from The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Limited (SMMT)
 Ferrous
80.00
Lt.Non-F
70.00 H.Non-F
Spec.Mtl
60.00 Elec.
Fluids
Weight %

50.00
Plastics
40.00 Carp/NVH
Polymers
30.00
Rubber
20.00 Tyres
Glass
10.00 Battery
0.00 Fuel
Other
Ford Fiesta
Fiesta Jaguar
Average Vauxhall
Astra
(Average) Astra
 Material usage-automotive
• Audi
– Aluminium
– Audi A2 25% Al (19k) Audi A8
– Audi A8 “all aluminium car” (47k)
• Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution MR Edition
– Al roof panel
–  lowered centre of gravity
–  enhanced handling
 Material usage-automotive
• Fiat
– Mg alloy casting crossbeam under dashboard
– Replaced 18 piece spot welded assembly
• Renault Espace (v3)
– Polymer composite body panels

• Steel dominant material (on average)

• Advanced materials used in specific
applications
• Reduced weight + other benefits
 Course structure
• L1-introduction; materials classes and definitions; fracture
• L2-failure modes
• L3-superalloys; Ti alloys
• L4-Al alloys;
• L5-steel; heat treatment
• L6-auto engine components; polymers
• L7-polymer composites; materials selection
• L8-environmental effects
• L9-surface engineering
• L10-advanced materials
• Revision lecture (?)
 Lectures
• 10 x 2h lectures
• 1 revision lecture (?)
• Worked examples  bring calculators
• Lecture notes available on WebCT
 Resources
• Reading list
– Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, W.D. Callister Jr
– Engineering materials 1 : an introduction to their properties, applications and
design, by Michael F. Ashby and David R. H. Jones.
– Engineering materials 2 : an introduction to microstructures, processing and
design, by Michael F. Ashby and David R. H. Jones.

• Other resources
– AluMATTER: http://aluminium.matter.org.uk
– Doitpoms: http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms
– References given in lecture notes
 Assessment
• 80% exam
– 1.5hrs
• 20% coursework
– 10% problems sheet CW1
– 10% case study CW2

Coursework details
• CW1. set in L3 (11th Oct) deadline 25th Oct
• CW2. set in L6 (1st Nov) deadline 15th Nov
 Revision of material classes and
properties
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

Steels PMMA Zirconia CFRP

Al alloys PVC Alumina Carbon
Ti alloys PET Silica fibre
Ni Rubber reinforced
superalloys polymer
GFRP
Glass fibre
reinforced
polymer
 Relevant properties
• Density
• Stiffness – Young’s modulus
• Strength – yield strength
• Toughness – flaw tolerance
• Corrosion resistance
• Fatigue resistance
• Creep resistance
• Specific properties (stiffness/kg etc)

Modification of material properties

• Material processing
• Material use
 Metals
•+ve ions in sea of electrons
– High thermal and electrical conductivities

•Non-directional bonding
– Ductile
•Dislocations Wide variety of metal
– Plastic deformation at low stress forming processes

•Dense
•Corrosion
– oxidation, galvanic corrosion

•Improvement of properties by alloying

– Corrosion resistance
– Solid solution strengthening
– Precipitate strengthening
 Lattice planes
• planes within crystal
structure
• parallel planes are
crystallographically
equivalent

• dislocations
• line defect in a perfect
lattice
• always present
 Dislocations
Easier to move a
dislocation than
entire lattice plane

symbol

• Plastic deformation = dislocation motion

 Dislocation Motion Animation

From http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/kap_5/illustr/a5_1_1.html

Tutorial: http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/tlplib/dislocations/index.php
 Dislocations
• Motion of a defect

• Permits plastic deformation at surprisingly

low stresses  ductility
 Dislocations and Material
Properties
• Obstacles to dislocation motion
– Solute atoms
– Grain boundaries
– Precipitates
– Other dislocations

• Bowing round obstacles increases

dislocation line length
 requires work to be done

• Increase obstacles increase sy

 increase hardness
 TEM micrograph
Dislocations
visible as lines
Dislocations can
be pinned by
obstacles
Martensitic steel
(Fe, C 0.2, Mo 4 wt%)
lightly rolled

http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/miclib/micrograph_record.php?id=807
Obstacles to dislocation motion
• Anything that
disrupts the lattice
– Grain boundaries
– Precipitates
• Anything that strains
lattice
Compressive
– Other dislocations lattice strain

– Alloying elements in
solid solution
Tensile
lattice strain
 Solid solution strengthening
• Solute atoms of
locally distort
matrix
• Strain field
interacts with
dislocations
•  obstacle to
dislocation motion
 Example of precipitate
strengthening
Al 2024: 4.4 Cu 1.5 Mg, ppt: Al2CuMg

Al Al 2024
Yield stress 35 325
(MPa)
Ultimate tensile 90 470
strength (MPa)
Data from Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, W.D. Callister Jr.

Al 2024 – used in fuselage skins From P. Campestrini*, H. W. van

Rooijen, E. P. M. van Westing and J.
H. W. de Wit Materials and Corrosion

Al skins – would be 10 x thicker vol 51 p616-627 (2000).

and 10 x heavier
 Processing route
• Properties depend on processing route
Dislocation density All affect dislocation motion
Grain size
All can be change during
Precipitate distribution processing

Precipitate distribution Few widely

Depends on heat treatment spaced
Determines yield stress Low YS
Many closely
Need to select correct heat spaced
treatment for desired High YS
properties
 Metals-applications
Al-Cu alloys High specific
Fuselage skin strength

Ni superalloys High temperature

Turbine blades stability

High strength steel High strength

Landing
gear
 Polymers
• Long chain molecules n(CH2=CH2)  [-CH2-CH2-]n
…-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-…

• Thousands of repeat units n > 10,000

• Long chain molecules are flexible

• Material properties
depend on shape
adopted by molecule
and strength of bonds
between molecules
 Different forms of polymers
• Amorphous
– No alignment
– Weak bonds between molecules

• Partly crystalline
– Aligned regions
– Stronger bonds between molecules

• Drawn
– Highly aligned molecule
– Weak bonds between molecules
–  strong in direction of alignment
but weak transverse to alignment

Form depends on processing  properties depend on processing

 Thermoplastics
Weak bonds between molecules
Heat them and they will melt  easy to recycle
Molecules move past eachother easily at T > Tg

What is Tg?  Glass Transition Temperature

Above Tg there is sufficient

thermal energy for molecular E
motion
Below Tg the molecular
arrangement is frozen in
At Tg there is a significant
change in properties T
Tg
 Amorphous/Crystalline
Thermoplastics can be amorphous or crystalline
Amorphous Crystalline
Polycarbonate Nylon, PP, PE
“spaghetti structure” Ordered regions up to ~95%

Stronger forces between

molecules in ordered regions
T
Tg Tm
 Thermosets
• Phenolics, epoxies, polyesters
• Thermosets have permanent
chemical bonds between
molecules

• Do not soften on heating – no Tg

• Compared to thermoplastics, thermosets are
– Hard
– Strong
– Brittle
– Difficult to recycle
 Other ways to change properties
• Branching Change packing density
• Sidegroups and ease of crystallisation

• Additives
– Carbon black  conductivity
– Pigments
– Fire retardants
 Typical Properties of Polymeric
Materials
• Low density
• Corrosion resistant
• Easily formed
Mild Polyethylene Epoxy Polycarbonate
steel resin
Density 7.87 0.917-0.932 1.2 1.2
(g cm-3)
Stiffness 200 0.17-0.28 2.6 2.38
(GPa)
Specific 25 0.24 2.17 1.98
stiffness
(GPa g-1 cm3)
Applications of Polymeric Materials
Rubber Airplane window
tyres liners

Plastic
Plastic
Wire insulation
bumpers

Plastic Lightweight
Weight saving matrices in
fittings composites
 Ceramics
• Defn of ceramics? inorganic, nonmetallic
crystalline or amorphous
• Strong directional bonding - covalent or ionic

• Low density
• Hard Specialised
processing
• High melting points
procedures
• Low thermal conductivities
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Strength – good in compression bad in tension
• Brittle
• Low fracture toughness
 Ceramics
– noplastic deformation
– crack before yielding

– not used structurally in tension

Low flaw Flaw distribution

tolerance determined by
processing
used as particles in toughened ceramics
composites small grain size
(crack restricted to (flaw size ~ grain size)
particle size)
 Ceramics-applications
Zirconia Low thermal
Thermal barrier conductivity
coatings High Tm
Electronic
Electronic
ceramics
properties
Solid state sensors
Carbon/carbon Wear resistance
composite
Aircraft disc
brakes
 Ceramic matrix composites
• Ceramic/ceramic composites
– Carbon/carbon SiC/SiC fibre/matrix

Barrier Fibre
to crack pull-out
growth

More energy Fracture

required to toughness
propagate crack increased
 Composites
Tailor properties – can do this in 3D with fibres

Carbon black (up to ~30%)

Particulate
in rubber
wear resistance
Automobile tyres

Fibre CFRP - Eurofighter Typhoon

Specific stiffness Overall ~30% weight saving
Reduced radar signature

GLARE-Airbus 380 skin

Laminar
800kg weight saving, corrosion,
Weight reduction fire, fatigue and damage
tolerances improved

Sandwich panels
F1 monocoque
Faceplates + honeycomb core
McClaren > 95%
Weight reduction carbon/epoxy
 Composites
• High specific stiffness (light and stiff)
 weight saving
• 3D control of properties
 efficient use of material

• Composites inherently expensive

- Arrangement of reinforcing phase
- Novel manufacturing processes
- Recycling (private vehicles)
 Properties of Materials-Overview
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites
Density High Low Low Low
Stiffness High Low High High
Fracture toughness High Low Low High

Tensile strength High Low High High

Cost High

Carbon
Al2024 CFRP
steel 1006 Ni superalloy Polyethylene Epoxy resin Al2O3
(T4) 0.6%
hot rolled
Density (g cm-3) 7.87 2.78 7.9-8.5 0.917-0.932 1.2 3.96 1.6
Tensile strength (MPa) 295 470 1250-1450 8.3-31.4 70 300 1240 (41)
Specific strength (/density) 37 169 165 21 58 76 775

Stiffness (GPa) 200 73.1 206 0.17-0.28 2.6 370 145 (10)

Specific stiffness (/density) 25 26 25 .25 2.2 93 90.6

Fracture toughness (MPa m1/2) 26 30-100 1 0.4 4

Range of properties – composite: composition and directionality, metals: heat treatment

 Microstructural features
Microstructure of crystalline
material
Etching
Chemical attack which
reveals microstructure
Grain
Individual crystal
Grain boundary
Region of disorder
Phase
Ni rich, Cu rich, aTi bTi
Precipitates (ppts)
grain boundary ppts
Next slide
 Closer up
Microstructure
Neighbouring grains
Different orientation
Grain boundary
Region of disorder
Precipitates (ppts)
different structure to
material (matrix) they
are embedded in
Vacancies
Where atoms missing
Interstices
Gaps between atoms
 Yield strength
engineering stress + strain

Engineering stress and strain

calculated using original
sample dimensions 2

1:Elastic deformation
2:Yielding
dislocations start to move
1
Max strength = ultimate
tensile strength (UTS)

yield strength is limit of

elastic deformation
 Yield strength
• yield strength closely related to dislocation motion
•  microstructural changes have strong influence on
yield strength

Al Al 2024
Yield stress 35 325
(MPa)
Ultimate tensile 90 470
strength (MPa)
Al 2024: 4.4 Cu 1.5 Mg, ppt: Al2CuMg
Data from Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, W.D. Callister Jr.

• hardness = resistance to indentation

• closely related to yield strength
 Toughness

From: http://www.people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter6.pdf

• Area under stress-strain curve = energy

• Toughness = energy required to propagate a crack
 Fracture: crack propagation
Brittle
•Fast fracture when
critical stress reached
•Catastrophic failure
•No plastic
deformation
•Smooth fracture
surface

Ductile
•Yield before fracture
•“safe failure mode”
•Slow, high energy
absorption
•Plastic deformation
•Rough fracture surface
•Cup and cone features
What happens when a crack
grows?
?

1: some material is unloaded

 release of strain energy
2: new crack surface created
 energy requirement

Strain Energy needed to

energy create new crack
released surface
Crack growth and energy
requirements
s

2a
da

s
Surface energy required
surface energy g
new crack surface 2dat2
(cracks have 2 surfaces) 2a
energy required  2dat g 2 da

Strain energy released

strain energy 1
se 
1 s2
2 2 E
unloaded vol 2pa da t
energy released  1 s2 2pa da t
2 E
 Strain energy released Energy needed to create
new crack surface

1 s2 2pa da t 4 g da t
2 E

2 disappears s2pa
when real  2g Gc: energy
stress field 2E requirement
around crack not restricted to
tip used surface energy

s GcE
pa
 Safe failure

s GcE Catastrophic
pa failure
sf =GcE
pa
Catastrophic failure avoided if: sy < sf

Design criterion sy < GcE

for safe failure pa
 Fracture toughness

s GE s pa  GE
pa

Stress intensity factor, K = s pa Material KIC (MPa m1/2)

Al 2024 21-37
Critical stress intensity factor, Al 7075 16-41
fracture toughness High strength steel 50-150
Polycarbonate 1-2.6
KC = s pa = GcE
Alumina 3-5
Glass 0.7-0.8
Glass Fibre 20-60
Reinforced Polymer
 Increasing fracture toughness
Brittle, low KIC: Fracture if s > sfracture

Energy required only to create new crack

surfaces  low fracture toughness

Ductile, high KIC: Yield before fracture sfracture > syield KC = s pa = GcE
Energy required only to create new
crack surfaces and to perform plastic
work  higher fracture toughness
Other ways to improve fracture toughness:
Crack deviation, fibre pull out, fibre bridging - composites Materials
Inclusion of a ductile phase – dual phase steels Engineering

Increasing energy requirement for crack propagation increases fracture

toughness
 Flaw size
KC = s pa = GcE

• critical flaw size

 flaw size distribution needs to be known
 sf increased by decreasing flaw size
 surface treatments

 performance of brittle materials strongly

depends on flaw size distribution

http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/september97/features/ceramic/ceramic.html
 Flaw size-worked example
• SiC KIC = 4 MPa m1/2
• Engineering grade SiC has a 10mm grain
size
• Refractory quality SiC has a 150mm grain
size
• What are the fracture stresses?
• Hint: grain size = flaw size =a
Flaw size-worked example
K IC
K  s pa sf 
pa

4
10 mm sf  6
p 10  10

s f  714MPa

150 mm s f  184MPa

Reduced grain size ceramics = engineering ceramics

http://www.omegaslate.com/producti.htm#rbsc
http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/september97/features/ceramic/ceramic.html
 Ductile-Brittle Transition
• Material behaviour varies with
temperature
• Same flaw size and same stress
produce very different results either
side of transition temperature
• Brittle T < TDB< T Ductile Liberty ships

• Materials with DBT

BCC (Cr), HCP (Mg, Zn) metals
Ferritic steels

•Materials without DBT

FCC metals (Ni, Al, Cu)
Austenitic steels http://www2.umist.ac.uk/material/research
/intmic/features/charpy/notes.htm#bdtt
 Lattice planes
• dislocations travel on
particular planes in
particular directions
(slip systems) where
there are short
distances between
neighbouring atoms
(short step size) and
large distances
between each parallel
plane (atomic motion
easier)
 Crystal structures
• number of possible slip systems depends on crystal
structure
• face centred cubic (fcc, cubic close packed)
– copper, aluminium, nickel
Decreasing
number of
• body centred cubic (bcc) slip
– Tungsten, Chromium, b-Titanium systems

• hexagonal close packed (hcp)

– magnesium, a-Titanium
 L1 summary
• Overview of aero + auto material usage
• Module details
• Materials classes
• Materials definitions and concepts
• Fracture