Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
STATE OF T H E ART
by
Charles L . Bretschneider
P r e s e n t e d 3,t
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S u m m e r Course
L u n t e r e n , The Netherlands
Conference sponsored by
P r e p a r a t i o n of Notes sponsored by
O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h
D e p a r t m e n t of the Navy
Washington, D . C , , 20360
C o n t r a c t Noo Nonr-4177(00)
NESCO R e p o r t SN-134-6
J a n u a r y 15., ^1965
N A T I O N A L E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE C O M P A N Y
. 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N . W ,
Washington, D. C. , 20036
R E P R O D U C T I O N I N W H O L E OR I N P A R T IS P E R M I T T E D FOR A N Y
PURPOSE O F T H E U N I T E D STATES G O V E R N M E N T
T A B L E OF CONTENTS
Page
T A B L E OF CONTENTS 111
V
LIST OF FIGURES
PREFACE ix.
1
I, INTRODUCTION
A. S I G N I F I C A N T W A V E CONCEPT 1'^
B. C O M P L E X N A T U R E OF SEA S U R F A C E 20
1. Wave V a r i a b i l i t y
C. W A V E S P E C T R U M CONCEPTS 39
D. F R O U D E S C A L I N G OF T H E W A V E S P E C T R U M 46
A. G E N E R A T I O N OF W I N D WAVES OVER A B O T T O M 62
OF CONSTANT D E P T H
68
V. D E C A Y OF WAVES I N D E E P W A T E R
76
VI. W A V E STATISTICS
111
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Wave M o t i o n at I n t e r f a c e of Two D i f f e r e n t F l u i d s 2
2. N o r m a l and T a n g e n t i a l E n e r g y T r a n s f e r , A i r to Water 5
5. R e l a t i o n of E f f e c t i v e F e t c h to W i d t h - L e n g t h Ratio f o r 23
Rectangular Fetches
6. Methods of Wave R e c o r d A n a l y s i s 24
7. H-1- F- T D i a g r a m f o r F o r e c a s t i n g W i n d - G e n e r a t e d 26
Waves
12. S t a t i s t i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n of Heights 30
'.V
Page_
Z3. D i v e r g i n g Orthogonals 52
Z7. Kg v e r s u s T^/d^ 61
vi
39. Geostrophic W i n d Scale 80
vii
PREFACE
T h i s r e p o r t was p r e p a r e d o r i g i n a l l y as a s e r i e s of l e c t u r e s given
at the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Summer Course on "Some Aspects of Shallow Water
Oceanology" h e l d at L u n t e r e n , the Netherlands, The subject of t h i s
phase of the l e c t u r e s , " G e n e r a t i o n of Waves by W i n d , " i n c l u d e d both
deep and shallow water c o n d i t i o n s . The decay of s w e l l i n both deep and
shallow water was also discussed. I n a d d i t i o n to the o r i g i n a l p r e p a r e d
m a n u s c r i p t , t h i s r e p o r t includes some m a t e r i a l r e s u l t i n g f r o m the
discussions d u r i n g and f o l l o w i n g the l e c t u r e s .
ix
G E N E R A T I O N OF WAVES BY WIND
STATE OF T H E ART
I, INTRODUCTION
When a i r f l o w s over a w a t e r s u r f a c e waves are f o r m e d . T h i s is
an observable phenomenon. Just why waves f o r m when a i r f l o w s over
the water is a question about nature w h i c h has not yet been answered
c o m p l e t e l y or s a t i s f a c t o r i l y by t h e o r e t i c a l means, F u r t h e r m o r e , why do
waves have the heights and p e r i o d s that are observed? A l l t h e o r i e s
begin either w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that waves do f o r m when w i n d blows over
the water s u r f a c e , or else that waves m u s t a l r e a d y exist by the t i m e the
w i n d begins to blow, or else the t h e o r y is i m m o b i l e .
1
Figure 1
2
1/2
^ 1 ^2 (4)
c
( A - ^ 2 V
C = Ü+ C (5)
where
^ ^2"2 (6)
U =
/^2
and ƒ) ƒ,
^1^2 2 - U^)' (7)
= C
U > 28 C
(9)
C
o <^~2F
O
The r a t i o tr has been defined as the wave age, and waves are
unstable when t h e i r wave age i s less than 1/28; t h i s i n s t a b i l i t y m a n i f e s t s
i t s e l f as a p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n wave a m p l i t u d e .
3
F r o m other considerations i t can be shown that the s m a l l e s t
v e l o c i t y that a c a p i l l a r y wave (such as a r i p p l e ) can have is 23. 2 c m / s e c ,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a wave length of 1. 7 c m . and a p e r i o d of . 073 second?.
W o r k by C r a p p e r ( 1957), Schooley (I960) and P i e r sen (1961) show? thar
because of n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s , the 1.7 c m . is somewhat l o w . A c c o r d i n g t o
K e l v i n (1887) the waves w i l l always be unstable i f U > 28 x 23, 2 c m / sec.
That i s , i f U > 6. 5 m / s e c (12. 5 k n o t s ) , then the waves are unstable.
U = 6. 5 m / s e c i s also c a l l e d the c r i t i c a l w i n d speed r e q m r e d f o r g r a v i t y
wave generation. A c c o r d i n g to M u n k (1947) t h e r e is a c r i t i c a l w i n d speed
below w h i c h waves do not f o r m . T h e r e have been numerous a r t i c l e s on
the subject of c r i t i c a l w i n d speed, some s u p p o r t i n g and others objecting
to the existence of a c r i t i c a l wind speed. R e f e r e n c e is made to the w o r k
of Cox and M u n k (1956), L a t e r M u n k (1957) appears t o be dubious as t o
whether or not a c r i t i c a l w i n d speed e x i s t s , c i t i n g the w o r k of M e n d e l -
baum (1956) and L a w f o r d and V e l e y (1956). I f a c r i t i c a l w i n d speed e x i s t s ,
i t appears f r o m a l l l i t e r a t u r e sources that i t exists appro-ximately between
2 and 6 m e t e r s per second.
4
F o r example, Schumacher (1928) r e p o r t e d the f i r s t known study of
"Stereophotography of Waves" f r o m the G e r m a n A t l a n t i c E x p e d i t i o n ,
and W e i n b l u m and B l o c k (1936) also r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s on stereophoto-
g r a m m e t r i c wave r e c o r d s . T h i s l a t t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n gave r e s u l t s of
m e a s u r e m e n t s c a r r i e d out on b o a r d the m o t o r ship SAN FRANCISCO,
under o b s e r v a t i o n of V . C o r n i s h . Other data on waves d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d
included that of W i l l i a m s (1934), who r e p o r t e d on sea and s w e l l o b s e r v a -
t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g e a r l y methods of obtaining data, and W h i t e m a r s h (1935)
who r e v i e w e d data on unusual sea conditions as r e p o r t e d by m a r i n e r s ,
and discussed the cause of high waves at 'sea and the e f f e c t of these waves
on shipping.
A f t e r the founding of the Beach E r o s i o n B o a r d i n the War D e p a r t -
m e n t i n the e a r l y 1930's, serious r e s e a r c h began on t h e o r y and f o r m a -
t i o n of g r a v i t y waves. The f i r s t i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t was completed i n 1941
and published i n 1948, " A Study of P r o g r e s s i v e O s c i l l a t o r y Waves i n
W a t e r , " by M a r t i n A . M a s o n (1948). T h i s r e p o r t updated the state of the
a r t to about 1940.
Figure 2
p w dx (10)
^N " 17 o
5
The average r a t e at w h i c h energy i s transnaitted to the waves by
tangential s t r e s s i s equal to
R = _- I (L u ax (11)
^T L I
'o
u denotes the h o r i z o n t a l component of p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y at the sea surface,
o
and is the w i n d s t r e s s .
u = k A C s i n k (x - Ct) U2)
o
6
Hence, there was no way of knowing whether or not the theory was c o r r e c t .
In order to evaluate these constants it was n e c e s s a r y to r e s o r t to
empirical wind and wave data, which at that time was very limited. Wind
speeds, fetch lengths and wind durations were estimated from meteor-
ological situations, the data of which were also based on v e r y meager
coverage. The waves were estimated by visible means. Out of this
theoretical investigation grew the concept of the significant wave. The
significant wave height was estimated as the average wave height of the
waves in the higher group of waves, which later became identified very
closely as the average of the highest one-third of the waves in a r e c o r d
of about 20 minutes duration. The significant wave period was the c o r -
responding average period of these waves.
gH/U^ = 0, 26
and
|I= = C / U = 1, 37
where H and T are the significant wave height and period respectively,
and U is the wind speed. It then became quite apparent for any situation,
either wind waves or swell, that a whole spectrum of waves was present,
including a probability distribution of wave heights and a probability d i s t r i -
bution of wave periods. Much of the above work was performed during the
days of World War II. Otherwise e a r l i e r publications would have appeared
in the literature. In fact, as early as 1935, the Imperial Japanese Navy
encountered a typhoon in the P a c i f i c Ocean and many observations were
taken but were not published until much later by Arakawa and Suda (1953).
7
based on wave data and some c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of the S v e r d r u p - M u n k t h e o r y .
E x p e r i m e n t s on a p a r a f f i n m o d e l of w i n d - g e n e r a t e d waves by T h i j s se and
S c h i j f show a high negative p r e s s u r e at the c r e s t of the wave, w h i c h is i n
c o n f l i c t w i t h the S v e r d r u p - M u n k concept of a constant w i n d along the f r e e
s u r f a c e , but w h i c h is i n accordance w i t h B e r n o u l l i ' s equation f o r an
i n c r e a s e i n w i n d speed at the c r e s t and a decrease at the t r o u g h . T h i s
e x p e r i m e n t was c e r t a i n l y a great c o n t r i b u t i o n .
8
generates waves i n the w a t e r by a p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s w h i c h cannot be
r e g a r d e d as known;" he concluded that "the p r e s e n t state of our knowledge
is p r o f o u n d l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . "
B r e t s c h n e i d e r and R e i d (1954) presented a t h e o r e t i c a l develop-
naent f o r the "Change i n Wave Height due to B o t t o m F r i c t i o n , P e r c o l a t i o n ,
and R e f r a c t i o n ; " B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1954) combined these r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h
the wave generation r e l a t i o n s h i p s given by Sverdrup and M u n k (1947), as
r e v i s e d by B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1951), to obtain shallow water wave generation
r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r wave height and wave p e r i o d as a f u n c t i o n of w i n d speed,
f e t c h length and water depth. Sibul (1955) investigated i n the l a b o r a t o r y
the generation of wind waves i n shallow w a t e r . A s i d e f r o m the above r e f e r ¬
ences and the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of T h i j s s e and Schijf (1949) and the U . S. A r m y
Corps of E n g i n e e r s , J a c k s o n v i l l e D i s t r i c t (1950), t h e r e i s s t i l l another
c o n t r i b u t i o n on w i n d - g e n e r a t e d waves i n shallow w a t e r . I n 1953 and 19!34
Keulegan p e r f o r m e d e x p e r i m e n t s at the N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of Standards;
but as f a r as i s known, t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n has not been published. H o w e v e r ,
i t has been ascertained that the data of Keulegan i s i n agreement w i t h that
obtained f o r Lake Okeechobee and is also i n agreement w i t h the r e l a t i o n -
ships presented by B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1954). Saville (1954) published a
u s e f u l r e p o r t on the e f f e c t of f e t c h w i d t h on wave generation.
9
g r e a t l y p r o m o t e d by the staff at New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
P i e r s o n and M a r k s (1952).
Under the assumption that the j o i n t p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of wave
height and p e r i o d was u n c o r r e l a t e d , B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1957, 1958, 1959)
proposed a development of a wave s p e c t r u m concept. T h e r e seemed to
be some s i m i l a r i t y between the B r e t s c h n e i d e r s p e c t r u m and that proposed
by Neumann (1952), and f i n a l l y the f o r m of B r e t s c h n e i d e r ' s s p e c t r u m
r e s o l v e d as the proposed s p e c t r u m of P i e r s o n (1964) based on the s i m i -
l a r i t y t h e o r y of K i t a i g o r o d s k i (1961).
10
I t is these p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s upon the water s u r f a c e that are
responsible f o r the e a r l y generation of waves. The tangential s t r e s s is
not considered, but P h i l l i p s (1957) states i n some cases that the shear
s t r e s s a c t i o n m i g h t not be n e g l i g i b l e . The t h e o r y is i n agreement w i t h
wave observations d u r i n g the e a r l y stages of generation, but as C / U
approaches unity there a r e other wave generating processes to take into
account, such as s h e l t e r i n g and the effects of v a r i a t i o n i n shear s t r e s s e s .
Although t h i s t h e o r y tends to an u n d e r - e s t i m a t i o n of wave heights f o r
C / U close to unity, i t m a y be considered as a great advance i n wave
generation t h e o r y i n s o f a r as the i n i t i a l b i r t h and g r o w t h of waves are
concerned. A v e r y i m p o r t a n t aspect r e s u l t s f r o m P h i l l i p s (1957) fcased
on d i m e n s i o n a l considerationsi'-i. e, , tcfor hi,gh f r e q u e n c y oomponehtsi ithe
.-5
energy v a r i e s as i
M i l e s ' t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l f o r the generation of water waves is
based on the i n s t a b i l i t y of the i n t e r f a c e between the a i r f l o w and the
w a t e r . The t h e o r y of P h i l l i p s p r e d i c t s a r a t e of g r o w t h of the sea p r o -
p o r t i o n a l to t i m e , whereas a f t e r the i n s t a b i l i t y m e c h a n i s m of M i l e s takes
o v e r , the r a t e of g r o w t h becomes exponential. The P h i l l i p s m o d e l is an
uncoupled m o d e l i n the sense that e x c i t a t i o n ( a i r flow) is assumed to be
independent of response (sea m o t i o n ) . The M i l e s t h e o r y r e p r e s e n t s a
coupled m o d e l i n which the coupling can lead to i n s t a b i l i t y and consequent
r a p i d g r o w t h . T h e r e can be l i t t l e doubt that both m e c h a n i s m s occur m
any p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n . A t some frequencies i n the s p e c t r u m the uncoupled
m o d e l w i l l govern and at others the i n s t a b i l i t y m o d e l w i l l govern. The
w o r k of M i l e s (I960) is a recognized c o n t r i b u t i o n on wave generation
theory.
I j i m a (1957) presented an exceltent paper on the p r o p e r t i e s of
ocean waves f o r tljie .Japanese area of i n t e r e s t . T h i s study included valuable
i n f o r m a t i o n on wave spectra obtained under typhoon conditions. A l s o a
decided d i f f e r e n c e existed between wave spectra obtained on the open
P a c i f i c Coast and that obtained f o r the coast of the Sea of Japan.
11
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s book includes a v e r y conaprehensive b i b l i o g r a p h y on
waves and.wave t h e o r y .
I n 1961 an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Ocean Wave Spectra was
held at Easton, M a r y l a n d , the proceedings of which were published iri
1963.* T h i s conference included about 30 presentations, plus d i s c u s s i o n s ,
and had an attendance of less than 100 p a r t i c i p a n t s , r e p r e s e n t i n g a v e r y
l a r g e percentage of the scientists and engineers i n the w o r l d who have
been c o n t r i b u t i n g to the advancement of the science of ocean wave spectra.
It can be said that t h i s conference brought the "state of the a r t " up to date.
Known and unknown p r o p e r t i e s of the f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m of a w i n d -
generated sea, by P i e r s o n and Neumann (1961, 1963) was the m o s t l o g i c a l
paper to lead off the p r o g r a m . Unless one understands the concept of a
f u l l y developed sea, the w o r k of Walden (1961, 1963) m i g h t be m i s i n t e r -
p r e t e d since his data w e r e f o r v e r y short e f f e c t i v e fetches. f^°w®7f^'
t h i s d i f f i c u l t y was c l a r i f i e d i n the d i s c u s s i o n of B r e t s c h n e i d e r ( 1961, 1963).
Numerous discussions f o l l o w e d and the p r o g r a m continued w e l l on i t s way
throughout the f o u r - d a y p e r i o d . The conference produced two sources of
d i r e c t i o n a l s p e c t r u m : L o n g u e t - H i g g i n s , C a r t w r i g h t and Smith (196iL, 1963)
and M u n k (1961,1963). On the last day, w i t h heads s t i l l spinning, i t
became an accepted f a c t that the o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l l i n e a r concepts w e r e
not always s u f f i c i e n t to d e s c r i b e the state of the sea.
12
C a r t w r i g h t (1961) and P i e r s o n (1961) gave b r i e f r e p o r t s on the
papers presented at the 1961 conference, p r i o r to the p u b l i c a t i o n of the
proceedings.
A f t e r the conference was over, the p a r t i c i p a n t s went honne to
w o r k again, hoping to advance the state of the a r t . M o r e data w e r e to
be c o l l e c t e d , and this r e q u i r e d f u r t h e r development of i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ,
and an advancement of s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y and computation p r o c e d u r e s .
13
was quite s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g wave height v a r i a b i l i t y f o r l a r g e
h u r r i c a n e waves i n shallow w a t e r . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of wave p e r i o d s d i d
not f o l l o w the d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n of B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1957) or that of
P u t z (1952) but f e l l somewhere between these d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s and
the R a y l e i g h d i s t r i b u t i o n . The data seem to consist of long p e r i o d waves
a r r i v i n g f r o m deep water combined w i t h l o c a l w i n d waves generated at
a l a r g e angle to the s w e l l s .
14
A t t h i s point of the d i s c u s s i o n i t appears i n o r d e r to i n t r o d u c e
an equation w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the sea state wave s p e c t r u m , i n c l u d i n g the
v a r i a b i l i t y of wave d i r e c t i o n . The equation can be w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s :
mt , • oo
CO t e - 1
TT (k,CO ) c o s ^
mt
(14)
CO U COS ^
- 1 dT
where
CJu,,, cos
CJ ^
m = g
I n E q . (14) TT ( k , ) i s the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r e s s u r e s p e c t r u m as a
f u n c t i o n of the v e c t o r wave number k and t i m e T ; U is the convection
v e l o c i t y of the p r e s s u r e s y s t e m s , and u>;< is the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y of the
shear f l o w . /Ö is the c o e f f i c i e n t calculated by M i l e s ( I 9 6 0 ) , and
and 7 ° are water and a i r densities r e s p e c t i v e l y .
15
II. P R A C T I C A L APPLICATIONS - - DEEP WATER
A. SIGNIFICANT W A V E CONCEPT
C = f ^ ( U , F , t , g) (15)
and
H = f^ (U, F , t , g) (16)
17
Eqs. (15) and (16) state that C and H r e s p e c t i v e l y are f u n c t i o n s
f J and f^ of U , F , t, g, but apply f o r deep w a t e r only. *
Symbol Dimensions
H L
F L
t T
g
A d d i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be w r i t t e n i f the w a t e r depth is taken into
account.
F o r each of the above equations there are f i v e v a r i a b l e s and two
d i m e n s i o n a l u n i t s , whence f r o m the B u c k i n g h a m P i - t h e o r e m the solutions
w i l l each be f u n c t i o n s of 5 - Z = 3 d i m e n s i o n l e s s p r o d u c t s , w i t h 2 + 1 = 3
v a r i a b l e s to each p r o d u c t . I n respect to E q . (15) one can w r i t e
1 r a . -,b
and 1 r e
T
T
LT^J
and
H = f^ (U, F , t , d , g) (16a)
18
Equating to unity the sum of the exponents f o r the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
d i m e n s i o n s , one obtains the f o l l o w i n g equations:
1 + a +b = 0
1 - a - 2b = 0
1 + c + d = 0
• c - 2d = 0
e + f = 0
1 - e - 2f = 0
a = -1 d - 1
b = 0 e = -1
c = -2 f = 1
c'
O - F . u 1^11
\ 1
(18)
or
I t m i g h t be m e n t i o n e d that the P i - t h e o r e m is a m o s t p o w e r f u l
t o o l i f p r o p e r l y used. I t i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e that the
expressions f o r p h y s i c a l f a c t m u s t be d i m e n s i o n a l l y homogeneous; o t h e r -
wise t h e r e are some s c i e n t i f i c f a c t o r s m i s s i n g .
19
Using the above p a r a m e t e r s B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1951) r e v i s e d the
o r i g i n a l f o r e c a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s of Sverdrup and M u n k (1947), u t i U z i n g
m u c h a d d i t i o n a l wave data. B e f o r e 1951, however, A r t h u r (1947) also
r e v i s e d the same r e l a t i o n s , but d i d not have the data that w e r e available
i n 1951. F u r t h e r r e v i s i o n s of these r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e made again by
B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1958). These f o r e c a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s have a c q u i r e d
the name S - M - B method f o r Sverdrup, M u n k and B r e t s c h n e i d e r ,
gt f U r gF \ , _ C g ^ _ L ^
(20)
tU _ gt gF
— - U • ^2
B. C O M P L E X N A T U R E OF SEA SURFACE
20
FIGURE 3 FETCH GRAPH FOR DEEP WATER
FIGURE 4 DEEP WATER WAVE FORECASTING CURVES
AS A F U N C T I O N OF WIND S P E E D ,
FETCH L E N G T H , AND WIND D U R A T I O N
( FOR TFTCHP?; I rn i oor» n'it <t>
WIND EFFECTIVE 0 V {: R ONLY 90°
OF FETCH•• i.e. 45° ElT H E R SIDE
OF WIND DIRECTION^
0.9
w 0.8
<-
0.7
0.6
«
/ //
// OF WIND DIRECTION.
£ 0.4
^ y ^^CHANGE IN HORIZONTAL
SCALE
0.3
// DASHED LINES INDICATE WIND CONSIDERED EQUALLY EFFECTIVE
f
0.2
FULL LINES INDICATE WIND EFFECTIVENESS CONSIDERED TO VARY
0.1 AS THt COSINt OP I Hh I-XNüLfc WIND COMPONtN r CONS I D E R E D .
r -
1
O
0 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 L5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
RATIO . OF FETCH WIDTH TO LENGTH ^
UJ CO
a.
ü </)
O
t¬
I <
X
O O
O 3
O
I cc
UJ
s a ir
to O
z
O
V) OX O
</) LJ
O
o: O QSL
O CC
O. I ¬
n I Lü
I O
O h¬
o: I
UJ
UI
UJ O.
I O
O
UI
UJ cc CO
cr O
D O
O
X
i»7 Q: cr H
UJ
ü. UI
O.
UJ
3 O
_i
CD
UJ
ID
CS
24
m e t h o d uses a p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n also f o r wave p e r i o d . W i l s o n
(1955) i n t r o d u c e d t h é s p a c e - t i m e concept f o r f o r e c a s t i n g waves m m o v i n g
fetches and i n 1963 extended the w o r k f o r use on a h i g h speed c o m p u t e r .
F i g u r e 7 is r e p r o d u c e d f r o m W i l s o n (1955),
1. Wave V a r i a b i l i t y
a. S i g n i f i c a n t Wave H e i g h t . The s i g n i f i c a n t wave height,
as mentioned above, is a t e r m c o m m o n to both the S - M - B and P - N - J
methods of wave f o r e c a s t i n g . Just how the s i g n i f i c a n t wave height i s
r e l a t e d to the p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and also the wave s p e c t r u m can
best be i l l u s t r a t e d by f i g u r e s 12 and 13. F i g u r e 12 shows the d i s t r i b u -
t i o n of wave heights as v i s u a l i z e d by a h i s t o g r a p h , i . e. the number N
(or percent P of the t o t a l number) of waves i n each wave height range.
F i g u r e 13 i s a schematic d i a g r a m of the wave s p e c t r u m and m t h i s f o r m
i s c a l l e d the p e r i o d s p e c t r u m .
P (H) = 1 - e H (22)
25
9Z
00 g
m
m
O
— O
O
I
* i
O /AVE HE I G H T - H-(FE ET)
-n
ETCH -
1
z
\UTICAl.
MILE:
I
c
:^
z
O
Duration in Hours
4 i
40 50
FETCH. NAUTICAL MILES ^ ^^^^^ oARBVSH.RE
•MEAN H
H P=33.3 PERCENT
FIGURE 12 . STATISTICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF HEIGHTS
3 -0,675'-'
p (T) dT = 2.7 ^ e dT (24)
and the c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n is
-0.675 ^
P (T) 1 - e IT (25)
d. The W e i b u l l D i s t r i b u t i o n F u n c t i o n . I n m a n y cases i t
m a y be d e s i r a b l e to r e p r e s e n t e m p i r i c a l data by means of a s i m p l e
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n . W e i b u l l (1951) proposes a simple a n a l y t i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n f o r use i n c e r t a i n c i v i l engineering p r o b l e m s as
follows:
(26)
where P i s the c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n
31
Percent accumulative
ü
1+Ü
— I
m = p (X) dX (28)
n m m
in in i n B +m i n X (29)
P = 1 _x - (31)
33
m-1 1 m
2£ r 1+ m
P (X) =: m 2L r 1 _1_ X (32)
X m X
in in m in r(i + A ) + m i n (33)
1 - P m /
I t m u s t be emphasized that the W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n should be used
only where the t r e n d of the data shows a n e a r l y lineair r e l a t i o n s h i p a c c o r d -
ing to Eq, (29) or E q . (33), I f such a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p becomes apparent
f r o m the data, then a g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n i s possible, and a m o r e accurate
solution can be obtained by the s t a t i s t i c a l method of least squares.
A l t h o u g h the W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n has no t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s , the f u n c t i o n
does have a wide range f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . F o r example. F i g u r e s
15 and 16 r e p r e s e n t an analysis of wave data a c c o r d i n g to the W e i b u l l
d i s t r i b u t i o n . These data a r e based on long wave r e c o r d s obtained at
L a k e T e x o m a by U . S, A r m y engineers (1953) and are s u m m a r i z e d i n a
r e p o r t by B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1959). The s t r a i g h t l i n e s given i n F i g u r e s 15
and 16 w e r e f i t t e d v i s u a l l y , although a least squares f i t m i g h t have been
made to obtain better a c c u r a c y ,
H_ 2-rrd (35)
tanh
L L
34
3
« /
2
9
/a
In l n ( j r p ) = - C(.075+-J-In H
/ TH us: X 15
/ P= l" e VH Y
9 /
-2
• /
-3
-2.0 -1.0 0 I 2
In H
FIGURE 15 S A M P L E W E I B U L L DISTRIBUTION
DETERMINATION FOR WAVE HEIGHT
(DATA FROM U.S. ARMY ENGINEERS, 1953)
35
3
2 /
O
In In ( T r p ) = - 3 . 3 5 + 3 . 4 In T
THUS!
PM-e-°.e3(i)-
//
/•
-2
-3
*/
-4
•/
- 2 - 1 0 1 2
In T
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2 TL
2.0
e»
e
e «
ee
^ ..4
e •• • • •.Vv •
e •.:->v.
O 1.2
V|» .a
i.o
SI
«
.8 • • •
• e c:-.:: • • •
6
• • e « «fe
.4
. I V . < IZ
.2-
•« • e
.2 4
_L
.6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
± 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Relative Wave L e n g t h , X
37
TABLE 1
JOINT D I S T R I B U T I O N O F H AND T F O R Z E R O C O R R E L A T I O N
Number of Waves P e r I , 000 Consecutive Waves for Various Ranges in Height and P e r i o d
J L = 0.78 4 - (36)
C. W A V E S P E C T R U M CONCEPTS
39
i n d i v i d u a l wave observations. T h i s s p e c t r u m should be c o n s i d e r e d as a
s e m i - t h e o r e t i c a l or s e m i - e m p i r i c a l s p e c t r u m i n the s t r i c t sense of the
d e f i n i t i o n . F r o m his wind and wave observations Neumann (1952) computed
the p a r a m e t e r s H/T and T / V , and a r r i v e d at the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n ;
y - const e (3ö)
40
i
41
f o r the s o - c a l l e d young or t r a n s i e n t state of sea. That i s , r e l a t i o n s c a l l e d
CO-cumulative power s p e c t r a are developed f r o m w h i c h i t is possible to
p r e d i c t E - v a l u e s , where E is r e l a t e d to the generated wave energy.
The t h e o r e t i c a l wave d i s t r i b u t i o n d e r i v e d by L o n g u e t - H i g g i n s
(1952) i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the E - v a l u e s , as t h i s c o n d i t i o n was u t i l i z e d
i n the development of the wave s p e c t r u m . The s i g n i f i c a n t wave height,
mean wave height, etc. are r e l a t e d to E as f o l l o w s :
H 1.772 fË,
ave
(39)
Hj/3 = 2.832 JT"
^ 1 / 1 0 - ^-600 . / E
T y p i c a l examples of wave f o r e c a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s based upon the above:
concept are given i n F i g u r e s 19 and 20.
H p ( H , T) dH (40)
.3 -.675
3. 43 (H)^ (43)
(T)
F o r the f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m :
T = 1
and dT = df
T
f r o m w h i c h the f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m s becomes:
2
(H)' £-5 ^ - : 6 7 5 ( f T ) - ^ (44)
Sj,(f) - 3.43
(T)'
42
FIGURE 19 DURATION GRAPH
CO-CUMULATIVE SPECTRA FOR
WIND SPEEDS FROM 2 0 TO 3 6 KNOTS
AS A FUNCTION OF DURATION
43
I I I I I I I
•OA .06 .08 .10 .26 f=J4
I I I I I I I I
28.0 ZOO 16.0 14.0 120 IQO 9.0 80
4.0 T
( H.0. PUB 6 0 3 , 1957)
If one lets
625 gH33
gH _ (45)
U
and
(46)
2 TTU
i t then f o l l o w s that
675 27T Uf
gF. g (47)
Sj,(f) = 3.43 f-^e
(2rrFj'
or
•n
S(f) - a f - " ^ - ^ e-^^ (49)
where
E = S(f) df (52)
•'oo
P i e r s o n and M o s k o w i t z (1963), based on the s i m i l a r i t y t h e o r y of
K i t a i g o r o d s k i (1961) propose the f o l l o w i n g f o r m of wave spectra f o r a
f u l l y developed sea:
45
S(CJ) dCO = (53)
CO
where
CO = 2TT£
COo ' .5
ai = 8. 1 X 10 -3
B = . 74
gH/uJg_5 = .21
or
gH/U^Q = 0.254
46
I n a r e p o r t by B r e t s c h n e i d e r and C o l l i n s (1964), the nnost severe
h u r r i c a n e w h i c h m i g h t occur i n the A t l a n t i c Ocean can generate a 62-foot
s i g n i f i c a n t wave height. The m e a s u r e d wave s p e c t r u m of B r e t s c h n e i d e r ,
et. a l . (1962), was used to estimate the c o r r e s p o n d i n g wave s p e c t r u m f o r
the 6 2 - f o o t s i g n i f i c a n t wave height. The f o l l o w i n g table gives s i g n i f i c a n t
wave heights based on f i v e m e a s u r e d wave spectra. F o r c o n v e r s i o n to
the 6 2 - f o o t s i g n i f i c a n t wave height the Froude length scale is obtained
from A = 62 (H measured) and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i m e scale i s
-r =jT.
Table I I
A = 62 -;- Hg
Date Time
To c o n v e r t the m e a s u r e d f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m to design s p e c t r u m ^ ^
the o r d i n a t e S(f) , having d i m e n s i o n f t ^ s e c , , m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d by A
and the abscissa f , having d i m e n s i o n s e c " ^ m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d by A
To c o n v e r t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r i o d s p e c t r u m to design s p e c t r u m
the o r d i n a t e S(T), having d i m e n s i o n f t ^ s e c " \ m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d by
X •^''^ and the abscissa T , having d i m e n s i o n sec, m u s t be m u l t i p l i e d
by A
I f the design s i g n i f i c a n t wave w e r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m H = 62 feet, then
A and X would change a c c o r d i n g l y .
47
where f = l/T
df = - 1/T^ dT
Thus
48
6f
SPECTRAL ENERGY DENSITY IN FT/^/SEC.
Ci
C
m
ro
o
O
Tl -D
O >
cn o •D
ro m
I o
o o
"Tl •n
O
O
m </)
m
o
cn o
o z
O D O
05
o S
> O
H
H
C
III. P R O P A G A T I O N OF WAVES A N D SWELLS I N T O
SHALLOW WATER
bH^Cg = b H ^ C g (56)
or
60
COAST
WAVE FRONTS
ORTHOGONALS
BOTTOM CONTOURS
whence
C - nC (61)
g
where C is the wave c e l e r i t y and n is the t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
and, a c c o r d i n g to l i n e a r wave t h e o r y , is given by
1 1+ (62)
sinh 2 kh
Pb = Eb C = ƒ g b (nC) (63)
54
FIGURE 25 EXPERIMENTAL LENGTH B% OF
RISING SEA BOTTOM IN DIRECTION OF MOTION
I n deep water, j u s t b e f o r e the waves are due to f e e l the e f f e c t s of
depth, E q . (63) becomes
Pb = ~ / ° g H ^ b n C (64)
OO ö y ° o c o c
1/2 , 1/2
/ b \ ^ ' ^ i n C.
H o o (65)
H nC
w h i c h ma,y be expressed as
H = K K (66)
H~ r s fp
The r e f r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t is separately d e f i n e d as
K (67)
K (68)
C C tanh kh (69)
o
and i n deep water n^ = 1/2, whence f r o m Eqs, (63), (68), and (69)
-1/2
2 kh tanh kh (70)
K 1+
sinh 2 kh
56
The f r i c t i o n - p e r c o l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t K^^ i s delined as
1/2
^ > (71)
fp o o
d ( K . ^)
p b J ^ = - (D. + D ) b (72)
o o dx i p
or
* ^ T (sinh kh)-^
D
p
. ±Jll-
. ,rr,2
.gPH^^
smh 2 k h
(75)
^T
= m a s s density of water
f = dimensionless f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
U - k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y of sea water
p = p e r m e a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t of D a r c y ' s L a w having
the dimensions of (length)
+ My = Ny'" (76)
57
Without going into the algebra, one m a y w r i t e E q . (73) as f o l l o w s :
F
F, (77)
K
fp
and the s o l u t i o n i s :
1 -/^pdx F dx
K ƒ P
fp F^ dx + Const 78)
In g e n e r a l , n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of E q . (78) is r e q u i r e d , but a
number of special cases have been investigated by B r e t s c h n e i d e r and
Reid (1954). Of m o s t i n t e r e s t at p r e s e n t a r e two s i m p l e cases: (1) no
b o t t o m f r i c t i o n , and (2) no p e r c o l a t i o n .
'X -1
1+ F^ dx (80)
^f =
and
1 + F (82)
K fp = l A K f • A K (83)
where
-FpAx
AK : (84)
58
and
1+ Ax (85)
59
WITH
.999.998 .995 .99 .98 .95 .90 .80 .70 .60 .50 . 40 .30 .20 .10
MAY 1961
in
1.0
62
Ui
64
FIGURE 30 GROWTH OF WAVES IN A LIMITED DEPTH
The i m p o r t a n t f a c t f r o m the above m a t e r i a l , however, i s the
establishment of a n u m e r i c a l procedure f o r computing w i n d waves m
shallow water of constant depth which can be v e r i f i e d by use of wave
data T h i s p r o c e d u r e can be extended to a b o t t o m of constant slope
w h e r e i n the b o t t o m is segmented into elements, each element h a v m g
a mean depth assumed to be constant. Sample computations f o r a t y p i c a l
continental shelf are given by B r e t s c h n e i d e r (1957).
66
600
f sec-'
f sea
V. DECAY O F WAVES I N D E E P W A T E R
68
TD/T,. RELATIVE WAVE PERIOD AT END OF DECAY DISTANCE
T f . S E C O N D S , SlGNrFICANT WflVE PERIOD AT EMO OF F,^,
( B r e t s c h n e i d e r , 1952)
35
72
T ( AFTER IJIMA )
28
26
/ ^ '1000 ^
24
22
20
18
16
2(T)
H
"•"/sec. 14
\
\
12 ( / \ \
V \
\ N
10 \ \
LOCAL
\ \
\ \
STORM
\
\
4
SWELL
O
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
T SEC.
Wave s t a t i s t i c s are d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e
or r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l s , f o r example the average number of y e a r s
r e q u i r e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r value of the s i g n i f i c a n t wave height to be
equalled or exceeded. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y have the same
s t a t i s t i c a l m e a n i n g as wave v a r i a b i l i t y . Wave v a r i a b i l i t y i s r e s e r v e d f o r
wave height or p e r i o d d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a p a r t i c u l a r continuous wave r e c o r d .
and
I - lOOY (87\
^ SP
where S = t o t a l number of o c c u r r e n c e s on r e c o r d ,
Y = the number of y e a r s of r e c o r d ,
I - the r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l i n y e a r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the
p r o b a b i l i t y P and the number of y e a r s of r e c o r d Y ,
G e n e r a l l y , the p r o b a b i l i t y P versus the magnitude of the event
is aplotted on p r o b a b i l i t y paper and a smooth curve is c o n s t r u c t e d . F r o n
the smooth c u r v e values of the event and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o b a b i l i t y
are d e t e r m i n e d , and the r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l I is then d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
E q . (87).
2 STATION J 98
• OBSERVATIONS
OF SIGNIFICANT WAVE
5 95
HEIGHT (FROM U.S WEATHER
BUREAU DATA 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 5 3 )
10 90
20 80
30 70
40 60
50 50
60 40
70 30
80 20
90
95 I
STATIONS I AND J
98 MEASUREMENTS OF MAXIMUM WAVE 2
HEIGHT OBTAINED BY DARBYSHIRE CD
99 I <
(REFERENCE 9) DURING PERIOD F E B . CQ
99.5 1953 JAN 1954 0.5 O
OC
99.8 0.2 a.
99.9 0.1
0.05
9a99 0.01
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 7 0 8 0 9 0
( AFTER JASPER )
WAVE HEIGHT-FEET
FIGURE 38 COMPARISON OF
WAVE HEIGHT DISTRIBUTIONS DERIVED
FROM VISUAL OBSERVATIONS AND FROM
MEASUREMENTS OF WAVE HEIGHTS AT
ATLANTIC OCEAN STATIONS I AND J
78
VII. WIND SPEED VERSUS WIND SPEED
\
79
30 35 40 45 50 55 6 0 6 5 70
DEGREES LATITUDE
( B R E T S C H N E I D E R , 1952)
" Züpsmtf,
FOR Ap = 5mb a 3mb
An = DEGREES LATITUDE
p : 1013.3 mb
T = I0-C
o = 1.2 xlO"'=gm/cnfi'=>
80
. 4 5 1
15 -10 -5 0 +5 +10 +15
DIFFERENCE SEA-AIR TEMPERATURE (TgTs-TaTa')
11
sea s u r f a c e . Sometimes the p r e s s u r e gradients are not too w e l l defined
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r l i g h t e r winds, but i n any case the calculated w i n d speed,
should agree w i t h the m e a s u r e d wind speeds to w i t h i n t 15%.
82
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
COMPUTED WIND SPEED (Ms)
(AFTER GOODYEAR, 1963 )
1825
Weber, E r n s t H e i n r i c h and W i l h e l m (1825). "Experimental Determination
of W a v e s . " L e i p z i g .
1848
1864
1871
1887
1888
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1949
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1950
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96
D I S T R I B U T I O N LIST
Chief of Naval R e s e a r c h 2
A T T N : Geography B r a n c h
O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h
Washington, D . C. , 20360
Chief of N a v a l R e s e a r c h 2
A T T N : Geophysics B r a n c h
O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h
Washington, D . C. , 20360
D i r e c t o r , Naval R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y 6
ATTN: Technical Information Officer
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O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h B r a n c h O f f i c e
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O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h
Navy #100
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New Y o r k , New Y o r k
Chief of Naval R e s e a r c h 1
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O f f i c e of N a v a l R e s e a r c h
Washington, D . C. , 20360
Defense I n t e l l i g e n c e Agency 1
DIAAP-1E4
Department of Defense
Washington 25, D. C.
The Oceanographer 1
U. S. N a v a l Oceanographic O f f i c e
Washington, D. C. , 20390
Director 2
Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Center
U. S. A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s
5201 L i t t l e F a l l s Road, N . W .
Washington, D . C. , 20016
ADDRESSEE NQ. QF CQPIES
D r . R i c h a r d J. Russell 2
Coastal Studies Institute
L o u i s i a n a State University
Baton Rouge 3, Louisiana
D r . Charles B . H i t c h c o c k 1
A m e r i c a n Geographical Society
Broadway at 156th Street
New Y o r k 32, New Y o r k
Director
N a t i o n a l Oceanographic Data Center
Washington 25, D; G. .
Robert L . M i l l e r
Department of Geology
U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago
Chicago 37, I l l i n o i s
Director
M a r i n e Sciences D e p a r t m e n t
U. S. N a v a l Oceanographic O f f i c e
Washington, D . C. , 20390
P r o f , F r a n c i s P , Shepard
Scripps I n s t i t u t e of Oceanography
La Jolla, California
M i s s C. A . M . K i n g 1
L e c t u r e r i n Geography
U n i v e r s i t y of N o t t i n g h a m
N o t t i n g h a m , England
ADDRESSEE NO. O F COPIES
D r . G i f f o r d C. E w i n g
Scripps I n s t i t u t e of Oceanography-
La Jolla, California
D r . V . Henry-
Marine Institute
Universit-y- of Georgia
Sapelo I s l a n d , Georgia
Coastal Studies I n s t i t u t e 2
L o u i s i a n a State Universit-y-
Baton Rouge 3, L o u i s i a n a
M r . M„ P. O ' B r i e n 1
Wave R e s e a r c h Laborator-y
Universit-y- of C a l i f o r n i a
Berkele-y 4, C a l i f o r n i a
M r . Joseph M . C a l d w e l l
Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Center
U. S. A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s
5201 L i t t l e F a l l s Road, N . W ,
Washington, D. C. , 20016
Oceanographic P r e d i c t i o n D i v i s i o n
U. S. Naval Oceanographic O f f i c e
Washington, D . C , , 20390
C h a i r m a n , D e p a r t m e n t of M e t e o r o l o g y
and Oceanography
New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y
U n i v e r s i t y Heights
New Y o r k 53, New Y o r k
Dr. H. Lundgren
Coastal E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y
T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y of D e n m a r k
(Öster Voldgade 10
Copenhagen K , D e n m a r k
P h y s i c a l Oceanography Section
U. S. Navy E l e c t r o n i c s L a b o r a t o r y
San Diego 52, C a l i f o r n i a
F l u i d Mechanics Division
N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of Standards
Washington, D . C.
Commanding O f f i c e r and D i r e c t o r
David T a y l o r M o d e l B a s i n
Washington, D . C, , 20390
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U. S. N a v a l Oceanographic O f f i c e
Washington, D. C. , 20390
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U. S. A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s
Vicksburg, Mississippi
D r . Garbis H . Keulegan
Waterways E x p e r i m e n t Station
U. S. A r m y C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Commanding O f f i c e r and D i r e c t o r
U. S. Naval C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y
P o r t Hueneme, C a l i f o r n i a
Commanding O f f i c e r
Naval R a d i o l o g i c a l Defense L a b o r a t o r y
San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a
Chief, B u r e a u of Ships
D e p a r t m e n t of the Navy
Washington, D. C, , 20360
A T T N : Code 373
Director 1
Woods Hole Oceanographic I n s t i t u t e
Woods H o l e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s
ADDRESSEE NO. O F COPIES
D r . W a r r e n C. Thompson 1
Dept. of M e t e o r o l o g y and Oceanography
U. S, Naval P o s t - g r a d u a t e School
Monterey, California
Commanding O f f i c e r 2
U. S. Navy M i n e Defense L a b o r a t o r y
Panama C i t y , F l o r i d a
Wave R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y 1
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
B e r k e l e y 4, C a l i f o r n i a
O f f i c e , Chief of E n g i n e e r s 1
U. S. A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s
R m 2031, G r a v e l l y P o i n t
Washington, D. C.
A T T N : M r . C h a r l e s E . Lee
O f f i c e , Chief of E n g i n e e r s 1
U. S. A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s
R m 1306, G r a v e l l y P o i n t
Washington, D. C.
A T T N : M r . A l b e r t L . Cochran
Registrar 2
NUFFIC
27 M o l e n s t r a a t
The Hague, the Netherlands