Imaging & Signalling: Topic Notes

Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.
1: Imaging & Signalling
Module 3.1.1
Imaging & Signalling
3.1.1.A Digital images
3.1.1.B Lenses & optics
Topic Notes
Name:__________
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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling
Important resources for this module:

All prezi presentations, booklets, homeworks and
practical sheets are all available on the departmental
website:
www.aquinasphysics.com/311-imaging--signalling1.html
www.alevelphysicsonline.com/lenses
Excellent video tutorials made by an A level physics teacher for A level physics students.
If you need to go over any concepts again, this is the first place that you should look.
Login Username: physics@aquinas.ac.uk Password: 1234
Free access to the course textbook (via

the departmental website). Follow the
instructions on the website for how to log
in.
www.aquinasphysics.com/kerboodle.html
Challenging questions from GCSE level to Undergraduate physics problems.

If you are hoping for a B, A or A* you must be visiting this site and regularly
practicing the problems. They also run excellent workshops. Look out for these!!
isaacphysics.org/
Multiple-choice practice revision

questions on your phone. Revise on the
bus on the way in to college!!
www.gojimo.com/
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Contents
Contents ....................................................................................................................................................... - 3 -
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................................................... - 4 -
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... - 6 -
Some quick questions on LIDAR data ................................................................................................................. - 6 -
2. Data in images: pixels, resolution and object sizes in images .......................................................... - 7 -
Measuring the size of objects in images ............................................................................................................... - 7 -
3. The amount of information stored in an image .............................................................................. - 10 -
Some questions on the information stored in an image ..................................................................................... - 11 -
Understanding Binary ......................................................................................................................................... - 13 -
Some more questions on information in images ................................................................................................ - 14 -
4. Image processing................................................................................................................................ - 15 -
Smoothing images ................................................................................................................................................ - 15 -
Noise removal ....................................................................................................................................................... - 16 -
Changing brightness ............................................................................................................................................ - 17 -
Increasing contrast............................................................................................................................................... - 17 -
Edge detection ...................................................................................................................................................... - 18 -
Space for your own notes ................................................................................................................................... - 19 -
An example exam question on digital images & image processing ................................................................... - 21 -
5. Introduction to lenses ........................................................................................................................ - 23 -
A refresher on refraction .................................................................................................................................... - 23 -
Rays paths & focal lengths .................................................................................................................................. - 25 -
Lens power explained in terms of wavefront curvature ................................................................................... - 25 -
Some quick questions on lens power ................................................................................................................. - 27 -
Space for your own notes ................................................................................................................................... - 27 -
6. The lens equation ............................................................................................................................... - 29 -
Explanations using the lens equation ................................................................................................................. - 31 -
Some quick questions on the lens equation........................................................................................................ - 33 -
7. Magnification ..................................................................................................................................... - 34 -
Some questions on magnification. ..................................................................................................................... - 34 -
8. Digital cameras .................................................................................................................................. - 35 -
An example exam question on digital cameras, lenses and CCDs..................................................................... - 36 -
9. Finding the power of a lens experimentally .................................................................................... - 39 -
10. Mastery questions on digital images & lenses ................................................................................. - 41 -
Questions on digital images ............................................................................................................................... - 41 -
Questions on lenses ............................................................................................................................................ - 45 -
11. Space for your own notes .................................................................................................................. - 48 -
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Learning Outcomes
You can be expected to be examined on your ability to…
3.1.1
(a) Describe and explain
the formation of a real image by a thin converging lens, understood as the lens changing the
(i)
curvature of the incident wavefront
the storage of images in a computer as an array of numbers that may be manipulated to

(ii) enhance the image (vary brightness and contrast, reduce noise, detect edges and use false
colour)
(b) Make appropriate use of:
(i) the terms: pixel, bit, byte, resolution, noise, focal length, lens power, magnification.
By sketching and interpreting
diagrams of the passage of light through a thin converging lens (using both wavefronts and
(ii)
rays)
(iii) diagrams of waveforms

(c) Make calculations and estimates involving:
(i) the amount of information in an image = no. of pixels × bits per pixel
1
power of a converging lens 𝑃 = , as change of curvature of wavefronts produced by the
(ii) 𝑓
lens.
1 1 1
(iii) use of 𝑣
= 𝑢
+ 𝑓
(remembering Cartesian convention – e.g. u is negative)
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑣
(iv) linear magnification 𝑚 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
=
𝑢
1
(v) 𝑣 = 𝑓 𝜆 including the use of 𝑓 = 𝑇
(vi) number of bits, b, provides N = 2b alternatives ; b = log2 N

(d) Demonstrate and apply knowledge and understanding of the following practical activities
(i) determination of power or focal length of a converging lens using 3.1.1.(c)(iii)
Definitions / explanations you are expected to learn are given

stippled boxes for you to write them in
Equations you are expected to be able to use are given double

lined boxes.
Online learning checks and assignments are linked to in double

lined boxes
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These notes act to complement the Prezi presentations 3.1.1.A and 3.1.1.B found on the departmental website
(www.aquinasphysics.com). Please see the QR codes and urls below to access the relevant presentations.
3.1.1.A Digital images 3.1.1.B Lenses & Optics

goo.gl/kMQ3pc goo.gl/tXbPmy
1. Introduction
Images are captured when light reflects off an object, and is then focussed through a lens and projected onto a medium
which is sensitive to both the intensity (brightness) and frequency (colour) of that light – be it photographic film or a
charged-couple device (CCD) in a digital camera.
In this unit, we will look at the physics that governs both the capture and digital storage of the information gathered
when forming an image.
One alternative to a regular photograph often used by
surveyors and scientists is point-cloud data (see image
right) that can be collected with a device known as a
LIDAR (which stands for LIght Detection And Ranging);
a device mounted with a GPS and compass which fires out
light beams at known angles and tracks the time for the
beam to return. A LIDAR is thus able to generate a three-
dimensional computational model of a surface, allowing
measurements to be taken remotely.
There are a number of advantages to this, including
permanent records of temporary features such as rock faces prone to erosion; an ability to track changes in the position
of surfaces through time, for example the position of hillslopes prone to landslides or buildings at risk of failure due to
subsidence; and allowing safe measurements to be made on inaccessible features. LIDARs are also the method used by
self-driving cars to judge their position relative to objects and obstacles around them.
Briefly explain how LIDAR data is acquired
More information on the many uses of LIDAR can be found at goo.gl/TojRHd (see QR code right)
Some quick questions on LIDAR data

(1) How long does it take between a signal being sent out and detected again if it rebounds off a surface 30 m away?
(2) How far away is a surface if it takes 0.42 s between the light pulse being emitted and then detected?
(3) LIDAR is able to detect changes in distance down to a few mm. What is the difference in arrival times between
signals rebounding off adjacent sample points, one of which is 2 mm further away from the LIDAR scanner than
the other?
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2. Data in images: pixels, resolution and object sizes in images

More information about how computers store images can be found in the video from Udacity
(goo.gl/7nH6Mg ; QR code left), and is also explained by Instagram co-founder Kevin Systrom in
the video at goo.gl/fG1N25 (QR code right).
All spatial data, whether LiDAR scan results or simply a photograph,

stores data in an array of pixels, each with its own specific value (or
values) which represents a property: the shade that the pixel will be
in a greyscale image; the hue of red, green and blue that the pixel is
in a colour image; or the x, y and z spatial coordinates of each point
in a LiDAR scan.
The image right shows a pixel in the context of a larger image.
The shade of the pixel is set by a numerical value, given in a binary
code by a computer. This value can then be manipulated by an
algorithm (a mathematical rule) which allows us to do some relatively
sophisticated image processing and digital analyses on the dataset.
Measuring the size of objects in images

One skill you need to be able to demonstrate is the ability to define the size of objects from an image, or to find the
resolution of an image if you know the number of pixels that the image consists of, and the size of an object in the
image.
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Consider the images above and on the facing page, of the globe’s third or fourth most scary despot Kim Jong-Un’s
(1) swimming pool; and (2) father and grandfather:
(1) The swimming pool is 50 m long, and the white box framing the image is 1700 pixels wide and 1300 pixels high.
Calculate the resolution of the image.
Resolution = ………………… m pixel-1

(2) The image above has 30 pixels per metre at the statues. Calculate how tall they are.
height = ……………………. m ; height = ………………………. m
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In solving the problems on the previous page you would have needed to have used the resolution of the image.
Explain what is meant by the term RESOLUTION of an image.
Also useful is a stage-by-stage guide of how to

solve problems such as these by creating a
scale: if you can establish both how many
pixels, and how much distance in actuality 1
cm on the image makes up, these problems
become much easier to solve.
For example, complete the question below
based on the image shown right:
(1) Create a scale giving the number of pixels
that fit into a length of 1 cm:
1 cm = ……………. pixels
(2) At the point in the image where the man is walking the resolution of the image in 2.2 mm pixel-1. Use the scale you
have just created to find the height of the man.
 measure his height in the image in cm: ………………...………. cm
 calculate how many pixels this is: …………....……….. pixels
 use this value and the resolution to find the true height of the man: ………………………….. m
(3) If the diameter of the car as shown tire is 50 cm, find the resolution of the image at the car tire:
 measure the diameter in the image in cm: ………………...………. cm
 calculate how many pixels this is: …………....……….. pixels
 you now know how many pixels make up 0.50 m. How much space does a single pixel represent?
resolution = ……………….. m pixel-1
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3. The amount of information stored in an image

The video from TechQuickie explains how to read binary numbers (goo.gl/qDwdyC; QR code
left), whilst the excellent video from Eddie Woo (https://goo.gl/cnVQfU; QR code right) explains
how file sizes of digital images can be calculated.
As previously explained, pixel in an image is encoded with a number in binary format.

Binary data consists of a series of 1s and 0s which the computer can then interpret as a value that tells it about the
colour and hue of the pixel.
Explain what is meant by ONE BIT of data
How many different possible values could a bit of data take?
In computers, a bit can be read off in a number of different forms. For example:
 If a light is flashing on (1) or off (0) when data is sent through fibre-optic cables.
 If a magnet is facing north pole up (1) or south pole up (0) on an old magnetic tape or floppy disc.
 If a transistor gate on a computer chip is open (1) or closed (0)
 If there is a pit (0) or a plateau (1) ingrained into the surface of a CD, DVD or Blu-Ray disc etc.
In the examples below we will consider an old magnetic tape, made of a series of magnets each of which can be set to
be either north pole facing up (1) or south pole facing up (0), which can then be read by a detector in the disc drive of a
computer.
For each example, state how many different possible variations of 1s and 0s can be made with that configuration of
magnets. The first two have been done for you.
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As you can see, a BINARY system exponentially increases the number of possible values that can be coded.
Complete the sentence below to explain this pattern:
When one more bit of data is added to a stream of binary, the number of different possible
values that can be coded by the stream…
An important and useful amount of data to store is a BYTE of data.

Explain what is meant by a BYTE of data, and state how many different possible values it can take.
 =
Complete the box right giving the number of different possible
values N that can be coded by b bits of data:
b= Complete the box left giving the number of bits b

needed to code N possible different pixel values in an
image.
Some questions on the information stored in an image

The image right is 3000 pixels wide and 2000 pixels
high. Each pixel can take one of 128 different
possible shades of grey from white through to black.
(1) How many bits of data are used to code each
pixel.
Clearly state the equation you used / what you

typed in to your calculator to find the answer.
bits per pixel = ……………….
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(2) How many bits of information are used to store the whole image?
data stored = ……………………. bits
(3) How many bytes of information are used to store the whole image?
data stored = ……………………. bytes

(4) How many kilobytes of information are used to store the whole image?
data stored = ……………………. kbytes

(5) How many megabytes of information are used to store the whole image?
data stored = ……………………. Mbytes
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Understanding Binary
Reading binary is actually very straightforward. The first stage in decoding binary is to set up a table with headings of
increasing powers of two from right to left.
The 1s and 0s in a binary dataset then simply stand for the presence (1) or absence (0) of a particular value in the stream
of data (where the first value given reflects the right hand column of the table).
If you add all the values present (represented by a 1), then you will obtain the final value represented by the stream of
1s and 0s.
For example, the table below shows a range of different options of values coded to 8 bits (or a byte). Some values are
given to you:
(1) Complete the rest of the values.
(2) Write the following decimal numbers in binary format:
(a) 32 (b) 128
(c) 45 (d) 7
(e) 23 (f) 112
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Some more questions on information in images

(1) How many bytes are there in :
(a) 512 kbits (b) 4 Gbits
(c) 11 Mbits
(2) A television can display 65,536 different colours.

(a) What is the minimum number of bits needed to store the colour of each pixel?
(b) How many bytes is this?
(3) First generation digital cameras used CCD sensors of 320 x 240 pixels. These were located on a silicon chip of
size 6.4 mm x 4.8 mm.
(a) What is the length of the side of the pixel in such a camera?
(b) Calculate the number of pixels and the density of pixels for this camera
(c) Such cameras usually operate on a 256 level brightness scale from 0 to 255 for the brightness of each pixel.
This can be coded as a one byte binary number (8 bits). How much information in bytes does a single image
in this camera store?
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4. Image processing
There are a number of different ways in which we digitally alter images for a number of analytical and aesthetic reasons.
You will need to be able to describe how five different processes work:
 Smoothing images
 Noise removal
 Changing brightness
 Changing contrast
 Edge detection
We will look at these one-by-one.
Smoothing images
Sometimes we would wish to smooth an image, either for trendy aesthetic reasons to make Instagram posts look more
professional, or to remove sharp edges or spikes in the data when they provide problems if quantitative data is taken
from the images.
In order to smooth an image, a MEAN FILTER is passed across the image, changing the value taken by each pixel.
Explain how a MEAN FILTER works, and complete the pixel values in the processed selection below.
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Noise removal
Grainy or pixelated images often need to
undergo the process of noise removal.
Explain what is meant by the term NOISE

in the context of images.
Noise can be removed by passing a MEDIAN FILTER across the image, again changing the value of each pixel to
produce an altered image.
Explain how a MEDIAN FILTER works, and complete the pixel values in the processed selection below.
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Changing brightness
Another common filtering technique is
to change the brightness of an image so
that particular features can be picked
out, or simply for aesthetic reasons.
Explain how the BRIGHTNESS of an image can be changed, and give an example of the pixel values for the altered
image in the boxes below.
Increasing contrast
Images with little contrast do not use the full range
of possible pixel values.
For example, an image which is coded to one byte
per pixel (so pixels can take values between 0 and
255) may have a minimum pixel value of 35 and a
maximum pixel value of 175.
In this case, we wish to pass a filter over the image
which causes the small values to become smaller and
larger values to become even bigger, so that the full
range of possible pixel values are taken.
For example, a frequency histogram of different pixel values within an image may look like the graph below left. Once
the image is processed to increase contrast, the histogram would look like the graph below right.
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In order to achieve this, each pixel needs to be looked at individually and two stages of calculation need to be carried
out:
1. Established which percentile of the total spread of values that particular pixel value falls on.
2. Multiply by the maximum possible value in order to spread the data over the total available range.
This can be summarised in the following equation:
new pixel
value = ×
Complete the altered values for an image whose contrast has changed using the equation given above.
Edge detection
A final useful way of processing image data is to look for areas
of sharp contrast in the image.
This allows us to digitally identify the boundaries of different
objects, and so have automated recognition facilities.
In order to do this a filter has to be passed over the image that
picks out regions of abrupt changes pixel value.
Again, this is a two stage process. Outline these stages in the
space below:
1.
2.
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Complete the boxes below to complete the values for the processed image. Shade in the regions that are identified as
an edge.
Space for your own notes
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An example exam question on digital images & image processing
Juno is a satellite mission to Jupiter. The figure right

shows an image it captured as it passed the Earth.
(a) The camera forms an image on a sensor of
1224 × 1024 pixels. It records three-colour
(RGB) intensity using 10 bits per colour per
pixel.
(i) Show that the information in a full

uncompressed image is less than 40
Mbits.
[1]
(ii) An Earth radius (= 6.4 × 106 m) is indicated on the image. Estimate the resolution of the image. Make
your method clear.
resolution = ……………………….. m pixel-1 [2]
(b) The JunoCam contains an image processor chip so that images can be enhanced and data downloaded efficiently.
Some of the image processing techniques are: noise reduction, changing contrast or brightness of the image
and edge detection, The data representing the image can also be compressed into a smaller number of bits.
Describe how the data from the camera is manipulated in these processes. Suggest advantages and problems of
image processing, and explain why compressing the image data is useful.
Use BULLET POINTS and carefully STRUCTURE your answer, addressing each point rasied.
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[6]
Solutions can be found at

goo.gl/2uaCYE
(see QR code right)
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5. Introduction to lenses
A good introduction to the main ideas regarding lenses has been made by www.alevelphysicsonline.com and
can be found at goo.gl/Ruy41r (QR code right).
Lenses are used in order to manipulate light, and allow focused and clear images of distant objects to be made. For the
purposes of our studies, we will simply consider converging lenses – a lens which focuses beams of light to a point
behind it.
There are two different ways in which we can explain the action of a converging lens:
 in terms of how the lens affects the ray paths of light passing through it, and
 in terms of how the lens affects the wavefronts of light.
We will consider both of these.
A refresher on refraction
Converging lenses focus the ray paths of light that pass through them by the process of refraction:
(1) Explain what you know about the relative sizes of the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction when light
passes from a less optically dense to more optically dense medium.
(2) Complete the boxes right to give a
n= =
value for the refractive index n of a
material in terms of both the angles
of incidence i and refraction r and
in terms of the speed of light in the
first and second media (c1 & c2,
respectively).
(3) What is the refractive index of:

(a) Water (cwater = 2.26 × 108 m s-1) (b) Amber (camber = 1.94 × 108 m s-1)
(4) What is the speed of light in:

(a) Diamond (n = 2.42) (b) Pyrex glass (n = 1.47)
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(5) Complete the ray paths for each of the following:
Make sure you draw a normal to each boundary to ensure that the correct sense of refraction is accurately
plotted.
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Rays paths & focal lengths

Ideas surrounding the way converging lenses focus ray paths, and explanations for the terms of focal length
and lens power (from www.alevelphysicsonline.com) can be found at goo.gl/47v6Bd (QR code right).
The shape of a converging (or convex) lens and the nature of refraction causes initially parallel rays of light to converge
towards a single point behind the lens.
(1) Complete the diagrams right to

compare the differences expected
between a thicker and thinner convex
lens.
(2) On both images, mark with an X the

focal point of the rays.
(3) Give a definition of what is meant by

the term FOCAL LENGTH for a
converging lens.
Lens power explained in terms of wavefront curvature

In order to explain how lenses work in terms of their effect on the wavefronts of incoming light waves, we first need
to be able to define the term wavefront.:
(1) Explain what is meant by the term WAVEDFRONT
(2) What do you know about the angle between the RAY PATHS representing a wave and the WAVEFRONTS
representing the wave
(3) On one of the diagrams above, draw wavefronts for the light as it heads towards and then passes through and
past the lens.
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From your diagram, you will notice that the wavefronts of the rays behind the lens are curved. The closer to the focal
point of the lens they get, the more curved the wavefronts.
We could be very specific when describing how curved the wavefronts become by giving a quanititive value to this
metric: we could give a value for the curvature of the wavefronts at any point in the system. This is a particularly useful
description, particularly when it comes to making calculations with lens and when it comes to defining their power.
Define what is meant by the CURVATURE of a wavefront.
In the box right, give an equation for the curvature of a curve

in terms of its radius, and state the appropriate units for
curvature =
curvature.
Units: …………………….…. OR …………….
As you will see from the diagram you have drawn on the facing page, the lens alters the curvature of the wavefronts as
they pass through it.
Give a definition of the term LENS POWER in terms of the lens’s effect on the curvature of the wavefronts
In the box right, give the relationship between the lens power P and the
focal length f for the lens.
P=
KEY EXPLANATION
Explain how lenses add curvature to the wavefronts of the incoming wave. Use bullet points in your answer.
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Some quick questions on lens power

(1) Give the unit of lens power, the diptre (D) in terms of SI base units.
A dioptre is equivalent to …
(2) Initially parallel rays pass through a lens with a power of 4.5 D. What is the focal length of the lens?
f = ………………….. m
(3) A 100 D lens in a blu-ray focuses a parallel beam of laser light onto a disc. Bow far is the Blu-ray disc from the
lens?
distance = ………………………. m
(4) An astronomical telescope includes a mirror with a focal length of 800 mm. What is the power of the mirror in
dioptres?
P = ……………. D
Space for your own notes
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6. The lens equation

A derivation of the lens equation in terms of the geometry of the ray paths is offered by
www.alevelphysicsonline.com and can be found at goo.gl/ciDQ8X (QR code left). Perhaps
a more straightforward way of obtaining the lens equation is in terms of wavefronts, which
we will go on to consider over the next couple of pages. Physics hands offers a worked
example of how to use the lens equation at goo.gl/5yStP8 (QR code right).
Whenever we are asked to consider a problem involving lenses, there are three possible variables that will co-vary:
 The distance between the object and the lens, given the symbol u
 The distance between the lens and the image, given the symbol v
 The power of the lens, given by the symbol P and equal to the reciprocal of the lens’s focal length f so that
𝑃 = 1⁄𝑓
Whenever a problem is set up, we always consider it in terms of the CARTESIAN CONVENTION, whereby:
 The object is always on the left of the diagram,
 The lens is always in the middle, and
 The focussed image is always to the right of the lens

Consider the diagram below, showing ray paths and wavefronts sourced at the droplet of wax on a candle which then
passes through a lens to form a focused image on the other side.
(1) Clearly annotate the diagram above to show the object distance u and the image distance v.
(2) Give a statement for the curvature of the wavefronts as they enter the lens in terms of the object distance u.
CURVATURE OF WAVES ENTERING THE LENS =
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(3) Give a statement for the curvature of the wavefronts as they leave the lens, in terms of the image distance v.
CURVATURE OF WAVES LEAVING THE LENS =
(4) Give a definition for the POWER of the lens.

The LENS POWER is defined as…
(5) State an equation linking the focal length of the lens (and therefore lens power) in terms of the object distance u
and image distance v. State this in both words and as an equation.
1
𝑃= = −
𝑓
The lens power is equal to…
(6) What must you always remember about the value of the object distance u when using the equation you have just
derived?
1⁄ =
(7) The final lens power equation is more often
given as stated in the box right. Complete this
box to give the final equation
𝑣
(8) Give the equation shown above in words by completing the statement below:
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Explanations using the lens equation

A useful application which allows you to investigate qualitatively how the object and image
distances co-vary either side of a lens of fixed power has been made by PhET and can be
accessed at goo.gl/nLskfc (requires flash player; see QR code left). A video showing how it
works can be found at goo.gl/dt39B4 (QR code right).
A common explain question is to explain what changes you would expect if the object distance is moved towards or
away from the lens. The simulation linked to above will allow you to picture these types of problem in action, although
this should be a bullet-pointed answer you are able to roll out whenever required.
Before we construct a question, a few fundamental ideas need to be covered:
(1) When we identified the definition for the focal length, a really important point was that we found the point that the
rays focused to when the incoming rays were parallel. What does this mean about the shape of the wavefronts of
the incoming waves?
(2) How far away would the source have to be in order for the waves to have this curvature?
(3) What is the closest possible distance that an image can form behind a converging lens?
(4) What is the closest possible distance that an object can be to a lens and still form a focused image the other side of
the lens?
(5) Use the lens equation on the previous page to explain what happens to the image position v if the object position
u is moved closer to the lens (but not past the focal point)?
 Use BULLET POINTS to structure your answer.
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(6) Perhaps more straightforward is an explanation in terms of the wavefronts. Complete the sentences below:
 For a closer object, the curvature of the wavefronts entering the lens…
 The lens adds ……………………. curvature; this means that the curvature of the waves
leaving the lens…
 This means that the focused image will appear ……………………………………………. the lens
(7) Another very common question often asked in exams requires you to explain why, for a very distant object, does
the focused image appear very close to the focal point.
With reference to the lens equation, answer this in the space below.
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Some quick questions on the lens equation

(1) An old camera has a 50 mm focal length lens. It is focused on a person’s face 1 m in front of the lens. How far
behind the lens will the film have to be?
(2) A lamp 400 mm from a lens is in focus on a screen 400 mm behind the lens.
(a) what is the power of the lens?
(b) what is the focal length of the lens?
(c) If the screen is moved away from the lens to give a bigger picture, explain what would need to happen to the
lamp to maintain a focused picture?
(d) The screen is moved so that it is now 800 mm away from the lens. What distance away from the lens should
the lamp be moved to?
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7. Magnification
Definitions and explanations of the concept of the magnification that a lens gives to an image is explained
by www.alevelphysicsonline.com. The video can be found at goo.gl/kpJjVC (QR code right).
In the box below, give the definition of the term MAGNIFICATION of a lens.
Magnification is…
Give the equation for the magnification M
M= =
of a lens in terms of both the image size I
and object size O; and also the object
distance u and the image distance v either
side of the lens.
Being able to calculate the magnification for an image is often very useful: if we know (or can calculate) the
magnification then we can often find values for u and v that can be then used in the lens equation previously stated.
Some questions on magnification.

(1) Explain what it means when the magnification is greater than 1 in value. Suggest a situation in which this might
occur.
(2) Explain what it means when the magnification is between 0 and 1 in value. Suggest a situation in which this might
occur.
0
(3) An object is placed 1.5 m in front of a converging lens. A focused image is formed on a screen 2.5 m from the lens.
Calculate the magnification of the image.
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8. Digital cameras
A useful guide explaining how digital cameras work – in particular how the sensor chips in them (CCDs)
record the image – is presented by James May (available at https://goo.gl/98gvxf ; QR code right)
A schematic view of a digital camera is shown below.
In short, the digital camera works as follows.

1. Light is emitted from or reflects from the object being captured in the photograph.
2. The light is focused by the lens onto a sensitive chip (a charge-coupled device, CCD) that sits behind the lens.
3. The CCD is made from an array of light-sensitive pixels (see above), which capture the intensity and colour of
the light arriving.
The RESOLUTION of an image is defined as…
This means that the resolution of a digital image is equal to… ________________________________
… when the size of the image is equal in dimensions to… _______________________________________
We often have to use this fact, and combine it with the equation for magnification M and the lens equation when
answering tricky questions on lenses (see overleaf).
Consider the question on the facing page.
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A man with an unusually large pimple of 1 cm diameter is having his photo taken. As a camera geek, he knows that the
dimensions of the CCD behind the lens of the camera is 3.0 cm wide × 2.0 cm high. He also knows that the CCD is 4500
pixels wide and 3000 pixels wide, and that it sits 4.0 cm behind the lens in the camera.
How far away from the camera does he have to stand in order for the pimple not to be shown in the photo?
Show full working.
An example exam question on digital cameras, lenses and CCDs

The movement of tennis balls can be tracked using a set of linked high-speed fixed-focus cameras placed around the
court. The ball’s position is measured and its trajectory reconstructed, as shown in the figure below.
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(a) A tennis ball has a diameter of 67 mm. When the ball is 10 metres from a camera, a sharp image of it is formed on
a CCD 55 mm behind the lens as shown in the figure below.
(not to scale)
(i) Calculate the magnification of this image
Magnification = ……………………. [1]
(ii) Show that the power of the lens in the fixed focus camera is about 18 D.
[2]
(iii) Show that the diameter of the image of the ball on the CCD is about 0.4 mm. Make your method clear
[2]
(b) There are 70 pixels per mm on the CCD.
(i) Calculate the number of pixels across the image of the 67 mm diameter ball.
Number of pixels = …………………………………. [1]
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(ii) As the ball moves, its image moves across the CCD.
Calculate the least distance the ball must move sideways for its image to move one pixel.
Distance = ………………………………. m [1]
(c) The position of the ball on 2 consecutive images can be used to determine the distance it has moved between
images. Two such images give a value for the distance moved of 0.080 m.
State and explain the maximum possible value for this measurement based on your answer to b (ii).
maximum possible value = …………………………..

Explanation
[2]
[Total 9 marks]
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9. Finding the power of a lens experimentally

An important practical that you will to be able to discuss in your written exams is the experiment you conducted to
find the focal length and power of a converging lens. Answer the questions below to explain this experiment.
(1) Explain the experimental set-up and procedure. Include a labelled diagram and step-by-step instructions.
(2) Which of the measurements below had the greatest uncertainties associated with them? Explain why.
(3) Sketch your expected results on the two sets of axes below.
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(4) For the relationship shown on set of axes 1 on the facing page, explain how you would find the focal length and
lens power. You may wish to annotate your plot.
(5) For the relationship shown on set of axes 2 on the facing page, explain how you would find the focal length and
lens power. You may wish to annotate your plot.
(6) Look up the term CHROMATIC ABBERRATION. Explain how this phenomena could impinge on the reliability
of your experiment, and suggest any steps that could be taken to minimise this uncertainty.
(7) Suggest any further alterations that could be made to the experiment in order to improve the reliability of your
findings.
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10. Mastery questions on digital images & lenses

These questions come from a number of sources, but mostly from the a level textbook available from the link
on the departmental website to kerboodle (goo.gl/AJTahM; see QR code right and follow the instructions).
Other sources include old exam questions.
Questions on digital images

(1) An electronic display uses a grid of 16×16 pixels. Each pixel is coded by 4 bits.
(a) State the number of bits the display memory stores for one image.
(b) Give your answer above in bytes.
(2) The image right shows the surface of Europa, a satellite of Jupiter. It
represents an area of 30 km × 70 km. There are 1300 pixels across
the image. Calculate the resolution of the image.
(3) Calculate the storage required for a six megapixel camera that uses three bytes to encode colour information for
each pixel.
(4) Calculate the number of bits required to code for 4096 alternative values. Express this as a number of bytes.
(5) A satellite system to image the Earth’s surface is designed to have a resolution of 10 m pixel-1 and to cover an area
of 100 km2 in each image.
(a) State what the term “resolution” means in this context.
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(b) Calculate the number of pixels required to achieve this resolution
(c) Each pixel requires 3 bytes. Calculate the amount of memory in Mbytes that each image requires.
(6) A digital camera has a 6 megapixel lens. Each pixel is coded by 24 bits. The memory card on the camera can store
160 images. What is the minimum memory required?
(7) The image was taken by

the Hubble Space
telescope and shows the
Andromeda galaxy. The
image contains
4096×3072 pixels as
shown.
The resolution of the

image is 30 light years
per pixel.
Calculate the diameter

of the galactic nucleus
indicated by the arrow,
making your method
clear.
diameter = ……………….. light years
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(8) The image right shows the tip of a scanning

electron microscope.
The image is 400 pixels wide. Calculate the
resolution of the image.
(9) The figure below is a digital image of the identical space shuttles Atlantis (foreground) and Endeavour
(background). The length of each shuttle is shown by white marker lines.
(a) Each pixel of the image is recorded on a greyscale with 128 levels. State and explain how many bits per pixel
are needed for 128 alternative levels.
(b) Show that the amount of information in the image is less than 1 Mbyte.
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distance from camera to Endeavour

(c) Use the figure to calculate the ratio distance from camera to Atlantis
. Make the steps in your method clear.
(d) The image resolution at the position of Atlantis is 0.24 m pixel-1.

(i) Use this information to estimate the length of Atlantis indicated in the figure. Make your method clear.
(ii) Estimate the resolution of the image at the position of Endeavour. Make your method clear.
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Questions on lenses
(1) Calculate the curvature of a wave emitted from a point 1.5 m away
(2) Calculate the power of a lens with a focal length of 4.0 mm.
(3) A wavefront has a radius of 32 cm. Calculate the curvature of the wavefront.
(4) A camera lens has a focal length of 50 mm.

(a) Calculate the lens power in dioptres.
(b) State the additional curvature the lens adds to the wavefront as it passes through the lens.
(5) A lens has a power of 7.4 D. Calculate its focal length in mm.
(6) Find the lens power when an object placed 0.2 m behind the lens produces a focused image 0.1 m in front of the
lens.
(7) A converging camera lens with a focal length of 50 mm produces a focused image of a face. The distance between
the lens and the face is 1.0 m. Calculate the image distance.
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(8) A lens produces an image of a lamp. The distance from the lamp to the lens is 0.40 m. The distance from the lens
to the focused image is 0.95 m.
(a) Calculate the magnification of the image
(b) Calculate the focal length of the lens.
(9) A long-sighted person has a near point at 1.25 m from the eye. This is the smallest object distance from their eye
for comfortable vision.
(a) Calculate the curvature of waves arriving at the eye from a distance of 1.25 m.
(b) A person with a near point at 1.25 m needs spectacles to read a book at a distance of 0.25 m from their eye.
Calculate the power of the spectacle lens needed for this.
(10) A camera lens has a focal length of 0.20 m.

(a) Calculate the power of the lens in dioptres
(b) Light waves with a curvature of -0.4 dioptres are incident on this lens. Calculate the curvature of the waves
leaving the lens.
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(11) The image shows a lens system being

used to make a micro-circuit by producing a
tiny image.
(a) Calculate the magnification of the lens
system using the data in the image.
(b) Calculate the power of the lens needed to achieve this magnification.
(12) The upper figure below shows the effect of a converging lens on plane wavefronts which have passed through
it. The lower figure below shows incoming wavefronts for a lens with the same shape and dimensions, but a lower
refractive index. Complete the diagram to show the wavefronts to the right of this lens. Make the position of the
new focal point clear.
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11. Space for your own notes

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Imaging & Signalling: Topic Notes

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.

1: Imaging & Signalling

Important resources for this module:

Free access to the course textbook (via

Challenging questions from GCSE level to Undergraduate physics problems.

Multiple-choice practice revision

the storage of images in a computer as an array of numbers that may be manipulated to

(iii) diagrams of waveforms

(vi) number of bits, b, provides N = 2b alternatives ; b = log2 N

Definitions / explanations you are expected to learn are given

Equations you are expected to be able to use are given double

Online learning checks and assignments are linked to in double

3.1.1.A Digital images 3.1.1.B Lenses & Optics

Some quick questions on LIDAR data

2. Data in images: pixels, resolution and object sizes in images

All spatial data, whether LiDAR scan results or simply a photograph,

Measuring the size of objects in images

Resolution = ………………… m pixel-1

height = ……………………. m ; height = ………………………. m

Also useful is a stage-by-stage guide of how to

 measure his height in the image in cm: ………………...………. cm

 calculate how many pixels this is: …………....……….. pixels

 measure the diameter in the image in cm: ………………...………. cm

 calculate how many pixels this is: …………....……….. pixels

resolution = ……………….. m pixel-1

3. The amount of information stored in an image

As previously explained, pixel in an image is encoded with a number in binary format.

How many different possible values could a bit of data take?

An important and useful amount of data to store is a BYTE of data.

b= Complete the box left giving the number of bits b

Some questions on the information stored in an image

Clearly state the equation you used / what you

bits per pixel = ……………….

data stored = ……………………. bits

data stored = ……………………. bytes

data stored = ……………………. kbytes

data stored = ……………………. Mbytes

(1) Complete the rest of the values.

(2) Write the following decimal numbers in binary format:

(a) 32 (b) 128

(e) 23 (f) 112

Some more questions on information in images

(2) A television can display 65,536 different colours.

(b) How many bytes is this?

Explain what is meant by the term NOISE

Space for your own notes

An example exam question on digital images & image processing

Juno is a satellite mission to Jupiter. The figure right

(i) Show that the information in a full

resolution = ……………………….. m pixel-1 [2]

Solutions can be found at

(2) Complete the boxes right to give a

(3) What is the refractive index of:

(4) What is the speed of light in:

(5) Complete the ray paths for each of the following:

Rays paths & focal lengths

(1) Complete the diagrams right to

(2) On both images, mark with an X the

(3) Give a definition of what is meant by

Lens power explained in terms of wavefront curvature

In the box right, give an equation for the curvature of a curve

Some quick questions on lens power

Space for your own notes