Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.

1: Imaging & Signalling

Module 3.1.1
Imaging & Signalling
3.1.1.C Signalling
3.1.1.D Polarisation

Topic Notes

Name:__________

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Important resources for this module:

All prezi presentations, booklets, homeworks and
practical sheets are all available on the departmental
website:
www.aquinasphysics.com/311-imaging--signalling1.html

www.alevelphysicsonline.com
Excellent video tutorials made by an A level physics teacher for A level physics students.
If you need to go over any concepts again, this is the first place that you should look.
Login Username: physics@aquinas.ac.uk Password: 1234

Free access to the course textbook (via

the departmental website). Follow the
instructions on the website for how to log
in.

www.aquinasphysics.com/kerboodle.html

Challenging questions from GCSE level to Undergraduate physics problems.

If you are hoping for a B, A or A* you must be visiting this site and regularly
practicing the problems. They also run excellent workshops. Look out for these!!

isaacphysics.org/

Multiple-choice practice revision

questions on your phone. Revise on the
bus on the way in to college!!

www.gojimo.com/

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Contents
Contents ....................................................................................................................................................... - 3 -
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................................................... - 4 -
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... - 5 -
2. Digital & analogue signals .................................................................................................................. - 6 -
3. Converting analogue to digital ........................................................................................................... - 8 -
Sampling: Discretising the signal along the time axis. ........................................................................................ - 8 -
The nature of varying signals ............................................................................................................................... - 9 -
Some questions on the frequency spectra of different signals ........................................................................... - 10 -
Choosing the correct sampling frequency: Nyquist’s theorem .......................................................................... - 12 -
Space for your own notes ................................................................................................................................... - 13 -
Levelling: Discretising the signal along the voltage axis. .................................................................................. - 14 -
Choosing the number of levels to sample to: Shannon’s criteria ....................................................................... - 16 -
4. Data transfer & transmission rates .................................................................................................. - 18 -
Some questions on transmission rates ................................................................................................................ - 19 -
5. Polarisation of light ........................................................................................................................... - 20 -
What is polarised light? ....................................................................................................................................... - 20 -
How does light become polarised? ...................................................................................................................... - 21 -
Observing polarised electromagnetic radiation ................................................................................................ - 22 -
Observing polarised visible light ....................................................................................................................... - 22 -
Observing polarised microwaves ....................................................................................................................... - 22 -
Some questions on polarised light....................................................................................................................... - 23 -
An example 6 mark question on polarisation ..................................................................................................... - 24 -
Mastery questions on information, sampling & polarisation ............................................................... - 26 -
Space for your own notes ......................................................................................................................... - 29 -

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Learning Outcomes
You can be expected to be examined on your ability to…

3.1.1
(a) Describe and explain
the process of digitising a signal (which may contain noise); advantages and disadvantages
(iii)
of digital signals

(iv) evidence for the polarisation of electromagnetic waves

(b) Make appropriate use of:
(i) the terms: resolution, sampling, signal, noise, polarisation
(c) Make calculations and estimates involving:
(vi) the number of bits b which provide N = 2b alternative levels (b = log2 N)

(vii) the minimum rate of sampling > 2 × frequency of signal (Nyquist theorem)

(viii) rate of transmission of digital information = samples per second × bits per sample

the graphical representation of the digitisation of an analogue signal for a given number of
(ix)
levels of resolution.
(d) Demonstrate and apply knowledge and understanding of the following practical activities
(ii) observing polarising effects using microwaves and light

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

These notes act to complement the Prezi presentations 3.1.1.C and 3.1.1.D found on the departmental website
(www.aquinasphysics.com). Please see the QR codes and urls below to access the relevant presentations.

3.1.1.C Signalling 3.1.1.D Polarisation

goo.gl/uPCi6m goo.gl/cYCbaK

1. Introduction
The uses of data are all around us. We live in a digital age, governed by 1s and 0s. This topic looks at the way that this
data is created from the original analogue signals, and how that information is then transferred through cables, fibre
optics or wirelessly.
Take the example of music. Sound waves are, after all, a continuous phenomena, which can take any pitch (frequency)
or volume (amplitude) in the audible range. Indeed, as we saw when looking at how standing waves combine across
different harmonics in the waves section of the course, these continuous waveforms are often relatively complex. Yet
we can store music digitally – as a series of 1s and 0s – in our phones and MP3 players, and plug them into a speaker to
give faithful reconstructions of the sound originally played in the recording studio or at the concert.
We will aim to examine the SIGNALLING process through which information can be coded, transferred, and re-
constructed during the course of this booklet.
We will also look at a final wave phenomena that we haven’t yet covered in detail – the fact that we can limit the
directions of oscillation for transverse waves. This process of POLARISATION useful in the transmission of signals
from a transmitter to an aerial.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

2. Digital & analogue signals

An excellent introduction to the differences between, advantages and disadvantages, and the
methods of transition between DIGITAL and ANALOGUE signals has been made by TechQuickie
(goo.gl/Mgk9Pf) see QR code left. Another useful introduction is at goo.gl/EZ3kqF (QR code right).
One aspect of this topic that you will need to be familiar with is being able to explain the differences between analogue
and digital signals, as well as being able to outline some advantages and disadvantages of each. Answer the questions
below addressing these issues.
(1) (a) Explain what is meant by an ANALOGUE SIGNAL.

(b) In the topmost box on the right draw an example waveform representing an
analogue signal.

(c) Explain some disadvantages of analogue signals.

(2) Explain what is meant when we use the term ATTENUATION when describing
what happens to a signal or waveform.

(3) Explain what is meant by the term NOISE in a signal.

(4) Explain why analogue signals are liable to decrease in quality. Use the lower two boxes above right to illustrate
this.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(5) (a) Explain what is meant by a DIGITAL SIGNAL.

(b) In the topmost box on the right, draw an example signal representing a digital
signal

(c) Explain why such signals are less prone to disruption through noise, even when
attenuated. Use the two boxes on the right to illustrate this.

(d) Outline some disadvantages to sending and storing data digitally.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

3. Converting analogue to digital

There are four useful videos which talk through the process of taking a continuous analogue signal and converting it
into digital form – a series of 1s and 0s. A short animation of the process can be found at goo.gl/bfPpXT (QR code left);
whilst a fast-paced explanation can be found at goo.gl/KmF6ca (QR code centre left). A more comprehensive
explanation can be found at goo.gl/88Twjx (QR code centre right), whilst a full A-level standard explanation of all
you need to know is given by DrPhysicsA at goo.gl/1GDPbd (QR code right)

You will have to be able to explain the process by which continuous analogue signals can be converted into a digital
signal made of 1s and 0s.
In order to achieve this, we have to discretise the signal. As many signals (e.g. sounds from a microphone or to a loud
speaker) consist of a voltage output that continuously varies with time (see right), this process of discretising needs to
encompass both the voltage value (y-axis) and the time value (x-axis). The discretising of these two variables is done
separately. We will outline these two processes in the following sections.

Sampling: Discretising the signal along the time axis.

The first task is to discretise the continuous signal shown below along the time axis. We do this by the process of
SAMPLING. Sampling involves reading off values from the graph at regular time intervals.

For example, for the graph right it would be possible to read off values with a sampling frequency of 5000 Hz.

(1) Calculate the time between each

sample when sampling at a frequency
of 5000 Hz.

T = ………………. ms

(2) Annotate the graph by drawing bars up

to the line representing the signal at
this sampling frequency.

(3) Explain the importance of sampling at

a suitable frequency. Explain what may
happen if samples are not taken
frequently enough.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(4) Explain what is meant by the term ALIAS in the context of sampling signals at an inappropriate frequency. You may
wish to add an annotated diagram to explain.

The nature of varying signals

When we covered standing waves we looked at how multiple sine waves can be combined to give a
complicated final signal. A useful and enlightening video on the use of waves to form images is given by
Sixty Symbols (goo.gl/oMGY5B; QR code right).

Every single signal is made up of some combination of sine waves. For example, the image below shows a signal plotted
in two different ways.

On the left the continuous signal is shown with the voltage variation (y-axis) plotted through time (x-axis). On the left
the same signal is plotted using the frequency spectra of the signal. This deconstructs the signal to show that it is
composed of the following signals:

 A signal with a frequency 5500 Hz and amplitude of 20 mV

 A signal with a frequency 16500 Hz and amplitude of 5 mV
 A signal with a frequency of 33000 Hz and amplitude of 10 mV
 A signal with a frequency of 49500 Hz and amplitude of 10 mV

voltage / mV

time / s

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Some questions on the frequency spectra of different signals

(1) The waveform below represents a single musical note being played on an oboe. The image shows the waveform of
the note being played over a time interval of about 40 ms.

(a) Explain how the waveform shows that the note has a definite pitch (fundamental frequency) but that it also
contains more than one frequency component.

[2]

(b) Calculate the frequency of the largest amplitude component of the note.

[1]

(2) Dolphins emit clicks, short pulses of high frequency sound. The figure below shows the waveform and frequency
spectrum of a click.

(a) Estimate the time period of the major frequency component of the click. Make your method clear.

[2]

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(b) State the bandwidth (frequency range) of the click sound

[1]

(c) The scale in dB on the intensity axis of the frequency spectrum is logarithmic. This means that for each increase
of 10 dB the intensity is 10 times greater. State the ratio of the peak intensity to the intensity recorded at 20 kHz.

[1]

(3) The figure below compares the frequency range of human speech with that of orchestral music.

(a) State how you recognise that the frequency scale is logarithmic.

[1]

(b) State the frequency f of the loudest sound in orchestral music.

[1]

(c) Calculate the bandwidth (frequency range) for human speech

[1]

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Choosing the correct sampling frequency: Nyquist’s theorem

When sampling an analogue signal it is important that we pick an appropriate sampling rate:
(1) Suggest and explain a reason why you would not wish to sample a signal with too high a sampling frequently.

(2) Suggest and explain reasons why you would not wish to sample a signal with too low a sampling frequently.

In order to ensure that we maintain all important details when we sample a signal, with follow a rule of thumb known
as NYQUIST’S THEOREM.
State NYQUIST’S THEOREM in words

(3) If an analogue signal is made up of some combination of component waveforms of 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 400 Hz, 1800
Hz and 1200 Hz, what is the minimum sampling frequency needed to give a faithful replication?

(4) Explain (perhaps with the aid of a diagram) why we sample a 2 × the frequency of the highest frequency component
in the signal.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Space for your own notes

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Levelling: Discretising the signal along the voltage axis.

A few pages back you were asked to
sample a continuous signal with a sampling
frequency of 5000 Hz. Hopefully, you
ended up with a plot that looks not too
dissimilar from the graph plotted right.

What you have achieved here is to turn the

originally continuous variable of the time
(x-axis) into a series of discrete data points.

However, each of these discrete samples

can still have any one of an infinite number
of values for its voltage. In order to digitise
our signal (convert it into a series of 1s and
0s), we also need to discretise the signal in
terms of the voltage (y-axis). We do this
through a process known as LEVELLING.

In the process of levelling the voltage axis is split into a number of discrete levels. Depending on the amount of
information being recorded for each sample, the number of levels the sample is split into will be:
resolution of sample number of levels Bits per sample
Lowest resolution 2 (21) 1
4 (22) 2
8 (23) 3
16 (24) 4
32 (25) 5
64 (26) 6
128 (27) 7
256 (28) 8
… …
Higher resolution 2n n

We will look into how to decide how many levels to a signal should be coded to in a later section.
When the digital data is then transmitted (for example from one computer to another), a header file is also sent telling
the computer the sampling frequency, how many bits each sample is taken to, and what each level represents in terms
of the voltage step taken. The computer is then able to take the digital signal (1s and 0s) and hopefully convert this back
into a faithful replication of the original continuous analogue signal.
On the facing page is the sampled signal that you generated earlier. We have decided to sample the signal to 5 bits per
sample, resulting in 32 different levels between level 0 and 31. The binary coded output for each level is shown to the
right.
With each sample, we then decide which BINARY LEVEL the sampled voltage sits closest to, and record this value
in a list.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(1) Complete the binary code for the missing levels shown on the axis to the right of the signal.

(2) Mark crosses on / above / below each sample bar indicating the binary level that is falls closest to.

(3) Complete the boxes below giving the binary code representing this signal.

; ; ; ; ; ;

; ; ; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Choosing the number of levels to sample to: Shannon’s criteria

So far we have only considered sampling
and levelling a perfect signal – one that is
not affected by noise in any way.
In reality, however, all signals are subject to
noise, so that the smooth waveform
previously imagined may in fact look closer
to the signal shown on the right.
This has repercussions when deciding on
how many different binary levels (and
therefore how many bits per sample) we
wish to sample to: there is no point in
sampling to a greater accuracy (to more
levels) than necessary if we are unsure of
the position of the signal in the first place.
In order to determine how many binary
levels we should allocate to our samples, we
need to look at the signal and apply
SHANNON’S CRITERIA.

State Shannon’s criteria in words in the space below:

 The number of binary levels we should sample our signal to can be found by…

 The number of bits each sample should be sampled to can be found by…

In the box right, state Shannon’s criteria as two formulae:

n=
(a) Give a statement that shows the number of
binary levels n each sample should be coded
to in terms of the voltage variation of the
signal Vtotal and the voltage variation of the
noise in the signal Vnoise.

(b) Give a statement that shows the number of

b=
bits b needed to code each sample in terms
of the voltage variation of the signal Vtotal
and the voltage variation of the noise in the
signal Vnoise.

** TO ENCOMPASS ALL DIFFERENT LEVELS GIVEN IN EQUATION 2(a) WE ALWAYS ROUND THE VALUE
FOR 2(b) UP TO THE NEAREST INTEGER VALUE

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(1) For the signal shown on the facing page:

(a) What is the voltage variation for the whole signal?

(b) What is the voltage variation for the signal noise (look at the amplitude of variation for some prominent peaks
and troughs?

(c) How many different levels should the information be coded to?

n = …………………….. levels
(d) How many bits should be taken per sample?

b = ………….. bits per sample

(e) If the sampling frequency is 5000 Hz, calculate the rate at which data is being processed and transmitted
during this sampling process

data transfer rate = …………………… bits s-1

(2) A signal consists of variations over a range between 0 V and 12.0 V. A 4-bit sample of this signal is produced.
Calculate the RESOLUTION of this sample.

resolution = …………………… units: ………………………….

(3) A signal has a maximum total variation of 200 mV, with a noise variation of 5.0 mV. Calculate the largest number
of bits per sample worth using to encode the signal variation.

bits per sample = …………………

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

4. Data transfer & transmission rates

An interesting video on the physical limits to data transfer rates is given by SixtySymbols at
goo.gl/BFKwZW (QR code right).

Once a signal has been sampled and digitised, the information needs to be sent or transferred from one point (such as a
server in Silicon Valley) to an end point (such as your desktop computer at home).
There are a number of ways this is achieved, such as through fibre optic cables, phone lines, and by EM radiation
signals with 4G and WiFi.
In each system, the series of 1s and 0s is transmitted. The speed with which information can be transferred is determined
by the TRANSMISSION RATE.
State the definition of the term TRANSMISSION RATE and give the units.

Units: …………………………………..

There are two different equations that allow you to calculate the transmission rate of information, depending on the
information you are given in a particular question:

=
State how you would find the
transmission rate of data if you
are given the sampling frequency
transmission
and the number of bits per
sample. rate

transmission
=
State how you would find the
transmission rate of data if you
are told how much information is
sent and the time taken to send it.
rate

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Some questions on transmission rates

(1) A (really old) question on sending images across a dial-up modem. If an image contains 140 kbytes of information,
and sent at a rate of 56.6 kbits per second, how long would it take to send the image?

(2) If you used an even older modem which could only send the signal at 28.8 kbits per second, how long would it take
to send the same image?

(3) Another image contains 1.5 Mbits of information. If this is sent at 56.6 kbits per second, how long would it take to
send the image.

(4) How about using a more modern 12 Mbit s-1 broadband connection?

(5) To get a reasonable quality moving image you need to send about 25 images in one second. How fast does your
broadband connection need to be to receive good quality moving images?

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

5. Polarisation of light
More information on the polarisation of electromagnetic waves (particularly light) can be accessed using the three video
links below:
1. A reminder of the transverse nature of EM waves is presented by www.alevelphysicsonline.com and can be
found at goo.gl/b3SsbJ (QR code left)
2. Polarisation is also specifically covered in a video at goo.gl/5YgbPy (QR code centre), again presented by
www.alevelphysicsonline.com
3. Polarisation of light, and some of the uses of polarisation, are also discussed in the video given by SixtySymbols
at goo.gl/x5iRUS (QR code right)

What is polarised light?

Light forms part of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. All EM waves are transverse waves.
Define what is meant by a TRANSVERSE WAVE

Most of the time, the EM waves that we detect such as light are UNPOLARISED.
Explain (with the aid of a diagram) what is meant when we talk about UNPOLARISED light.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

However, under some circumstances light may become POLARISED or PARTIALLY POLARISED.

Explain what is meant by the term POLARISED LIGHT

How does light become polarised?

There are two main processes through which light can become polarised. Illustrate what these are with the aid of a
diagrams.

Method 1:

Method 2:

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Observing polarised electromagnetic radiation

Observing polarised visible light
In your lesson you will have been given a POLAROID or POLARISING FILTER and asked to look at different
sources of light around the room. These may include the screens of your phones or calculators, the display screens in
the classroom, the light shining in through the window, and also the light reflecting from any glossy surface such as the
table top or window sills.
Explain how you used this polarising filter to confirm whether or not a light source produces polarised / partially
polarised or unpolarised light.

 What did you have to do when looking through the filter?

 What is the difference in your observations in cases of polarised / partially polarised as opposed to observations
of unpolarised light?

Observing polarised microwaves

A short video on a similar demonstration to the one given in class is given by www.alevelphysicsonline.com
and can be found at goo.gl/msjccm (QR code right).

In class you saw a demonstration which demonstrated that a source of microwave radiation emitted polarised
microwaves.

In the space given, draw a labelled diagram of the equipment used.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Describe and explain the observations made during the demonstration.

Some questions on polarised light

(1) An advertisement for sun glasses claims:

Glare is created when bright sunlight reflects off horizontal surfaces such as roads.
Polarising sunglasses are special sunglasses that eliminate 99.9 % of this type of glare by
only letting in light at a certain angle or in a certain direction.
(a) Use diagrams to explain the difference between polarised and unpolarised light.

(2 marks)
(b) In physics terms, what does the advertisement mean when it says “light at a certain angle or in a certain
direction”?

(1 mark)
(c) What is the evidence in this advertisement that “glare” consists of polarised light?

(1 mark)

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(d) Normally sunglasses are worn so as to eliminate glare. Explain what would happen if the sunglasses were
turned through 90o

(2 marks)

An example 6 mark question on polarisation

Unpolarised light passes through two
polarising filters as shown in the figure
below.

The filters are initially oriented in the same

direction, allowing light of maximum
intensity to pass through to the observer.

Describe and explain how the intensity of

light reaching the observer varies as filter
B is rotated clockwise through 180o as
indicted in the diagram. Use your
reasoning to explain why skiers use
polarising filters to cut down glare from sunlight reflected off snowy ground. You may include diagrams in your answer.

PLAN YOUR ANSWER HERE. BREAK THE QUESTION DOWN INTO ITS COMPONENT PARTS.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

ANSWER THE QUESTION IN THE SPACE PROVIDED.

REMEMBER TO USE BULLET POINTS TO HELP STRUCTURE YOUR ANSWER.
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markscheme available at
goo.gl/XtQDxW
(QR code left)

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

Mastery questions on information, sampling & polarisation

These questions come from a number of sources, but mostly from the A level textbook available from the
link on the departmental website to kerboodle (goo.gl/AJTahM; see QR code right and follow the
instructions). Other sources include old exam questions.
(1) A book contains 1000 pages. Each page of text contains 500 words that equates to about 3000 characters including
spaces. Each character is encoded with a 1 byte number. Calculate the number of bits required to encode the book.

(2) Calculate the number of bits required to encode this sentence in a signal if each character and space is represented
by 8 bits. The previous sentence is 127 characters in length.

(3) A signal variation is sampled with 6 bits per sample.

(a) Calculate how many quantisation levels are possible in each sample

(b) The potential difference is sampled on a scale from 0.00 V to 12.0 V. Calculate the resolution of the sample.

𝑉
(4) The ratio 𝑉 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 in a signal is 75. Calculate the largest number of bits per sample worth using to encode the variation.
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

(5) A CD quality sound uses 16 bits per sample at a sample rate of 44.1 kHz for each of the two stereo channels.
Calculate the combined bit rate for the two stereo channels.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(6) A CD track lasts 2 minutes and 40 seconds. The bit rate of the system is 1.4 MHz. Calculate the number of bits that
encode the track.

(7) A signal is sampled at a rate of 44.1 kHz. Each sample is coded with 2 bytes. What is the bit rate of the sampling?

(8) An analogue signal has a total voltage variation (signal + noise) of 600 mV. The noise variation is 9 mV.
(a) Calculate the maximum useful number of bits to code the signal.

(b) Explain why it is not worth using more bits to code the signal.

(9) An analogue signal has a voltage variation of 380 mV. It is sampled with 8 bits per sample. Calculate the resolution
of each sample.

(10) A digital photograph has a file size of 28 Mbyte. Calculate the time it will take to download at a download rate
of 1 Mbit s-1.

(11) Music is streamed to a mobile phone at a rate of 96 kilobits per second. How many kilobytes per second does
this represent?

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

(12) The graph right shows a section of a waveform that

has been sampled. Each small triangle represents a sample
point.
(a) Show that the sample rate is 40000 Hz

(b) State an estimate for the highest frequency sound that can be accurately sampled by the system. Why might a
higher frequency not be sampled accurately?

(c) The range of voltage variation is -3 mV to + 7 mV. There are 16 bits per sample. Calculate the resolution of
the sample.

(d) The system is used to store a music track lasting 3 and a half minutes. Calculate the number of Mbytes of
memory that will be required.

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Aquinas College Physics Module 3.1.1: Imaging & Signalling

6. Space for your own notes

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