Modeling and Real-Time Simulation of High
Impedance Faults for Protection Relay Testing and
Methods Validation
Aldair Wontroba
Adriano Peres de Morais
Jean Pereira Rossini
Mairon Gallas
Ghendy Cardoso Junior
Federal University of Santa Maria
Santa Maria-RS, Brazil
aldair.wontroba@hotmail.com
Patrick Escalante Farias
Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio
Grande do Sul - IFRS
Farroupilha, Brazil
pefarias@gmail.com
Abstract— This work presents a real-time model of high
impedance fault. The model allows full relay validation
including different types of ground surface. The model is
incorporated into OPAL-RT simulator and implemented in
Hypersim software, a comparison with ATPdraw is performed.
The model and its theoretical basis are presented; the real-time
implementation, its results and the issues are discussed.
Keywords— High impedance fault, modeling, real time
simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Before approving and commissioning feeder protection
relays, extensive testing is required, either as laboratory (or
field) experimental testing or HIL simulations, to validate
protection schemes and determine appropriate settings. The
first approach is time-consuming and costly while the latter is
limited by the simulation models' abilities to represent
adequately the feeder behavior during all types of faults.
High Impedance Faults (HIF) are one of the most common
type of fault in power distribution networks. HIF typically
occurs when the conductors in distribution network break and
touch the ground surface, i.e. asphalt, tree, concrete, etc. Due
to the high impedance of these surfaces, the current at the fault
point has generally a low magnitude. In technical terms, the
IEEE PSRC [1] defines HIF as fault with current rates below
the overcurrent relay’s threshold. Moreover, other features can
also define a HIF according to Fig. 1, such as, buildup and
shoulder stages, intermittence and asymmetry of the fault
current [2]-[4]. Buildup is the period in which the fault current
increases gradually due to accommodation of the cable in the
ground while the shoulder stage refers to the periods of
constancy in the magnitude. Intermittence occurs when the
HIF electric arc is extinct during some time due to the loss of
The authors acknowledge the technical and financial support of National
Institute of Science and Technology on Distributed Generation Power
Systems (INCTGD), Higher Level Personnel Training Coordination
(CAPES/PROEX) - Finance Code 001, National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq), Foundation for Research of the State of
Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS), Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM)
and Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Brazilian Institutions.
This paper was part of an R&D project with ANEEL, CELPA and
CEMAR.
978-1-5386-8218-0 / 19 / $ 31.00 © 2019 IEEE
João Paulo Abreu Vieira
Electrical Engineering Graduate Program
Federal university of Pará
Belém-PA, Brazil
jpavieira@ufpa.br
Marcelo Costa Santos
Distribution System Operation Management
CELPA –Electric Distribution Utility of Pará
Belém-PA, Brazil
marcelo.costa@celpa.com.br
moisture in the surface. The arc restarts when the conductor
reaches another region with enough moisture to reestablish an
electric path. Asymmetry is originated by the silica present in
the surface that causes a great drop voltage during the negative
semi cycle of the current so the positive semi cycle has a
greater magnitude [5]. The asymmetry is also related to the
nonlinear V x I behavior at the fault point, which is a typical
HIF feature caused by the electric arc as well.
Current
Shoulder
Asymmetry up
Bu
ild
Intermittence
Time
Fig. 1. Characteristics of HIF.
A correct fault model is indispensable for some power
system studies, essentially for HIF detection which most of the
methodologies are based on some of the inherent HIF features.
The majority of HIF detectors uses somehow the harmonic
content present in the fault current [6]-[8]; each HIF feature is
responsible for a different content: low frequency
(nonlinearity of V x I curve), even harmonics (asymmetry),
high frequency (intermittence) and inter-harmonics (shoulder
and buildup stages)[9]. Methods based on the HIF current
shape are also widely applied to fault detection, which wavelet
[10]-[11] and mathematical morphologic [12]-[13] methods
can be highlighted due to their capability of recognize
transients and distortions present in the current signal.
HIF detection is a research topic which has been
investigated for many years. However, in terms of Intelligent
Electronic Devices (IEDs) available commercially, there is
only one solution able to detect it [14]. As the classical
overcurrent relays do not detect this type of fault, it is difficult
to find oscillographic records of HIF to validate IEDs and new
methods for detection of HIF. Basically, the proposed
methods use eletromagnetic softwares, to validate it and
comercial IEDs spend a long time installed in test mode.
Hence, this paper presents a HIF model [5] for real time
simulation. The model is incorporated into OPAL-RT
simulator and implemented in Hypersim software. The digital
model can be applied for validation of HIF detection methods
and real-time hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing of IEDs. The
results obtained are compared with HIF model implemented
on ATPDraw.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
Section II presents a literature review of HIF model. Section
III presents the HIF modeling for real-time simulation. The
results obtained by the real-time model are presented and
compared with ATPDraw results on Section IV. Section V
includes the conclusions derived from this work.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are two widely accepted models for HIFs simulation
in the literature, which are the models proposed in [15] and
[16]. The two models present similar results; however, unlike
model [15], model [16] is unable to represent all the HIF
characteristics as buildup and shoulder stages. In [5] was
proposed a modification in the model initially presented by
[15]. This modification makes it possible to simulate HIF on
different types of ground surfaces. For these reasons, the real-
time implementation presented in this paper is an
improved version of [5].
The model proposed in [15] consists of two variable
resistances in series. The first one (R1) models the growing
feature of the current during the settling time of the conductor
in the soil (buildup stage). The second one (R2), models the
typical asymmetry of the electric arc and is present in all fault
current cycles. Fig. 2 represents the model of variable
resistance.
Fault Point
vF1
R1
iF1
R2
Fig. 2. Model of variable resistance.
In consequence, the voltage at the fault point (vF) is given
by (1).
v F (t) = v R1 (t)+ v R2 (t) (1)
Where: vF(t) is the instantaneous voltage at the fault point;
v R1 (t ) and v R2 (t ) are the instantaneous voltage on the
resistors R1 and R2, respectively.
A. R1 Control
The R1 resistance emulates the buildup period, that is, the
growth characteristic of the fault current during the period of
accommodation of the cable in the ground. For this, R1 has a
high value in the beginning of the fault and decreases its value
gradually over time to a value close to zero. To represent this
behavior, [5] proposed the use of a polynomial according to
(2). The order of this polynomial, as well as its coefficients,
depends on the type of soil in which the HIF occurred.
c k .t k + c k −1.t k −1 + ... + c1.t + c 0 , se t < Δt
R1 (t ) =  (2)
 10 −5 , se t ≥ Δt
Where: k is the degree of the polynomial and index of each
coefficient; c are the coefficients of the polynomial; Δt is the
period of growth of the fault current.
B. R2 Control
The second resistance (R2) models the asymmetric
characteristic of the V x I curve due to the presence of the
electric arc and is present in all cycles of the fault current. For
this, a routine checks if the voltage at the fault point is in the
increasing branch (positive derivative) or decreasing (negative
derivative) of the V x I curve of the surface in which the HIF
will be simulated. After verifying the branch, the routine uses
(3) to obtain the respective fault current of the V x I curve.
Finally, the corresponding resistance is calculated through the
OHM Law.
 i Fi (m + 1) − i Fi (m)
i Fi (m) +v (m + 1) − v (m) . Δv,
 Fi Fi
 if v (m) < v (t ) < v (m + 1)
i F (t ) =  Fi F Fi (3)

 i Fi (m),

 if v F (t ) = v Fi (m)
Where: vF(t) is the voltage at the fault point; Δv = vF(t) - vFi(m);
vFi(m) and iFi(m) are the voltage; the current of the
characteristic curve V x I in sample m, respectively.
In the first version of the model proposed by [15], R2 was
calculated only with the data of the V x I curve for a stone
surface. However, in the modification proposed by [5], the
model became more complete, adding the V x I curves of six
other surfaces according to Fig. 3.
III. HIF MODELING FOR REAL-T IME SIMULATION
Models of equipment and different conditions of operation
of the electric power system can be modeled for real-time
simulations. Real-time simulation allows the evaluation of the
tested device's impact on the power grid and the identification
of adverse interactions with existing equipments and controls.
To achieve such a goal, a digital real-time simulator needs to
solve the model equations for one time-step within the same
time in real-world clock [17]-[18].
The HIF model was implemented and simulated with
Opal-RT real time simulator and Hypersim software. Opal-
RT/Hypersim simulator performs real-time simulations and
non-real-time simulations. The simulation is considered to be
real-time if the runtime, Te, for the system simulation is less
than or equal to the selected time, as shown Fig. 4 a, and case,
Te is greater than its time-step size for one or more time-steps,
overruns occurs and the simulation is considered as non-real-
time, as shown Fig. 4 b.
The Hypersim software can applied for the two categories
of real time simulations which can include hardware, IED for
instance, and software-in-the-loop processes, algorithm
validation, for instance. In this work the test system was
 (a) (b) The control part performs functions using signals from UCM
1 1
Ibase=10A control inputs and internal signals in order to
Ibase=10A
produce signals to send to the UCM control outputs or to be
used internally. The Fig. 5 shows the UCM block used for HIF

vFi (pu)
v Fi (pu)

0 0 model.

-1 HIF
-1 Calculation
-1 0 1 -1 0 1 Vfault R Rin
i Fi (pu) i Fi (pu)
(c) (d) Rcontrolled
1 1
Ibase=20A Fig. 5. HIF model in UCM block.
Ibase=40A
The test system used is presented in Fig. 6. Where the lines
vFi (pu)
vFi (pu)

0 have 10 km each. The parameters of the lines can be seen in

0
the TABLE I. A load of 24 kVA, PF = 1.0 is considered at the
end of the feeder. The nominal voltage of the system is 13.8
kV and 60 Hz. The HIF insertion occurs between the two lines
-1 -1 in only one phase.
-1 0 1 -1 0 1
i Fi (pu) i Fi (pu) Vsrc

(e) (f) +
1 1
Ibase=100A Ibase=100A
v Fi (pu)
v Fi (pu)

HIF
0 0
Fig. 6. Test system used for HIF
TABLE I. IMPEDANCE MATRIX OF LINES.
-1 -1
-1 0 1 -1 0 1 Zero Positive
i Fi (pu) i Fi (pu) R (Ω/km) 1.06 0.501
L (H/hm) 7.35E-3 2.31E-3
Increasing branch Decreasing branch C (F/km) 0.0 0.0

Fig. 3. V x I Curves at the HIF point corresponding to one cycle: a) sand, b) The HIF model corresponds to the one proposed by [5],
asphalt, c) gravel, d) cobblestones, e) grass, f) local soil. The user can simulate up to 6 different types of ground
implemented within the graphic interface of Hypersim, and surfaces. Each soil is identified using a pre-defined number
the HIF model was implemented in a UCM block (User Code and can be choose by user during the simulation. As described
Model), which not only have control interface but also is previously, the model is represented by two resistors. The first
equipped with electrical interfaces. The UCM is a Hypersim resistor R1 is modeled by a polynomial as a function of time,
utility that permits users to build their specific blocks in the where each soil has different coefficients (TABLE II). As the
model using a C-coded function while respecting the time increases after HIF occurrence, the resistance R1 tends to
Hypersim programming rules. stabilize. At this point the polynomial is no longer considered.
This is done because the polynomial cannot represent R1 for
Idle time a long time. Unlike [5], it is not adopted 10-5 after ≥ ∆ , but
Te(n-1) Te(n) Te(n+1)
rather the last calculated value (i.e. = ∆ ) for R1. TABLE
t III shows the times that R1 needs to stabilize.
t TABLE II. COEFFICIENTS OF POLYNOMIALS FOR EACH TYPE OF SOIL.
tn-1 tn tn+1 tn+2
Type of soil
(a) Coeff
icient Cobbles
Sand Asphalt Gravel Grass Local soil
Overrun tone
Te(n-1) Te(n)
c8 3.25E11 3.2E12 1.29E8 6.61E9 6.5E10 0
t c7 -2.9E11 -3.0E12 -2.92E8 -1.66E9 -5.7E10 0
c6 1.14E11 1.1E12 2.73E8 1.91E9 2.0E10 0
t c5 -2.3E10 -2.5E11 -1.37E8 -8.99E8 -4.00E9 -3.05E6
tn-1 tn tn+1 tn+2 c4 2.84E9 3.1E10 4.00E7 2.18E8 4.47E8 2.66E6
c3 -1.98E8 -2.3E9 -6.89E6 -2.87E7 -2.91E7 -8.08E5
(b)
c2 7.74E6 9.52E7 6.88E5 2.01E6 1.05E6 1.02E5
Fig. 4 Illustration of real-time and offline simulation. (a) Real-time c1 -1.55E5 -1.98E6 -3.79E4 -7.10E4 -2.03E4 -6.78E3
simulation. (b) Non-real-time simulation. c0 1.68E3 1.68E4 1.10E3 1.34E3 2.24E2 5.13E2

A UCM is composed of a power part and a control part: TABLE III. TIME NEEDED TO R1 STABILIZE.
The power part has external nodes (graphically visible) and Aspha Cobble Local
internal nodes (invisible). This part is represented as an Sand Gravel Grass
lt stone soil
admittance matrix which will be added to the substation Time (s) 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3
admittance matrix to solve the node equation.
 The second resistor, R2, is given by the linear interpolation
of points in a V x I curve as previously seen in Fig. 3, which 20
represents the characteristic of the soil type. The intermittence ATP
is not considered in this model. The two resistors are HYPERSIM
calculated in each simulation time step within the UCM block, 0
and then summed and assigned to a controlled resistor to
emulate the HIF.
IV. RESULTS AND PERFORMANCES -20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (s)
In order to validate the results, the same test system and (a)
the HIF model were implemented in the ATPDraw software. 10
The results of the digital model were compared with
ATPDraw because it is already consolidated in other works ATP
[5] and [19]. Similar to Hypersim, a programming block, HYPERSIM
0
using the MODELS language, was used in the ATPDraw to
represent the HIF model. By comparing the results obtained in
the Hypersim with the ATPDraw, it was possible to verify the
reliability of the model for real time simulation. -10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Fig. 7 shows the current growth of the HIF, a process Time (s)
called buildup and shoulder, in which the resistance R1 has (b)
the function of representing. Note that in both simulators we 50
have a very similar response to the current growth. ATP
In order to measure the difference in response of the HYPERSIM
simulations, the equation (4) was used. 0

| |
(%) = 100% ∙ ∙ ∑ (4)
| ( )| -50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Where is the instantaneous current in the Hypersim and Time (s)
is the current in the ATPDraw. The sum of the percentage (c)
of the error divided by the number of samples is then made to 100
obtain the mean value. The average percentage difference in ATP
one cycle (shoulder period) was close to 1% for sand, asphalt, HYPERSIM
gravel and cobblestone. Grass and local soil have presented an 0
error above of 1%. The Table IV reports the values of the
average percentage error of Hypersim compared to the
ATPDraw. -100
TABLE IV. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE ERROR. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Sand Asphalt Gravel Grass Cobbles Local Time (s)
tone soil (d)
Error (%) 1.01 1.23 1.9 2.6 0.81 4.64 50
ATP
Fig. 8 shows the current of the HIF during shoulder period HYPERSIM
for all ground surface implemented. It is observed that the 0
waveforms of Hypersim and ATPDraw are very similar. It is
also noteworthy that the nonlinearity characteristics of the HIF
current are present in all soils, with asphalt, gravel and local
soils being more significant. -50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
For HIL testing a real-time simulation is required. Hence, Time (s)
the HIF model have been tested in real time mode. The real- (e)
time simulation was done with a 50-μs time step. The analog 100
signal of the voltage and current of the HIF were measured by ATP
an oscilloscope. The Fig. 9 represents the oscillography of HYPERSIM
0
voltage of fault point (green) and current (yellow) of the HIF
for gravel soil.
The tests were performed using two digital to analog ports -100
of the OPAL-RT, one for voltage and one for current. The 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
experimental setup is shown in Fig. 10. Time (s)
(f)
Fig. 7. Growth of the corrent for a) sand, b) asphalt, c) gravel, d) grass,
e) cobblestone, f) local soil.
 Fig. 8. Current of HIF during a shoulder period for a) sand, b) asphalt, c) gravel, d) grass, e) cobblestone, f) local soil.
Fig. 9. Waveform of Voltage (green) and Current (yellow) of the HIF
model for the gravel soil, seen in the oscilloscope.
V. CONCLUSIONS
A flexible HIF model and its real-time implementation
were discussed and its usage demonstrated for HIF relay
testing and methods validation. This method allows
representation of all the HIF characteristics as buildup stage,
shoulder stage and asymmetry of the electric arc. Furthermore,
the presented model considers six types of soil. The HIF
model was implemented in a real-time simulator of large
power networks, called Hypersim.
The simulation results illustrate the behavior of the fault
current is very similar to ATPDraw for all types of soil.
Fig. 10. Experimental setup using OPAL-RT for real-time simulation of
HIF model.
The accuracy, simplicity and flexibility make this model
reliable and convenient for the study of HIF in distribution
systems, which may be very useful to develop
an accurate HIF detection methods and test IEDs.
The HIF model implemented in this work will be base for
the future's works in real-time simulations using OPAL-RT
simulator.
It is intended, with the model: to perform tests in relays of
HIF detection; test HIF detection and localization techniques
in distribution systems; and enable HIL testing using OPAL-
RT/Hypersim.
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