Double Bass - Wikipedia

Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Double_bass
Double bass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The double bass or simply the bass (and

numerous other names) is the largest and lowest- Double bass
pitched bowed string instrument in the modern
symphony orchestra. It is a transposing
instrument and is typically notated one octave
higher than sounding to avoid excessive ledger
lines below the staff. The double bass is the only
modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in
fourths (like a viol), rather than fifths, with
strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2 and G2. The
instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of
some debate, with scholars divided on whether
the bass is derived from the viol or the violin
family.
Side and front views of a modern double bass with a
The double bass is a standard member of the French-style bow
orchestra's string section,[1] as well as the String instrument
concert band, and is featured in concertos, solo
Other names Bass, string bass, upright
and chamber music[2] in Western classical music.
bass, acoustic bass, acoustic
The bass is used in a range of other genres, such
string bass, contrabass,
as jazz, 1950s-style blues and rock and roll,
contrabass viol, bass viol,
rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional country
music, bluegrass, tango and many types of folk standup bass, bull fiddle and
music. bass fiddle
Classification String instrument (bowed or
The double bass is played either with a bow
plucked)
(arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). In
orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco Hornbostel–Sachs 321.322-71
and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues, and classification (Composite chordophone
rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm. Classical music sounded by a bow)
uses just the natural sound produced acoustically Developed 15th-19th century
by the instrument; so does traditional bluegrass.
Playing range
In jazz, blues, and related genres, the bass is
typically amplified with an amplifier and
speaker.
Related instruments
Contents
Viol
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Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass
1 Description Viola
2 Playing style Cello
3 History Bass guitar
4 Terminology Acoustic bass guitar
5 Design Electric upright bass
5.1 Construction
Diyingehu
5.1.1 Travel instruments
Bazantar
5.2 Strings
5.3 Bows
Musicians
5.3.1 German bow
5.3.2 French bow
List of double bassists
5.3.3 Bow construction and
materials
5.3.4 Rosin
6 Pitch
7 Tuning
7.1 Regular tuning
7.2 C extension
7.3 Other tuning variations
8 Playing and performance
considerations
8.1 Body and hand position
8.2 Physical considerations
8.3 Volume
8.4 Transportation
8.5 Accessories
9 Classical repertoire
9.1 Solo works for double bass
9.1.1 1700s
9.1.2 1800s
9.1.3 1900s–present
9.2 Chamber music with double
bass
9.3 Orchestral passages and solos
9.4 Double bass ensembles
10 Use in jazz
11 Use in bluegrass and country
11.1 Slap-style bass
12 Use in popular music
13 Modern playing styles
14 Double bassists
14.1 Historical
14.2 Modern
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14.3 Contemporary (1900s)

14.3.1 Classical
14.3.2 Jazz
14.3.3 Other popular genres
15 Pedagogy and training
15.1 Formal training
15.2 Informal training
16 Careers
16.1 Classical music
16.2 Performance jobs
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
Description
The double bass stands around 180 cm (6 feet) from scroll to endpin.[3] However, other sizes are
available, such as a 1⁄2 or 3⁄4, which serve to accommodate a player's height and hand size. These
sizes do not reflect the size relative to a full size, or 4⁄4 bass; a 1⁄2 bass is not half the size of a bass
but is only slightly smaller.[4] It is typically constructed from several types of wood, including
maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard. It is uncertain whether the
instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with
the violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family
instruments, it also embodies features found in the older viol family.
Playing style
Like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow
(arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and
pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos
and also occasional written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing.
In classical pedagogy, almost all of the focus is on performing with the bow and producing a good
bowed tone; there is little work done on developing significant pizzicato skills. Bowed notes in the
lowest register of the instrument produce a dark, heavy, mighty, or even menacing effect, when
played with a fortissimo dynamic; however, the same low pitches played with a delicate pianissimo
can create a sonorous, mellow accompaniment line. Classical bass students learn all of the different
bow articulations used by other string section players (e.g., violin and cello), such as détaché,
legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé ("hammered"-style), sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato
and sautillé. Some of these articulations can be combined; for example, the combination of sul
ponticello and tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds. Classical bass players do play pizzicato
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parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes (quarter notes, half notes, whole
notes), rather than rapid passages.
Classical players perform both bowed and pizz notes using vibrato, an effect created by rocking or
quivering the left hand finger that is contacting the string, which then transfers an undulation in
pitch to the tone. Vibrato is used to add expression to string playing. In general, very loud,
low-register passages are played with little or no vibrato, as the main goal with low pitches is to
provide a clear fundamental bass for the string section. Mid- and higher-register melodies are
typically played with more vibrato. The speed and intensity of the vibrato is varied by the
performer for an emotional and musical effect.
In jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on playing pizzicato. In jazz
and jump blues, bassists are required to play extremely rapid pizzicato walking basslines for
extended periods. As well, jazz and rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that
enable them to play rapid solos that incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures.
Pizzicato basslines performed by leading jazz professionals are much more difficult that the
pizzicato basslines that Classical bassists encounter in the standard orchestral literature, which are
typically whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and occasional eighth note passages. In jazz and
related styles, bassists often add semi-percussive "ghost notes" into basslines, to add to the
rhythmic feel and to add fills to a bassline.
The double bass player stands, or sits on a high stool, and leans the instrument against their body,
turned slightly inward to put the strings comfortably in reach. This stance is a key reason for the
bass's sloped shoulders, which mark it apart from the other members of the violin family—the
narrower shoulders facilitate playing the strings in their higher registers.[3]
History
The double bass is generally regarded as a modern descendant of the string family of instruments
that originated in Europe in the 15th century, and as such has been described as a bass Violin.[5]
Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six
strings typical of instruments in the viol family or the four strings of instruments in the violin
family. The double bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it
is deeper (the distance from front to back is proportionally much greater than the violin). In
addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a
more acute slope, like members of the viol family. Many very old double basses have had their
shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques. Before these modifications, the
design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.
The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol),
rather than fifths (see Tuning below). The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of
some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol family is
one that has not been entirely resolved.
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In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts,

with many references, that the double bass has origins as the
true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the
exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba,
the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical
to instruments in the violin family, and very different from
the internal structure of viols.[6]
Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the "modern

double bass is not a true member of either the violin or viol
families." He says that "most likely its first general shape
was that of a violone, the largest member of the viol family. Some early basses were conversions
Some of the earliest basses extant are violones, (including of existing violones. This 1640
C-shaped sound holes) that have been fitted with modern painting shows a violone being
trappings."[7] Some existing instruments, such as those by played.
Gasparo da Salò, were converted from 16th-century
six-string contrabass violoni.[8]
Terminology
A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist", "double bassist", "double bass player",
"contrabassist", "contrabass player" or "bass player". The names contrabass and double bass refer
to the instrument's range and use in the contra octave below the cello, also called the 16' octave
relative to the church pipe organ.[9] The terms for the instrument among classical performers are
contrabass (which comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabbasso), string bass (to
distinguish it from brass bass instruments in a concert band, such as tubas), or simply bass.
In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music, this instrument is commonly
called the upright bass, standup bass or acoustic bass to distinguish it from the electric bass
guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, the instrument is also referred to as a "bass fiddle" or "bass
violin" (or more rarely as "doghouse bass" or "bull fiddle"). The upright bass is different from the
acoustic bass guitar, which is a guitar-family instrument that is built like an acoustic guitar
(although the acoustic bass guitar typically has four strings, tuned E–A–D–G and a sturdier
construction).
The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the violone, bass violin or bass viol. Other
colourful nicknames are found in other languages; in Hungarian, the double bass is sometimes
called nagy bőgő, which roughly translates as "big crier", referring to its large voice. In Brazil,
specifically the northeast region, it is also called rabecão, meaning "big rabeca". The rabeca (or
rabeca chuleira) is a type of fiddle from northeastern Brazil and northern Portugal used in Brazilian
forró music. The rabeca is descended from the medieval rebec.
Design
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In general, there are two major approaches to the design outline

shape of the double bass: the violin form (shown in the labelled
picture to the right); and the viol da gamba form (shown in the
header picture). A third less common design, called the busetto
shape, can also be found, as can the even more rare guitar or
pear shape. The back of the instrument can vary from being a
round, carved back similar to that of the violin, to a flat and
angled back similar to the viol family.
The double bass features many parts that are similar to members
of the violin family, including a wooden, carved bridge to
support the strings, f-holes, a tailpiece, a scroll near the pegbox,
and a sound post, which transmits the vibrations from the top of
the instrument to the hollow body and supports the pressure of
the string tension. Unlike the rest of the violin family, the
double bass still reflects influences from, and can be considered
partly derived, from the viol family of instruments, in particular
the violone, the lowest-pitched bass member of the viol family.
As with the other violin and viol family instruments that are
played with a bow (and unlike mainly plucked or picked
instruments like guitar), the double bass's bridge has a arc-like,
curved shape. This is done because with bowed instruments, the
player must be able to play individual strings. If the double bass Jazz bassist Ron Carter pictured
were to have a flat bridge, it would be impossible to bow the A playing with his Quartet at "Altes
and D strings. Pfandhaus" in Cologne
The double bass also differs from members of the violin family
in that the shoulders are typically sloped, the back is often angled (both to allow easier access to the
instrument, particularly in the upper range). Machine tuners are always fitted, in contrast to the rest
of the violin family, where traditional wooden friction pegs are still the primary means of tuning.
Lack of standardization in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different
from another.
Construction
The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but has some notable similarities to the violone
(literally "large viol"), the largest and lowest member of the viol family. Unlike the violone,
however, the fingerboard of the double bass is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer strings (the
violone, like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or four).
An important distinction between the double bass and other members of the violin family is the
construction of the pegbox. While the violin, viola, and cello all use friction pegs for fine tuning
adjustments, the double bass has metal machine heads. The key on the tuning machine turns a metal
worm, which drives a worm gear that winds a string. While this development makes fine tuners
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unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use them nevertheless. At

the base of the double bass is a metal rod with a spiked or rubberized
end called the endpin, which rests on the floor. This endpin is generally
thicker and more robust than that of a cello, because of the greater
mass of the instrument.
The materials most often used in double bass construction for fully
carved basses (the type used by professional orchestra bassists and
soloists) are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony
(fingerboard, tailpiece). Exceptions to this include less-expensive
basses that have laminated (plywood) tops, backs, and ribs, and some
newer lower- to mid-priced basses are made of willow. Fully laminated
basses are resistant to changes in heat and humidity and accidental
droppage or impacts, which can cause cracks in carved wood tops and
bodies (a crack is most serious on the top).
Laminated (plywood) basses, which are widely used in music schools,

youth orchestras, and in popular and folk music settings (including Example of a Busetto-
rockabilly, psychobilly, blues, etc.), are very resistant to humidity and shaped double bass:
heat, as well to the physical abuse they are apt to encounter in a school remake of a Matthias
environment (or, for blues and folk musicians, to the hazards of touring Klotz (1700) by Rumano
and performing in bars). Another option is the hybrid body bass, which Solano
has a laminated back and a carved or solid wood top. It is less costly
and somewhat less fragile (at least regarding its back) than a fully
carved bass. In 2015, the least expensive entry-level new, fully carved basses range from $2,750[10]
to $4,950[11] USD, although a higher-end new carved instrument may cost from $9,000 to $24,000
USD.[12] In 2015, bassists in top professional orchestras may have antique carved instruments
valued at hundreds of thousands of dollars. In 2015, new fully laminated basses are sold for about
$1,350[10] to $4,500[13] USD. New hybrid basses range from $3,000[11] to $6,400[13] USD.
The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction. All the parts of a double
bass are glued together, except the soundpost, bridge, and tailpiece, which are held in place by
string tension (although the soundpost usually remains in place when the instrument's strings are
loosened or removed). Basic bridges are carved from a single piece of wood, which is customized
to match the shape of the top of the instrument. Professional bassists are more likely to have
adjustable bridges, which have a metal screw mechanism. This enables the bassist to raise or lower
the height of the strings to accommodate changing humidity or temperature conditions. The metal
tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws. While tuning
mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed instruments, some basses
have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of
the tuning pegs on a cello or violin.
Famous double bass makers come from around the world and often represent varied national
characteristics. The most highly sought (and expensive) instruments come from Italy and include
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basses made by Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Gaspar da

Salo, the Testore family (Carlo Antonio, Carlo
Giuseppe, Gennaro, Giovanni, Paulo Antonio),
Celestino Puolotti, and Matteo Gofriller. French and
English basses from famous makers are also sought
out by players.
Travel instruments
As of 2016, several manufacturers make travel

instruments, which are double basses that have
features which reduce the size of the instrument so
that the instrument will meet airline travel
requirements. Travel basses are designed for touring
musicians. One type of travel bass has a much
smaller body than normal, while still retaining all of
the features needed for playing. While these
smaller-body instruments appear similar to electric
upright basses, the difference is that small-body
travel basses still have a fairly large hollow acoustic
sound chamber, while many EUBs are solid body, or Principal parts of the double bass
only have a small hollow chamber. A second type of
travel bass has a hinged or removable neck and a regular sized body. The hinged or removable neck
makes the instrument smaller when it is packed for transportation.
Strings
The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of

string technology, as it was the advent[9] of overwound gut strings,
which first rendered the instrument more generally practicable, as
(over‑) wound strings attain low notes within a smaller overall string
diameter than non-wound strings.[14] Professor Larry Hurst argues that
had "it not been for the appearance of the overwound gut string in the
1650s, the double bass would surely have become extinct."[7] because
thicknesses needed for regular gut strings made the lower-pitched
strings almost unplayable and hindered the development of fluid, rapid
playing in the lower register.
Prior to the mid-20th century, double bass strings were usually made of Detail of the bridge and
gut, but, since that time, steel has largely replaced it, because steel strings
strings hold their pitch better and yield more volume when played with
the bow.[15] Gut strings are also more vulnerable to changes of
humidity and temperature, and break more easily than steel strings.
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Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in

baroque ensembles, rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and
bluegrass bands. In some cases, the low E and A are wound in silver,
to give them added mass. Gut strings provide the dark, "thumpy"
sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a blues
upright bassist, said that, "Starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the
necks on basses for steel strings."[16] Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists
also prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping"
upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and Gut strings
clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings.
A less expensive alternative to gut strings is nylon strings; the higher
strings are pure nylon, and the lower strings are nylon wrapped in wire, to add more mass to the
string, slowing the vibration, and thus facilitating lower pitches. (For more information on slapping,
see the sections below on Modern playing styles, Double bass in bluegrass music, Double bass in
jazz, and Double bass in popular music).
The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique over the last
hundred years. Steel strings can be set up closer to the fingerboard and, additionally, strings can be
played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century
Franz Simandl method does not use the low E string in higher positions because older gut strings,
set up high over the fingerboard, could not produce clear tone in these higher positions. However,
with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A
strings, particularly when they use modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings. For
information on the strings used in regular and solo tuning and with different types of basses, see the
section below on tuning.
Bows
The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or "overhand" bow
is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral
string instrument family, while the "German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and
is held in a "hand shake" (or maybe "hacksaw") position.
These two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and
distributing force on the strings. Proponents of the French bow
argue that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the
player holds the bow. Advocates of the German bow claim that it
allows the player to apply more arm weight on the strings. The
differences between the two, however, are minute for a proficient
player, and modern players in major orchestras use both bows.
French and German bows
German bow compared
The German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the two designs. The design of
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the bow and the manner of holding it descend from the older
viol instrument family. With older viols, before frogs had screw
threads to tighten the bow, players held the bow with two
fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain tension of the
hair.[17] Proponents of the use of German bow claim that the
German bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a lot
of power.
Compared to the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog,
and the player holds it with the palm angled upwards, as with
German-style bow the upright members of the viol family. When held in the
traditionally correct manner, the thumb applies the necessary
power to generate the desired sound. The index finger meets the
bow at the point where the frog meets the stick. The index finger also applies an upward torque to
the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky") supports the frog from underneath,
while the ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between the hair and the shaft.
French bow
The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by
19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more
similar to the traditional bows of the smaller string family
instruments. It is held as if the hand is resting by the side of the
performer with the palm facing toward the bass. The thumb
rests on the shaft of the bow, next to the frog while the other
fingers drape on the other side of the bow. Various styles dictate
the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the style of piece; a
more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is used for
virtuoso or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and
sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices some power for easier French-style bow
control in strokes such as detaché, spiccato, and staccato.
Bow construction and materials
Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60 to 75 cm (24–30 in). In general, a bass bow is
shorter and heavier than a cello bow. Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an
excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are increasingly
being used. Inexpensive student bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, which makes the bow
much lighter than a wooden bow (even too light to produce a good tone, in some cases). Student
bows may also be made of the less valuable varieties of brazilwood. Snakewood and carbon fiber
are also used in bows of a variety of different qualities. The frog of the double bass bow is usually
made out of ebony, although snakewood and buffalo horn are used by some luthiers. The frog is
movable, as it can be tightened or loosened with a knob (like all violin family bows). The bow is
loosened at the end of a practice session or performance. The bow is tightened before playing, until
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it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player. The frog on

a quality bow is decorated with mother of pearl inlay.
Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow

near the frog. Along with the leather wrapping, there is also a
wire wrapping, made of gold or silver in quality bows. The hair
is usually horsehair. Part of the regular maintenance of a bow is
having the bow "rehaired" by a luthier with fresh horsehair and
having the leather and wire wrapping replaced. The double bass
bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a A bassist holding a French bow;
combination of the two (known as "salt and pepper"), as note how the thumb rests on the
opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of shaft of the bow next to the frog.
other string instruments. Some bassists argue that the slightly
rougher black hair "grabs" the heavier, lower strings better. As
well, some bassists and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white
variety. Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists. Some of the lowest-quality, lowest cost
student bows are made with synthetic hair. Synthetic hair does not have the tiny "barbs" that real
horsehair has, so it does not "grip" the string well or take rosin well.
Rosin
String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it "grips" the string
and makes it vibrate. Double bass rosin is generally softer and
stickier than violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker
strings better, but players use a wide variety of rosins that vary
from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the
weather, the humidity, and the preference of the player. The
amount used generally depends on the type of music being A variety of rosin types.
performed as well as the personal preferences of the player.
Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large orchestra (e.g.,
Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works. Some brands of rosin, such as Pop's double
bass rosin, are softer and more prone to melting in hot weather. Other brands, such as Carlsson or
Nyman Harts double bass rosin, are harder and less prone to melting.
Pitch
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at approximately 41 Hz
or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes B0 (≈31 Hz), when five strings are used. This is within about an
octave above the lowest frequency that the average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch.
The top of the instrument's fingerboard range is typically near D5, two octaves and a fifth above the
open pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration found at the head of this article.
Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be accomplished by pulling the string slightly to the
side.
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Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer

should play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), in which the
bassist lightly touches the string–without pressing it onto the
fingerboard in the usual fashion–in the location of a note and then
plucks or bows the note. Bowed harmonics are used in contemporary
music for their "glassy" sound. Both natural harmonics and artificial
harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other
harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node
point, extend the instrument's range considerably. Natural and artificial
harmonics are used a great deal in virtuoso concertos for the double
bass. The bass (or F) clef is
used for most orchestral
Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely demand double bass music.
the double bass exceed a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1
to G3, with occasional A3s appearing in the standard repertoire (an
exception to this rule is Orff's Carmina Burana, which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth).
The upper limit of this range is extended a great deal for 20th- and 21st-century orchestral parts
(e.g., Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kijé Suite (c.1933) bass solo, which calls for notes as high as D4 and
E♭4). The upper range a virtuoso solo player can achieve using natural and artificial harmonics is
hard to define, as it depends on the skill of the particular player. The high harmonic in the range
illustration found at the head of this article may be taken as representative rather than normative.
Five-string instruments have an additional string, typically tuned to a low B below the E string
(B0). On rare occasions a higher string is added instead, tuned to the C above the G string (C3).
Four-string instruments may feature the C extension extending the range of the E string downwards
to C1 (sometimes B0).
Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of the double bass's range
lies below the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher than it sounds to avoid having to use
excessive ledger lines below the staff. Thus, when double bass players and cellists are playing from
a combined bass-cello part, as used in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they will play in
octaves, with the basses one octave below the cellos. This transposition applies even when bass
players are reading the tenor and treble clef (which are used in solo playing and some orchestral
parts). The tenor clef is also used by composers for cello and low brass parts. The use of tenor or
treble clef avoids excessive ledger lines above the staff when notating the instrument's upper range.
Other notation traditions exist. Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding pitch, and the
"old" German method sounded an octave below where notation except in the treble clef, where the
music was written at pitch.
Tuning
Regular tuning
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The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other

members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths.
The standard tuning (low to high) is E–A–D–G, starting from E
below second low C (concert pitch). This is the same as the standard
tuning of a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-
pitched strings of standard guitar tuning. Prior to the 19th-century,
many double basses had only three strings; "Giovanni Bottesini
(1821–1889) favored the three-stringed instrument popular in Italy at
the time",[7] because "the three-stringed instrument [was viewed as]
being more sonorous."[18] Many cobla bands in Catalonia still have Double bass player Vivien
players using traditional three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.[19] Garry playing a show in
New York City in 1947.
Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the
range of a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in the double bass parts found
in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque music. In the Classical era, the double bass
typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally requiring descent to C below the E of
the four-string double bass. In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers such as Wagner,
Mahler, Busoni and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E.
There are several methods for making these notes available to the player. Players with standard
double basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below "E" an octave higher or if this sounds
awkward, the entire passage may be transposed up an octave. The player may tune the low E string
down to the lowest note required in the piece: D or C. Four string basses may be fitted with a
"low-C extension" (see below). Or the player may employ a five-string instrument, with the
additional lower string tuned to C, or (more commonly in modern times) B, three octaves and a
semitone below middle C. Several major European orchestras use basses with a fifth string.[20]
C extension
In Britain, the USA and Canada, most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses
with a C extension. This is an extra section of fingerboard mounted on the head of the bass. It
extends the fingerboard under the lowest string and gives an additional four semitones of
downward range. The lowest string is typically tuned down to C1, an octave below the lowest note
on the cello. More rarely this string may be tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the orchestral
repertoire call for such a B, such as Respighi's The Pines of Rome. In rare cases, some players have
a low B extension, which has B as its lowest note. There are several varieties of extensions:
In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard
extension except a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the extension notes, the player
reaches back over the area under the scroll to press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of
this "fingered" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on
the extension, and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of
the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations between low notes on
the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly alternates
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between G and D.
The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use

of wooden "fingers" or "gates" that can be
closed to press the string down and fret the
C♯, D, E♭, or E notes. This system is
particularly useful for basslines that have a
repeating pedal point such as a low D,
because once the note is locked in place with
the mechanical finger the lowest string sounds
a different note when played open (e.g., a low
D).
The most complicated mechanical aid for use A low-C extension with wooden mechanical "fingers"
with extensions is the mechanical lever that stop the string at C♯, D, E♭, or E. For orchestral
system nicknamed the machine. This lever
passages which only go down to a low E, the "finger"
system, which superficially resembles the
at the nut is usually closed.
keying mechanism of reed instruments such
as the bassoon, mounts levers beside the
regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the E-string side), which remotely activate metal "fingers" on
the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever systems also give the player the ability
to "lock" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system. One
criticism of these devices is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises.
Once a mechanical "finger" of the wooden "finger" extension or the metal "finger" machine
extension is locked down or depressed, it is not easy to make microtonal pitch adjustments or
glissando effects, as is possible with a hand-fingered extension.
While the most common type of extension is the C extension, in rare cases, owners of five-string
basses, in which the lowest string is normally a low B, may use either a two semitone extension,
providing a low A, or the very rare low G extension.
Other tuning variations
A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower
(C–G–D–A low to high). This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is used by some
classical players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. Advocates of tuning the bass in
fifths point out that all of the other orchestral strings are tuned in fifths (violin, viola and cello), so
this puts the bass in the same tuning approach. Fifth tuning provides a bassist with a wider range of
pitch than a standard E–A–D–G bass, as it ranges (without an extension) from C1 to A2. Some
players who use fifths tuning who play a five-string bass use an additional high string (thus, from
lowest to highest: C–G–D–A–E). Some fifth tuning bassists who only have a four string instrument
and who are mainly performing soloistic works use the G–D–A–E tuning, thus omitting the low C
string but gaining a high E. Some fifth tuning bassists who use a five-string use a smaller scale
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instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier.
In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F♯–B–E–A). This
higher tuning is called "solo tuning", whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning".
Solo tuning strings are generally thinner than regular strings. String tension differs so much
between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter
gauge. Strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning, and published solo music is
arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some popular solos and concerti, such as the
Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both solo and orchestral tuning arrangements. Solo tuning
strings can be tuned down a tone to play in orchestra pitch, but the strings often lack projection in
orchestral tuning and their pitch may be unstable.
Some contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura. Berio, for example, asks the
player to tune their strings E–G♯–D–G in Sequenza XIVb and Scelsi asks for both F–A–D–E and
F–A–F–E in Nuits.
A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European
countries is (A–D–G–C), which uses three of the strings from orchestral tuning (A–D–G) and then
adds a high "C" string. Some bassists with five-string basses use a high "C" string as the fifth
string, instead of a low "B" string. Adding the high "C" string facilitates the performance of solo
repertoire with a high tessitura (range). Another option is to utilize both a low C (or B) extension
and a high C string.
When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player may decide between adding a higher or
lower-tuned string. Six-stringed instruments are generally regarded as impractical. To
accommodate the additional string, the fingerboard is usually slightly wider, and the top slightly
thicker to handle the increased tension. Some five-stringed instruments are converted four-string
instruments. Because these do not have wider fingerboards, some players find them more difficult
to finger and bow. Converted four-string basses usually require either a new, thicker top, or lighter
strings to compensate for the increased tension.
The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (first published in 1844) states that, "A good
orchestra should have several four-string double-basses, some of them tuned in fifths and thirds."
The book then shows a tuning of (E–G–D–A) from bottom to top string. "Together with the other
double-basses tuned in fourths, a combination of open strings would be available, which would
greatly increase the sonority of the orchestra."
Playing and performance considerations

Body and hand position
Double bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument. The instrument height is set by adjusting
the endpin such that the player can reach the desired playing zones of the strings with bow or
plucking hand. Bassists who stand and bow sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger in
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either first or half position with eye level, although there is little
standardization in this regard. Players who sit generally use a stool
about the height of the player's pants inseam length.
Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in

the orchestra or opera pit. Now, it is unusual for a player to be
equally proficient in both positions, so some soloists sit (as with
Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry Barbé, and others) and
some orchestral bassists stand.
When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G

French double-bass player and
below middle C), the player shifts the hand from behind the neck
composer Renaud
and flattens it out, using the side of the thumb to press down the
Garcia-Fons pictured during a
string. This technique—also used on the cello—is called thumb
performance.
position. While playing in thumb position, few players use the
fourth (little) finger, as it is usually too weak to produce reliable
tone (this is also true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended techniques, especially
in contemporary music, may require its use.
Physical considerations
‹See Tfd›
Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are large and thick. Also, the
space between notes on the fingerboard is large, due to scale length and string spacing, so players
must hold their fingers apart for the notes in the lower positions and shift positions frequently to
play basslines. As with all non-fretted string instruments, performers must learn to place their
fingers precisely to produce the correct pitch. For bassists with shorter arms or smaller hands, the
large spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge, especially in the lowest range,
where the spaces between notes are largest. However, the increased use of playing techniques such
as thumb position and modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower
tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument.
Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in range. These parts
are usually given to the cello section, since the cello is a smaller instrument on which these
techniques are more easily performed.
Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available, and the large size of the bass
prevented children from playing the instrument until they grew to a height and hand size that let
them to play a 3⁄4-size model (the most common size). Starting in the 1990s, smaller 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄8,
and even 1⁄16-sized instruments became more widely available, so children could start younger.
Volume
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Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other

instruments, due to its low range. In a large orchestra, usually
between four and eight bassists play in the same bassline in unison
to produce enough volume. In the largest orchestras, bass sections
may have as many as ten or twelve players, but modern budget
constraints make bass sections this large unusual.
When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber

music, composers typically ensure the orchestration is light so it
does not obscure the bass. While amplification is rarely used in
classical music, in some cases where a bass soloist performs a
concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called acoustic
enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers
in a classical setting has led to debate within the classical
community, as "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound
The upright bass player of the of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be
rockabilly band Lucky Dados. altered."[21]
Rockabilly style can be very
demanding on the plucking In many genres, such as jazz
hand, due to rockabilly's use and blues, players use
of "slapping" on the amplification via a specialized
fingerboard. amplifier and loudspeakers. A
piezoelectric pickup connects
to the amplifier with a 1⁄4-inch
patch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less
amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In
the latter cases, high overall volume from other amplifiers and
instruments may cause unwanted acoustic feedback, a problem
exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume.
The feedback problem has led to technological fixes like
electronic feedback eliminator devices (essentially an
automated notch filter that identifies and reduces frequencies
where feedback occurs) and instruments like the electric upright Psychobilly bassist Jimbo
bass, which has playing characteristics like the double bass but Wallace onstage with Reverend
usually little or no soundbox, which makes feedback less likely. Horton Heat; note his large bass
Some bassists reduce the problem of feedback by lowering their stack consisting of a 1x15"
onstage volume or playing further away from their bass amp cabinet, a 4x10" cabinet, and an
speakers. amplifier "head".
In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings

against the fingerboard is an important part of the bass playing style. Since piezoelectric pickups
are not good at reproducing the sounds of strings being slapped against the fingerboard, bassists in
these genres often use both piezoelectric pickups (for the low bass tone) and a miniature condenser
mic (to pick up the percussive slapping sounds). These two signals are blended together using a
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simple mixer before the signal is sent to the bass

amp.
Transportation
The double bass's large size and relative fragility

make it cumbersome to handle and transport.
Most bassists use soft cases, referred to as gig Double bass is the standard bass instrument in
bags, to protect the instrument during transport. bluegrass. The Norwegian band Ila Auto, shown
These range from thin unpadded cases used by here, shows that the bass can be a head taller than
students to thickly padded versions for the bassist (Kristoffer Iversen).
professional players. Some bassists carry their
bow in a hard bow case. Players also may use a
small cart and end pin-attached wheels to move the bass.
Hard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass,
or Kevlar. The cost of good hard cases–several thousand US dollars–and the high airline fees for
shipping them tend to limit their use to touring professionals.
Accessories
Double bass players use various accessories to help them to perform and
rehearse. Three types of mutes are used in orchestral music: a wooden
mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge
and a wire device with brass weights that fits onto the bridge. The player
uses the mute when the Italian instruction con sordino ("with mute")
appears in the bass part, and removes it in response to the instruction
senza sordino ("without mute"). With the mute on, the tone of the bass is
quieter, darker, and more somber. Bowed bass parts with a mute can have
a nasal tone. Players use a third type of mute, a heavy rubber practice
mute, to practice quietly without disturbing others (e.g., in a hotel room). A wooden mute
attached to the bass
A quiver is an accessory for holding the bow. It is often made of leather bridge to make the
and it attaches to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps. It is used to tone darker
hold the bow while a player plays pizzicato parts.
A wolf tone eliminator is used to lessen unwanted sympathetic vibrations in the part of a string
between the bridge and the tailpiece which can cause tone problems for certain notes. It is a rubber
tube cut down the side that is used with a cylindrical metal sleeve which also has a slot on the side.
The metal cylinder has a screw and a nut that fastens the device to the string. Different placements
of the cylinder along the string influence or eliminate the frequency at which the wolf tone occurs.
It is essentially an attenuator that slightly shifts the natural frequency of the string (and/or
instrument body) cutting down on the reverberation.[22] The wolf tone occurs because the strings
below the bridge sometimes resonate at pitches close to notes on the playing part of the string.
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When the intended note makes the below-the-bridge string vibrate sympathetically, a dissonant
"wolf note" or "wolf tone" can occur. In some cases, the wolf tone is strong enough to cause an
audible "beating" sound. The wolf tone often occurs with the note G♯ on the bass.[23][24]
In orchestra, instruments tune to an A played by the oboist. Due to the multiple octaves between the
oboist's tuning A and the open A string on the bass (for example, in an orchestra that tunes to
440 Hz, the oboist plays an A at 440 Hz and the open A of the bass is 55 Hz) it can be difficult to
tune the bass by ear during the short period that the oboist plays the tuning note. Violinists, on the
other hand, tune their A string to the same frequency as the oboist's tuning note. To ensure the bass
is in tune, some bassists use an electronic tuner that indicates pitch on a small display. Bassists who
play in styles that use a bass amp, such as blues, rockabilly, or jazz, may use a stompbox-format
electronic tuner, which mutes the bass pickup during tuning.
A double bass stand is used to hold the instrument in place and raise it a few inches off the ground.
A wide variety of stands are available, and there is no one common design.
Classical repertoire
Solo works for double bass
1700s
The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and
many of the most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass. The double
bass, then often referred to as the Violone used different tunings from region to region. The
"Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F♯2–A2) was popular, and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth
string was added (F1–A1–D2–F♯2–A2).[25] The popularity of the instrument is documented in
Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschule, where he writes "One can bring forth difficult
passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful performances of
concertos, trios, solos, etc."
The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn c.1763, and is presumed
lost in a fire at the Eisenstadt library. The earliest known existing concertos are by Karl Ditters von
Dittersdorf, who composed two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola
and double bass. Other composers that have written concertos from this period include Johann
Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann,
Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos). While
many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally
unknown by contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, Per Questa Bella
Mano, K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains impressive writing for solo
double bass of that period. It remains popular among both singers and double bassists today.
The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a
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louder sound. The leading double bassists from the mid-to-late 18th
century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes
Mathias Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle
(1792–1862), who composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered
tuning the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double
bass and its role in solo works.
Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an

acquaintance of Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. His playing was
known all the way from his homeland Italy to the Tsardom of Russia and
he found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic
Society of London. Beethoven's friendship with Dragonetti may have
inspired him to write difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his The Italian bass
symphonies, such as the impressive passages in the third movement of the virtuoso Domenico
Fifth Symphony, the second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and Dragonetti helped to
last movement of the Ninth Symphony. These parts do not double the encourage composers
cello part. to give more difficult
parts for his
Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works instrument.
for bass and piano. During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of
1824, he composed his Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti
and the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned
G–D–A from top to bottom. The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and
principal bassists in orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden
top of the bass, which was thought to create a more resonant sound. As well, the low E-strings used
during the 19th century were thick cords made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play.
1800s
In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni Bottesini was considered
the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time, a reference to the violin virtuoso and composer.
Bottesini's bass concertos were written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which
exploit the double bass in a way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs and great
leaps to the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of natural and artificial
harmonics. Many 19th century and early 20th century bassists considered these compositions
unplayable, but in the 2000s, they are frequently performed. During the same time, a prominent
school of bass players in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin
Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Mišek. Simandl and Hrabe were also
pedagogues whose method books and studies remain in use in the 2000s.
1900s–present
The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge Koussevitzky, best known
as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who popularized the double bass in modern times
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as a solo instrument. Because of improvements to the double bass with

steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is now played at a more advanced
level than ever before and more and more composers have written works
for the double bass. In the mid-century and in the following decades,
many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos
Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik
Larsson's Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans
Werner Henze's Concerto (1966) and Frank Proto's Concerto No. 1
(1968).
The Solo For Contrabass is one of the parts of John Cage's Concert For
Piano And Orchestra and can be played as a solo, or with any of the other
parts both orchestral and/or piano. Similarly, his solo contrabass parts for
The virtuoso
the orchestral work Atlas Eclipticalis can also be performed as solos.
nineteenth-century
Cage's indeterminate works such as Variations I, Variations II, Fontana
bassist and composer
Mix, Cartridge Music et al. can be arranged for a solo contrabassist. His
work 26.1.1499 For A String Player is often realized by a solo contrabass Giovanni Bottesini
player, although it can also be played by a violinist, violist, or cellist. with his 1716 Carlo
Antonio Testore bass.
From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading
proponent of the double bass as a solo instrument and was active in commissioning or having
hundreds of new works and concerti written especially for him. Karr was given Koussevitzky's
famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and played it in concerts around the world for 40
years before, in turn, giving the instrument to the International Society of Bassists for talented
soloists to use in concert. Another important performer in this period, Bertram Turetzky,
commissioned and premiered more than 300 double bass works.
In the 1970s, 1980 and 1990s, new concerti included Nino Rota's Divertimento for Double Bass
and Orchestra (1973), Alan Ridout's concerto for double bass and strings (1974), Jean Françaix's
Concerto (1975), Frank Proto's Concerto No. 2, Einojuhani Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980),
Gian Carlo Menotti's Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), Henry Brant's Ghost
Nets (1988) and Frank Proto's "Carmen Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra" (1991) and "Four
Scenes after Picasso" Concerto No. 3 (1997). Peter Maxwell Davies' lyrical Strathclyde Concerto
No. 7, for double bass and orchestra, dates from 1992.
In the first decade of the 21st century, new concerti include Frank Proto's "Nine Variants on
Paganini" (2002), Kalevi Aho's Concerto (2005), John Harbison's Concerto for Bass Viol (2006),
André Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double bass, and orchestra (2007) and John Woolrich's
To the Silver Bow, for double bass, viola and strings (2014).
Reinhold Glière wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for double bass and piano, Op. 9, No. 1 and
No. 2 and a Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op. 32 No. 1 and No. 2. Paul
Hindemith wrote a rhythmically challenging Double Bass Sonata in 1949. Frank Proto wrote his
Sonata "1963" for Double Bass and Piano. In the Soviet Union, Mieczysław Weinberg wrote his
Sonata No. 1 for double bass solo in 1971. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces called
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Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a

piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as double bass,
contrabassoon, or tuba. Vincent Persichetti wrote solo
works—which he called "Parables"—for many instruments.
He wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in 1974.
Sofia Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano
in 1975.
In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid wrote a set of

variations on The Elephant from Saint-Saëns' Le Carnaval
des Animaux for scordatura Double Bass and string
orchestra. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for
Contrabass and Piano Op. 24. Fernando Grillo wrote the
"Suite No. 1" for double bass (1983/2005). Jacob Druckman
wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled Valentine. US
double bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born
1933) has performed and recorded more than 300 pieces
Serge Koussevitzky popularized the
written by and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque
double bass in modern times as a
music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational
solo instrument
music and world music
US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register that he scored
for timpani and double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans
from the 1930s to the first decade of the 21st century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled
Naked Angel Face per contrabbasso. Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece
called Lem for contrabbasso in the same year. In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born
1955) wrote a solo piece called In et Out for double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained Lebanese
composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacrée ("He who sleeps in the sacred
shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French
double bass player and composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings
of his pieces like Oriental Bass (1997).
Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms
No.11 for double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass.
The German composer Gerhard Stäbler wrote Co-wie Kobalt (1989–90), "...a music for double bass
solo and grand orchestra." Charles Wuorinen added several important works to the repertoire,
Spinoff trio for double bass, violin and conga drums, and Trio for Bass Instruments double bass,
tuba and bass trombone, and in 2007 Synaxis for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with timpani
and strings. The suite "Seven Screen Shots" for double bass and piano (2005) by Ukrainian
composer Alexander Shchetynsky has a solo bass part that includes many unconventional methods
of playing. The German composer Claus Kühnl wrote Offene Weite / Open Expanse (1998) and
Nachtschwarzes Meer, ringsum… (2005) for double bass and piano.
Chamber music with double bass
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Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in
chamber music has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet
or piano trio. Despite this, there is a substantial number of chamber works
(http://www.paulnemeth.com/basschamber.htm) that incorporate the double bass in both small and
large ensembles.
There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin,
viola, cello, and double bass. The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major,
known as "The Trout Quintet" for its set of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's Die
Forelle. Other works for this instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those
by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand
Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote
chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank
Proto, and John Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for piano, string quartet, and double bass
have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, Richard Wernick, and Charles Ives.
In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass. Antonín
Dvořák's String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major,
K.525 ("Eine kleine Nachtmusik") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works
by Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith. Another
example is Alistair Hinton's String Quintet (1969–77), which also includes a major part for solo
soprano; at almost 170 minutes in duration, it is almost certainly the largest such work in the
repertoire.
Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioachino Rossini,
for two violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in
1804. These remain his most famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind
quartet. Franz Anton Hoffmeister wrote four String Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola,
and Cello in D Major. Frank Proto has written a Trio for Violin, Viola and Double Bass (1974), 2
Duos for Violin and Double Bass (1967 and 2005), and The Games of October for Oboe/English
Horn and Double Bass (1991).
Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E♭ major, Op. 20, one
of his most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin,
viola, cello, and bass. When the clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz
Schubert for similar forces, he added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul
Hindemith used the same instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet. In the realm of even larger
works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his "Gran Partita"
Serenade, K.361 and Martinů used the double bass in his nonet for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello
and double bass.
Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Serge
Prokofiev's Quintet in G minor, Op. 39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Erwin
Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo, viola, and double bass; Frank Proto's Afro-American
Fragments for bass clarinet, cello, double bass and narrator and Sextet for clarinet and strings; Fred
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Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany for double
bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and
Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello, and double bass. There are also new
music ensembles that utilize the double bass such as Time for Three and PROJECT Trio.
Orchestral passages and solos
In the baroque and classical periods, composers

typically had the double bass double the cello part in
orchestral passages. A notable exception is Haydn,
who composed solo passages for the double bass in The opening of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5,
his Symphonies No. 6 Le Matin, No. 7 Le midi, third movement is often used as an orchestral
No. 8 Le Soir, No. 31 Horn Signal, and No. 45
excerpt during bass auditions.
Farewell—but who otherwise grouped bass and
cello parts together. Beethoven paved the way for
separate double bass parts, which became more common in the romantic era. The scherzo and trio
from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are famous orchestral excerpts, as is the recitative at the
beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. In many nineteenth century
symphonies and concertos, the typical impact of separate bass and cello parts was that bass parts
became simpler and cello parts got the melodic lines and rapid passage work.
A double bass section of a modern orchestra typically uses eight double bassists in, usually in
unison. Smaller orchestras may have four double basses, and in exceptional cases, bass sections
may have as many as ten members. If some double bassists have low C extensions, and some have
regular (low E) basses, those with the low C extensions may play some passages an octave below
the regular double basses. Also, some composers write divided (divisi) parts for the basses, where
upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and
"inside" players. Composers writing divisi parts for bass often write perfect intervals, such as
octaves and fifths, but in some cases use thirds and sixths.
The basses play the theme from the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
Where a composition calls for a solo bass part, the principal bass invariably plays that part. The
section leader (or principal) also determines the bowings, often based on bowings set out by the
concertmaster. In some cases, the principal bass may use a slightly different bowing than the
concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing bass. The principal bass also leads
entrances for the bass section, typically by lifting the bow or plucking hand before the entrance or
indicating the entrance with the head, to ensure the section starts together. Major professional
orchestras typically have an assistant principal bass player, who plays solos and leads the bass
section if the principal is absent.
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While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples. Johannes Brahms,
whose father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double
bass in his symphonies. Richard Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic
poems and operas stretch the instrument to its limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Saëns'
The Carnival of the Animals is a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary
Karr made his televised debut playing "The Swan" (originally written for the cello) with the New
York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav Mahler's first
symphony features a solo for the double bass that quotes the children's song Frere Jacques,
transposed into a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kijé Suite features a difficult and very
high double bass solo in the "Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide
to the Orchestra contains a prominent passage for the double bass section.
Double bass ensembles
Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several
composers have written or arranged for such ensembles. Compositions for four double basses exist
by Gunther Schuller, Jacob Druckman, James Tenney, Claus Kühnl, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm
(http://www.janalm.se/), Bernhard Alt, Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph Lauber, Erich
Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and Theodore Albin Findeisen. David A. Jaffe's "Who's
on First?,"[26] commissioned by the Russian National Orchestra is scored for five double basses.
Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia piccola[27] for eight double basses. Larger ensemble works
include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, "Dies Irae" (1973), for eight double basses,
piano, and wooden cube, Jose Serebrier's George and Muriel (1986), for solo bass, double bass
ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979), for soprano, percussion,
and 30 double basses.
Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members),[28] Bass Instinct (6

members),[29] Bassiona Amorosa (6 members),[30] the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members),[31]
Ludus Gravis (http://www.ludusgravis.com/index.html) founded by Daniele Roccato and Stefano
Scodanibbio, The Bass Gang (4 members),[32] the London Double Bass Ensemble (6 members)
founded by members of the Philharmonia Orchestra of London who produced the LP[33] Music
Interludes by London Double Bass Ensemble (http://www.discogs.com/London-Double-
Bass-Ensemble-Jim-Lawless-Steve-Gray-Music-Interludes/release/2008247) on Bruton Music
records, Brno Double Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded by the double bass professor at
Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts and principal double bass player at Brno
Philharmonic Orchestra – Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball State University (12
members), Shenandoah University, and the Hartt School of Music. The Amarillo Bass Base of
Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists,[34][35] and The London Double Bass Sound, who
have released a CD on Cala Records, have 10 players.[36]
In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the
Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Lower Wacker Consort.[37] There is an increasing number of
published compositions and arrangements for double bass ensembles, and the International Society
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of Bassists regularly features double bass ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large
"mass bass" ensembles) at its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition
Competition, which includes a division for double bass ensemble works.
Use in jazz
Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches,
ragtime, and Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or sousaphone (or occasionally
bass saxophone) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars and brothels, the upright
bass gradually replaced these wind instruments around the 1920s.[38] Many early bassists doubled
on both the brass bass (tuba) and string bass, as the instruments were then often referred to.
Bassists played improvised "walking" bass lines—scale- and arpeggio-based lines that outlined the
chord progression.
Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many
players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings to produce a
rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band
better than simply plucking the strings, and made the bass more easily heard on early sound
recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies.[39] For more
about the slap style, see Modern playing styles, below.
Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or

solo for a given chord progression. They are also expected to know the
rhythmic patterns that are appropriate for different styles (e.g.,
Afro-Cuban). Bassists playing in a big band must also be able to read
written-out bass lines, as some arrangements have written bass parts.
Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz.

Examples include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who
played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the
instrument's use in bebop. Paul Chambers (who worked with Miles
Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved renown for being
one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with the bow. Terry
Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos, achieving
Jazz bassist Charles horn-like technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while
Mingus was also an Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman,
influential bandleader and defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz.
composer whose musical
interests spanned from A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and
bebop to free jazz. Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz.
Stewart, who was popular with the beboppers, played his solos with a
bow combined with octave humming. Notably, Charles Mingus was a
highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his technical virtuosity and powerful
sound.[40] Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of musicians by liberating the bass from
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contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies.[41]

Since the commercial availability of bass amplifiers in the 1950s, jazz bassists have used
amplification to augment the natural volume of the instrument.
While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951, beginning in the
1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco
Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly substitute the bass guitar for the upright bass.
Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the upright bass is still
the dominant bass instrument in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is distinct
from that of the fretted bass guitar. The upright bass produces a different sound than the bass guitar,
because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, instead having a continuous tonal range on the
uninterrupted fingerboard. As well, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that
their sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings, instead of the
upright bass's acoustic reverberation.
Demonstrative examples of the sound of a solo double bass and its technical use in jazz can be
heard on the solo recordings Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland or Emergence (1986) by
Miroslav Vitous. Holland also recorded an album with the representative title Music from Two
Basses (1971) on which he plays with Barre Phillips while he sometimes switches to cello.
Use in bluegrass and country

The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always
plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part
of the rhythm section, and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4 2 3
4, 4 or 4
time. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have long been
popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3⁄4 size bass, but the full-size
and 5⁄8 size basses are also used.
Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. The cellist Natalie Haas
points out that in the US, you can find "...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American
string bands with cello." However, "The cello dropped out of sight in folk music, and became
associated with the orchestra."[42] The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first
decade of the 21st century. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it is
easier to transport than the large and somewhat fragile upright bass. However, the bass guitar has a
different musical sound. Many musicians feel the slower attack and percussive, woody tone of the
upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or "natural" sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut
strings are used.
Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1
and 3 in 4 2 3
4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 4 time, and on the downbeat in 4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass
lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a
song. There are two main exceptions to this rule. Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic walkup or
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walkdown, in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two
bars, typically when there is a chord change. In addition, if a
bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line
with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic scale-influenced
bassline.
An early bluegrass bassist to

rise to prominence was
Howard Watts (also known
as Cedric Rainwater), who
played with Bill Monroe's
Blue Grass Boys beginning
in 1944.[43] The classical
bassist Edgar Meyer has Country music bassist "Too Slim"
frequently branched out into (Fred LaBour of Riders in the
Upright bass used by a bluegrass
newgrass, old-time, jazz, Sky) performing in Ponca City,
group; the cable for a
and other genres. "My
piezoelectric pickup can be seen Oklahoma in 2008.
all-time favorite is Todd
extending from the bridge.
Phillips," proclaimed Union
Station bassist Barry Bales in April 2005. "He brought a
completely different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass."
An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music. While the
upright bass is still occasionally used in country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its
bigger cousin in country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and
2000s, such as new country.
Slap-style bass
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass players slap the
string by pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the
high-pitched percussive "clack" or "slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like
the clacks of a tap dancer. Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even
slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, "Don't slap on every gig," or in songs where it is not
appropriate. As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on
records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap bass on recordings. While bassists such
as Jack Cook slap bass on the occasional faster "Clinch Mountain Boys song," bassists such as
Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales [rarely] slap bass.[44]
Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD
acknowledges that slap bass "...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have
recorded." He notes that "Even in traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most
of what I've done has been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)."
Schatz states that he would be "... more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation than on a
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recording—for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be

obliterating someone's solo."[45] Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl
Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique. German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet
slaps, as demonstrated in this video.[46]
Use in popular music

In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard bass instrument in the emerging style of rock
and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets being but one example. In the 1940s, a
new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier
styles of blues and swing. Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured an upright bass in
his group, the Tympany Five.[47]
The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of
rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with strong elements also
derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players using their instruments in
these contexts faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments
(and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright bass is difficult
to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback howls. As well, the
upright bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created transportation problems for
touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer;
such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to the Comets), which
did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late 1952; prior to this the slap
bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings such as Haley's versions of "Rock the
Joint" and "Rocket 88".[48]
In 1951, Leo Fender released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass
guitar.[49] The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in magnetic pickups, easily portable
(less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune than an upright bass,
thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and
performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly amplified
stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the upright bass
receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.
Photos of bassist Miroslav Vitous:
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The upright bass began making a comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a
renewed interest in earlier forms of folk and country music, as part of the roots rock and Americana
trends. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal
and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic
instrument. Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an
electric bass, such as the Barenaked Ladies. A trend for "unplugged" performances on MTV, in
which rock bands performed with solely acoustic instruments, further helped to enhance the
public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.
Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass,

although he has increasingly played bass guitar throughout the band's
career. Chris Wyse of alternative rock group Owl uses a combination
of electric and double bass. Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop
group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon Birchall, of the
Australian folk-rock group The John Butler Trio,[50] makes extensive
use of upright basses, performing extended live solos in songs such as
Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band
Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured quite
prominently on the songs "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park". Norwegian
ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass exclusively
both live and on their recordings.[51] French contemporary pop duet Jim Creeggan of
"What a day" uses double bass extended pizzicato technique with Barenaked Ladies,
vocals and type writer[52] pictured at a 2009 show.
Hank Williams III's bass players (Jason Brown, Joe Buck and Zach
Shedd, most notably) have used upright basses for recording as well as during the country and
Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to electric bass for the Assjack set.
The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded upon the rockabilly
tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge have developed the ability
to play rapid slap bass that in effect turns the bass into a percussion instrument.
Modern playing styles

In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively
played with the fingers, pizzicato style. The pizzicato style varies between different players and
genres. Some players perform with the sides of one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking
basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone.
Some players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo passages or to pluck
lightly for quiet tunes. The use of amplification allows the player to have more control over the
tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls that allow the bassist to
accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies
(often the high frequencies, so that there is less finger noise).
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An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency

responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body, which means
that the very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher
pitches. With an amplifier and equalization devices, a bass
player can boost the low frequencies, which changes the
frequency response. In addition, the use of an amplifier can
increase the sustain of the instrument, which is particularly
useful for accompaniment during ballads and for melodic solos
with held notes.
In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly

music, it is sometimes played in the slap style. This is a
vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped"
against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line,
producing a snare drum-like percussive sound. The main notes
are either played normally or by pulling the string away from
the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the A mid-sized bass amp used to
fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in amplify a double bass at a small
addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, jazz gig.
whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and
virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps
in between notes of the bass line.
"Slap style" may have influenced electric bass guitar players who, from the mid-sixties (particularly
Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone), developed a technique called slap and pop that used
the thumb of the plucking hand to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still letting the note
ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking hand to pull the string back so it hits the
fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above.
Double bassists
Historical
Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor

Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue
Edouard Nanny (1872–1943) Virtuoso, composer
Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Modern
Gary Karr (1941– ) Virtuoso

Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher
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Contemporary (1900s)
Classical
Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass

players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy
as for their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G.
Zimmerman (1910–1987), known for his teaching at the
Eastman School of Music and, for 44 summers at the
Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan and French
bassist François Rabbath (b. 1931) who developed a new bass
method that divided the entire fingerboard into six positions.
Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include American
Double bass soloist Gary Karr
pedagogue and performer Gary Karr (b. 1941), Finnish
composer Teppo Hauta-Aho (b. 1941), Italian composer
Fernando Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of
contemporary classical double bass players.
Jazz
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942)
whose short tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis)
introduced new melodic and harmonic solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown
(1926–2002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum and
Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937),
who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history,
including LPs by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and
Paul Chambers (1935–1969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark modal
jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known for his
virtuosic improvisations.
The experimental post 1960s era, and free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced several influential
bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer and bandleader, produced music
that fused hard bop with black gospel music, free jazz, and classical music. Free jazz and post-bop
bassist Charlie Haden (1937–2014) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette
Coleman, and for his role in the 1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group.
Eddie Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, and
are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations of pizzicato fluency and melodic phrasing.
Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his dexterity on both the upright bass and
the electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal-sounding tone.
In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new "young lions" was Christian
McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to
fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's
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Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is Esperanza

Spalding (born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, had already won a
Grammy for Best New Artist. For a longer list, see the List of jazz
bassists, which includes both double bass and electric bass players.
Other popular genres
In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well

known in bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another
Christian McBride (born
prominent bluegrass player. Well-known rockabilly bassists
1972), one of the new "young
include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets)
lions" in the jazz scene, has
and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the Stray
won four Grammy Awards.
Cats).
Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the

1990s and first decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from
the Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US
band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia
Day (HorrorPops), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon
(1915–1992) was one of the most notable figures in the history of
rhythm and blues. In addition to being an upright bassist, he wrote
dozens of R&B hits and worked as a producer. He also plays bass on
numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll hits. Many other rockabilly
bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use this instrument
in their work. See also the List of double bassists in popular music.
Scott Owen, double bass
Pedagogy and training player for Australian rock
band The Living End.
The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre
and country. Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries,
including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students to develop the
endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing hand. Classical training
methods vary by country: many of the major European countries are associated with specific
methods (e.g., the Edouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany). In
classical training, the majority of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of
bowing tone; little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone.
In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a
great deal of time and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for
music of different styles of tempi. For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to
perform a wide range of pizzicato tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a full,
deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking basslines or solos, and
performing a variety of percussive ghost notes by raking muted or partially muted strings.
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Formal training
Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and
comprehensive systems of instruction and training. In the classical
milieu, children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and
performing in children's or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to
becoming professional classical bassists can continue their studies in a
variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories,
and universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass
performance.
Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in

France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral
experience for double bass players. Universities offer a range of double
bass programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees,
and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of
other training programs such as classical summer camps and
orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which give
students the opportunity to play a wide range of music.
Jazz singer/bassist
Esperanza Spalding
Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M.)
are four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur performing on 10
orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, December 2009 at the
music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which Nobel Peace Prize
give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, bass Concert of 2009
performance students perform several recitals of solo double bass
music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites.
Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in double bass performance consist of private lessons, ensemble
experience, coaching in playing orchestral double bass parts, and graduate courses in music history
and music theory, along with one or two solo recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an
M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required credential for people who wish to become a professor of
double bass at a university or conservatory.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D.) degrees in double
bass performance provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical
level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about
30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective.
Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination-
recital, are required. Students perform a number of recitals (around six), including a lecture-recital
with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, advanced coursework, and a minimum B average are
other typical requirements of a D.M.A. program.
Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the instrument informally,
or from getting classical training early on, as in the case of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the
34 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce

diplomas and degrees in jazz performance. Students in jazz
diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass
lessons, get experience in small jazz combos with coaching from
an experienced player, and play in jazz big bands. As with
classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom
courses in music history and music theory. In a jazz program, these
courses focus on the different eras of jazz history. such as Swing,
Bebop, and fusion. The theory courses focus on the musical skills
used in jazz improvisation and in jazz comping (accompanying)
Manhattan School of Music and the composition of jazz tunes. There are also jazz summer
professor Timothy Cobb camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the
teaching a bass lesson in the chance to learn new skills and styles.
late 2000s. His bass has a low
C extension with a metal Informal training
"machine" with buttons for
playing the pitches on the In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the
extension. pedagogical systems and training sequences are not as formalized
and institutionalized. There are not degrees in blues bass
performance, or conservatories offering multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there
are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to
play rockabilly-style slap bass). As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a
variety of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking private
lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs. In some cases, blues or rockabilly
bassists may have obtained some initial training through the classical or jazz pedagogy systems
(e.g., youth orchestra or high school big band). In genres such as tango, which use a lot of bowed
passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines, the bassists tend to come from classical or jazz training
routes.
Careers
Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists earn their
living from a mixture of performance and teaching jobs. The first step to getting most performance
jobs is by playing at an audition. In some styles of music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands,
bassists may be asked to sight read printed music or perform standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard
such as Now's the Time) with an ensemble. Similarly, in a rock or blues band, auditionees may be
asked to play various rock or blues standards. An upright bassist auditioning for a blues band might
be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-style "slapping" bassline (in which
the strings are percussively struck against the fingerboard) and a 1950s ballad with long held notes.
A person auditioning for a role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock music may be expected to
demonstrate the ability to perform harmony vocals as a backup singer.
Classical music
35 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras

and for admission into university or Conservatory programs or
degrees. At a classical bass audition, the performer typically plays
a movement from a J.S. Bach suite for solo cello or a movement
from a bass concerto and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral
literature. The excerpts are typically the most technically
challenging parts of bass parts and bass solos from the orchestral
literature. Some of the most commonly requested orchestral
excerpts at bass auditions are from Beethoven's Symphonies
Nos. 5, 7 and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's
Symphonies Nos. 35, 39 and 40; Brahms' Symphonies Nos. 1 and
2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5;
Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony
No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J. S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B;
Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, Mendelssohn's Symphony
No. 4; and the bass solos from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's A German double bass section
Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the in 1952. The player to the left
is using a German bow.
Orchestra and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.[53]
Orchestral bass auditions are typically held in front of a panel that includes the conductor, the
concertmaster, the principal bass player and possibly other principal players such as the principal
cellist. The most promising candidates are invited to return for a second or third round of auditions,
which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be asked
to sight read orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a test
week, in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the
conductor and principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual performance
setting.
In 2013, an article in Mother Jones about the role of women in music stated that double bass
sections are mostly male. The article stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have
significant female membership—women outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin
section—and several renowned ensembles, including the National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit
Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and
percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male."[54] A 2014 BBC article
stated that the "...introduction of ‘blind’ auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs
behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the
gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."[55]
Performance jobs
Performance jobs include playing as a freelancer in small groups, large ensembles, or performing
solo music, either live onstage or as a session player for radio or TV broadcasts or for recordings;
and working as the employee of an orchestra, big band, or recording studio (as the studio's house
bassist). Many bass players find extra work by substituting ("subbing") for bassists who are double-
36 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
booked or ill. It is hard for bass players to find full-time, full-year work at a single job. About the
closest that a bass player can come to this is in the case of classical bass players who win an
audition at a professional orchestra or the tiny number of top session pros that are hired by
recording studios. Even full-time orchestra jobs do not usually last for the entire year. When the
orchestra stops playing (which is often in the summer), orchestral bassists have to find other work,
either as a teacher or coach, or in another group.
Teaching work for double bassist includes giving private lessons in the home or at colleges and
universities; coaching bass players who are preparing for recordings or auditions; doing group
coaching at music camps or for youth ensembles; and working as a high school music teacher.
In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres, most bassists cannot earn a living from playing in a
single group (with the exception of the small number of bassists in top touring bands or groups with
recording contracts), so they work in different bands and supplement their income with session
playing and teaching. Due to the limited number of full-time orchestral jobs, many classical bassists
are similarly not able to find full-time work with a single orchestra. Some bassists increase their
employ-ability by learning several different styles, such as classical and jazz or rockabilly and
bluegrass.
In some cases, bassists supplement their performing and teaching income with other related music
jobs, such as working as a bass repairer (luthier); as a contractor who hires musicians for orchestras
or big bands, composing music (e.g., Dave Holland), songwriting, conducting (e.g., David Currie),
acting as a bandleader (e.g., Charles Mingus), or coordinating jam sessions (e.g., John Geggie).
Some regions may not have enough work in music to provide a living, even if a bassist plays
several styles and does recordings and teaching. As such, in some regions, bassists may have to
supplement musical work with income from another field.
See also
Bach: Unaccompanied Cello Suites Performed on Double Bass
Double bass concerto
Electric upright bass
List of historical classical double bass players
Octobass
Triple contrabass viol
Piccolo bass
Tololoche
References
1. The Orchestra: A User's Manual (http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual), Andrew Hugill with the
Philharmonia Orchestra
37 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
2. Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive (http://www.earlybass.com/chamber.htm), Alfred

Planyavsky
3. Double Bass Sizing FAQ (http://www.gollihurmusic.com/faq/2-
SIZES_DOUBLE_BASS_SIZING_FAQ.html), Bob Gollihur
4. Amro Music http://www.amromusic.com/bass-sizes. Missing or empty |title= (help)
5. The Double Bass (http://www.contrabass.com/pages/stringbass.html), Jacob Head
6. "A New History of the Double Bass". Paulbrun.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
7. "A Brief History of the Double Bass". Oocities.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
8. Planyavsky 1998
9. "A Brief History of the Double Bass, Lawrence Hurst, Professor of Double Bass, School of Music,
Indiana University". Web.archive.org. 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009.
Retrieved 21 July 2012.
10. Upright Basses and EUBs at Gollihur Music (http://www.gollihurmusic.com/category/6-BASSES.html)
11. Upright Basses at Upton Bass (http://www.uptonbass.com/instruments/ub-standard-double-basses/)
12. Upright Basses at Lemur Music (http://www.lemurmusic.com/BASSES/departments/20/)
13. Upright Basses at New Standard Basses (http://www.newstandardbass.com/cleveland.htm)
14. Strings, standing waves and harmonics (http://www.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/strings.html#music), Prof.
Joe Wolfe, University of New South Wales
15. Article on bass strings by the Double Bass Workshop (http://doublebassworkshop.com/double-
bass-strings-articles-44) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120325185214/http:
//doublebassworkshop.com/double-bass-strings-articles-44) 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
16. "Jeff Sarli". Jeff Sarli. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
17. "Viola da Gamba". musicolog.com. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
18. "Double bass." Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911 Edition [en.wikisource.org/wiki
/1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Double_bass]
19. Three-string double bass in the cobla band (http://www.coblabaixllobregat.com/Contrabaix.htm)
Website of Cobla Baix Llobregat
20. "Bill Bentgen – 5 String Basses". Billbentgen.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
21. "Sound Systems- Why?!". Harada-sound.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
22. Freiberg, Sarah. "How to Tame Annoying Howling Wolf Tones / CARE & MAINTENANCE /
Instruments / All Things Strings". Allthingsstrings.com. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
23. Dünnwald, H. (1979). "Versuche zur Entstehung des Wolfs bei Violininstrumenten". Acustica. 41 (4):
238–45.
24. Firth, Ian M. (1973). "The wolf in the cello". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 53 (2):
457. doi:10.1121/1.1913343.
25. David Chapman. "Historical and Practical Considerations for the Tuning of Double Bass Instruments in
Fourths" – p.228–229, The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 56, (June 2003), pp. 224–233.
26. "Who's on First? for five double-basses". Terra Non Firma Press. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
27. "Bertold Hummel work commentaries". Bertoldhummel.de. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
28. Official website of L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (http://www.musicaguild.com/odbc/index.php?page=9&
langue=anglais) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120311231052/http://www.musicaguild.com
/odbc/index.php?page=9&langue=anglais) 11 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
29. "Bass Instinct – Live In Vienna by none on DVD". LOVEFiLM.com. 16 April 2007. Retrieved 21 July
2012.
30. "bassiona-amorosa.de". bassiona-amorosa.de. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
31. "Chicago Bass Ensemble – Home". Chicagobassensemble.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
32. Pighi Andrea. "The Bass Gang". Thebassgang.org. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
33. Music Interludes
38 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
34. [1] (http://home.mchsi.com/~donovan.stokes/volumeone.html)

35. "Bassgirls". Bassgirls. 21 August 1974. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
36. "The London Double Bass Sound: Gary Karr, Ernest Bloch, Paul Desmond, Edward "Duke" Ellington,
Jerome Kern, John & Paul McCartney Lennon, Niccolo Paganini, Cole Por". Amazon.com. Retrieved
21 July 2012.
37. "Wacker Consort and Northwestern Music Faculty to Perform". Northwestern University. 27 March
2007. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
38. Siemers, Bryan. "Double bass". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
39. "Historic Jazz Fotos". Peterunbehauen.de. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
40. Hentoff, Nat (April 1999). "Charles Mingus -A musician beyond category". Gadfly Online. Retrieved
21 July 2012.
41. Scott Yanow, AllMusic Guide, http://www.allmusic.com/artist/p95770 retrieved 3 November 2009.
42. Looming Large: What's a cello got to do with a famous fiddler's tale? By Natalie Haas
(http://www.allthingsstrings.com/article/default.aspx?articleid=21495) Archived (https://web.archive.org
/web/20110103024640/http://www.allthingsstrings.com/article/default.aspx?articleid=21495) 3 January
2011 at the Wayback Machine.
43. Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts (http://doodah.net/bgb/HowardCedricRainwaterWatts.html), Stewart
Evans
44. The Low End, February-02-2001 ©2001 iBluegrass.com. By Kip Martin (http://www.ibluegrass.com
/vi_posting3.CFM?p__i=1004&p__r=&p__a=bass)
45. "Learn How to Play Bass Guitar With Free Online Lessons". Rockabillybass.com. 2015-04-10.
Retrieved 2015-12-23.
46. "The Art of Slap Bass Presents DIDI BECK". YouTube. 2010-03-31. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
47. Dallas Bartley – Small town Boy: Playing in the bands (http://library.missouristate.edu/archives/exhibits
/bartley/index.htm), Special Collections and Archives Department, Missouri State University
48. BBC Radio 2, Just Keep on Rockin' , broadcast 17 April 2004. On this radio documentary, host Suzi
Quatro expresses disbelief that no drums were played on the recording of Rock the Joint.
49. The Electric Guitar: How We Got From Andrés Segovia To Kurt Cobain (http://mickcervino.com
/the-electric-guitar/), Monica M. Smith
50. "In Australia, the John Butler Trio has established itself as one of the most successful independent acts
in recent history. Their U.S. debut, Sunrise Over Sea, features gritty and soulful vocals, elements of
hip-hop and Appalachian folk." The John Butler Trio's Fresh Blends (http://www.npr.org/templates/story
/story.php?storyId=4814948)
51. "Kaizers Orchestra official web page". Kaizers.no. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
52. What a day - Closet http://www.notreble.com/buzz/2015/08/08/what-a-day-closet/
53. Jason. "Double Bass Orchestral Audition Lists – A Survey – Jason Heath's Double Bass Blog".
Doublebassblog.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
54. Hannah Levintova. "Here's Why You Seldom See Women Leading a Symphony". Mother Jones.
55. Burton, Clemency (2014-10-21). "Culture - Why aren't there more women conductors?". BBC.
External links
The dictionary definition of double bass at Wiktionary Wikisource has the text
Media related to Double basses at Wikimedia Commons of the 1911
39 of 40 1/18/2017 4:22 PM
Bass (https://www.dmoz.org//Arts/Music/Instruments Encyclopædia

/Stringed/Bowed_Strings/Bass/) at DMOZ Britannica article
EarlyBass.com by Jerry Fuller Double bass.
(http://www.EarlyBass.com)
List of chamber music pieces with double bass (http://www.paulnemeth.com
/basschamber.htm)
Polish folk music double basses (http://ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories
/category/317)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Double_bass&oldid=759924199"
Categories: Bass (sound) Bowed instruments Compositions for double bass

Continuous pitch instruments Contrabass instruments Double basses Double-bassists
String instruments C instruments Rhythm section Western Classical music instruments
Jazz instruments Rockabilly instruments Blues instruments Amplified instruments
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Double bass - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

The double bass or simply the bass (and

14.3 Contemporary (1900s)

In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts,

Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the "modern

In general, there are two major approaches to the design outline

unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use them nevertheless. At

Laminated (plywood) basses, which are widely used in music schools,

basses made by Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Gaspar da

As of 2016, several manufacturers make travel

The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of

Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in

Bow construction and materials

it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player. The frog on

Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow

Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer

The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other

The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use

Other tuning variations

instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier.

Playing and performance considerations

Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in

When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G

Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other

When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber

In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings

simple mixer before the signal is sent to the bass

The double bass's large size and relative fragility

Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an

as a solo instrument. Because of improvements to the double bass with

Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a

In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid wrote a set of

Chamber music with double bass

Orchestral passages and solos

In the baroque and classical periods, composers

Double bass ensembles

Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members),[28] Bass Instinct (6

Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or

Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz.

contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies.[41]

Use in bluegrass and country

An early bluegrass bassist to

recording—for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be

Use in popular music

Photos of bassist Miroslav Vitous:

Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass,

Modern playing styles

An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency

In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly

Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor

Gary Karr (1941– ) Virtuoso

Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass

Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is Esperanza

Other popular genres

In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well

Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the

Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in

1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce

In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras

2. Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive (http://www.earlybass.com/chamber.htm), Alfred

34. [1] (http://home.mchsi.com/~donovan.stokes/volumeone.html)

Bass (https://www.dmoz.org//Arts/Music/Instruments Encyclopædia

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Double_bass&oldid=759924199"

Categories: Bass (sound) Bowed instruments Compositions for double bass