BIOLOGY

Properties of life
All things share common properties:
1. Order​- the complex organization of living things
2. Regulation​- an ability to maintain an internal environment consistent with life
3. Growth and development​- consistent growth and development controlled by DNA
4. Energy processing​- acquiring energy and transforming it to a form useful for the organism
Ex:​ ​light energy​ ​(found in chloroplasts) ---​PHOTOSYNTHESIS​ ​Chemical energy and carbohydrate ​(found in
mitochondria)​ ---CELLULAR RESPIRATION​ ​ATP
5. Respond to the environment​- an ability to respond to environmental stimuli
6. Reproduction​- the ability to perpetuate the species
7. Evolutionary adaptation​- acquisition of traits that best suit the organism to its environment
Ex:​ Venus flytrap eats insects because the soil lacks Nitrogen to produce protein

Levels of Biological organization

○ Biosphere -​ is the zone of air, land, and water where life is found. 
● Ecosystem- ​includes all aspects of a living community and the physical 
environment, including soils, atmosphere, etc. They are also characterized 
by chemical cycling and energy flow.
○ Community- ​consists of all of the local interacting populations. 
○ Population- ​consists of all members of one species in a particular area.
○ Organism- ​An individual living being
○ Organ system- ​ two or more organs working together in the in the execution
of a specific bodily function
○ Organ- ​ a structure usually composed of several tissue types that form a
functional unit
○ Tissue- ​ a group of similar cells that perform a specific function.
○ Cell- ​The fundamental structural and functional unit of life
○ Organelle- ​tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a cell
○ Molecule- ​Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or 
different elements
○ Atom- ​Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical 
properties 
 
SPECIES ​→​GENUS​→​ ​ ​FAMILY ​→​ ORDER ​→​ ​ ​CLASS ​→​ ​ ​PHYLUM ​→​ ​ ​KINGDOM ​→​ ​ ​DOMAIN ​→​ ​ ​LIFE

Organism
- species- a group of individuals that share the ff.
parts (DNA, Morphology, physiology, biochemistry,
cellular)

Domain
- Eubacteria
- Archae bacteria/ archaea
 - Eukarya- protista, fungi, animalia, plantae

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS
Living things C, H, O, N
Atmosphere N, O, Ar, C, Ne, He
Earth, rocks Ge, O, Si, Mg, Ni, Ca, Al, Na
Economic metals Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni
Primary toxins Hg, Pb, Se, Br, Cd, Be, Rn, Ni, As

Compounds
● inorganic-​ non-living things
● organic​- living things; 2 or more atoms: made out of hydro carbon

Simple Complex

● Amino Acids ● Protein

● monosaccharides ● Carbohydrates
● Fatty Acid ● Lipids
● Nucleotide ● Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
Living Cell
● Hans ans Zacharias Janssen- ​first microscope
● Aton Van Leeuwenhoek​ - father of microscopy also the father of microbiology; called microorganisms as
“​Animalcules”​
● Robert Hooke- ​first discovered a cell through a ​cork ​tissue
● Matthias Schleiden, Rudolph Virchow, Theodor Schwann​ - postulated the cell theory

Cell Theory
- ​unifying the concept in biology
1. all organisms are composed of cells (Schleiden and Schwan)
2. all cells come only from preexisting cells (Virchow)
3. smallest unit of life
2 distinct group of cells

Difference of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryote Eukaryote
-simple and small -possess organelles separated by
membranes

Size smaller, 1-10µm larger, 10-100µm

GENOME(DNA) W/O NUCLEUS; DNA in the W/NUCLEUS; DNA inside nucleus

Cytoplasm

Organelle Multiply by binary fission multiple by Mitosis & Miosis

without mitochondria with mitochondria

Type of organism found in bacteria found in plants, animals, fungi,

protista
Shapes of bacterial cell

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Difference of Plant and Animal Cell

with cell wall without cell wall

with vacuole without vacuole

with plastids without plastids

with plasmodesmata without plasmodesmata

System
● Animals​: Muscular, respiratory, nervous, digestive, skeletal, reproductive, sympathetic nervous,
endocrine, excretory, integumentary, circulatory system.
● Plants​: Shoot and root system
cell membrane-​ gatekeeper
nucleus ​- computer
mitochondrion-​ power plant
ER​- construction team
golgi apparatus​ - packaging department
cell walls enclose and support plant cells
● plant, but not animal cells, have rigid cell wall
○ it protects and provides skeletal support that helps keep the plant upright against gravity
○ plant cell walls are composed primarily of cellulose
● plant cells have cell junctions called plasmodesmata that serve in communication between cells
Rigor Mortis, Lysosome and Tender Steak
● The joints are stiff for 1-3 days, but after this time general tissue decay and leaking of lysosomal
intracellular digestive enzymes will cause the muscles to relax. It is interesting to note that meat is
generally considered to be more tender if it is eaten after rigor mortis has passed.
● Without ATP, actin and myosin remain locked in a permanent contraction called ​rigor mortis.​
○ Rigor Mortis
■ animal meat are made out of muscle fibers
■ muscle/ cell contain actin and myosin (that moves the muscle)
■ when meat die the actin and myosin locks called rigor mortis
Why are cells so small?
1. increase rate of diffusion
2. increase rate of protein synthesis
3. functionality

Cellular transport
I. Passive transport
A. diffusion- ​movement of molecules from ​higher concentration to lower concentration
B. osmosis- ​movement of water into a ​semi-permeable ​cell membrane ; movement of lower
solute ​to higher ​solute

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

● area of ​higher ​solute; ● equal ​solute; balance ● area of ​lower ​solute;

little ● plant: ​Flaccid many
● plant: ​Plasmolyzed ● plant: ​TURgid
(shrink) ● animal: (hemo)lysis
● animal: Crenation

C. facilitated diffusion​- same as the one above but with high concentration to low concentration
but ​with transport

II. Active Transport

● ex: NaK exchange pump- found in neurons and muscle cells
● requires energy to transport things
● lower ​concentration ​to higher ​concentration

III. Endocytosis​ - molecules going inside

A. phagocytosis ​- engulfing of ​large particle/​molecules
B. pinocytosis- ​engulfing ​liquid
C. Receptor-mediated endocytosis-​ ​low density protein

IV. exocytosis
● discharge of material/ (opposite of endocytosis)
 ● ex: mucus, milk, hormone, saliva

V. cytoplasmic streaming
● allow movement of molecules within the cell
● ex: amoeba using pseudopods to eat and to move food around

VI. mass flow (bulk flow)

● compare to the earlier given 5 this one is for ​long distance
● focus more on ​pressure gradient
● ex: water transport for plants and blood circulation in animals

ENDOsymbiosis
Hypothesized origin of eukaryotic cells
Cell Division: Mitosis & Meiosis

The cell cycle multiplies cells

● The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events for cell division
● It consists of two stages
● Interphase​: duplication of cell contents
○ G1—growth, increase in ​cytoplasm
○ S—​duplication​ of ​chromosomes
○ G2—growth, preparation for ​division
● Mitotic phase​: division
○ Mitosis​—division of the ​nucleus
■ Prophase ​- chromosome ​condensation ​(chromosomes becomes visible and darkens)
■ Metaphase- ​chromosomes ​align ​along the cells equatorial
■ anaphase- ​separation ​of sister chromatin
■ Telophase- ​formation ​of 2 daughter cells
○ Cytokinesis​—division of ​cytoplasm
■ formed 2 daughter cells
■ plant​: cell plate
■ animal​: cleavage furrow
duration in the cell cycle

Mitosis Miosis

Type of cell Body/somatic Gamete (sex cell)

diploid/haploid 2n(46) diploid n(23) haploid

function 1. growth and development 1. gametogenesis (oogenesis

2. asexual reproduction
(produce “clones”)
3. repair of body tissue
and spermatogenesis)
2. reduction division (to
maintain genetic integrity)
3. Sexual reproduction
(“genetic recombination”
or “shuffling of genes”

The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
● Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin
○ Chromatin = DNA + proteins
○ To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes highly compact, and the chromosomes are
visible with a microscope
○ Early in the division process, chromosomes duplicate
■ Each chromosome appears as two sister chromatids, containing identical DNA molecules
■ Sister chromatids are joined at the centromere, a narrow region
1. Chromatin​:
○ Heterochromatin ​- where the​ DNA is more condensed​, and usually there is not much
transcriptional activity. Some heterochromatin will remain condensed throughout the cell cycle.
○ Euchromatin ​- this is where the "​active​" genes are - usually this region is much ​less condensed.
2. Centromere​:
○ During mitosis, spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the ​kinetochore ​- a highly complex
multiprotein structure that is responsible for the actual events of chromosome segregation
(Anaphase)
3. Chromosome arms
○ P arm​ - petit arm
○ Q arm
4. Secondary constriction:
○ Site of​ nucleolus formation​ and are called ​"Nucleolar Organizing Region.​“
5. Satellite
○ This is the ​blob-like​ terminal part of a chromosome extending beyond the secondary
constrictions.
○ It is rounded or elongated.
○ It is also called ​trabant​.
6. Telomere
○ The telomere represents the tip of a linear chromosome, one at each end.
○ Each has many repeats of DNA sequences.
○ It p​revents the adhesion of one chromosome to another at the ends.
○ A telomere is necessary for a proper replication of a chromosome.
○ It is also necessary for the ​attachment ​of chromosomes to the inner side of the nuclear
envelope.
Poly​tene Chromosome
● Giant chromosome formed when ​multiple rounds of DNA replication produce many sister chromatids
that remain synapsed together.
● Found in salivary gland cells in the larval stages of Drosophila
● Have characteristic light and dark banding patterns that can be used to identify chromosomal
rearrangements and deletions. Dark banding frequently corresponds to inactive chromatin, whereas
light banding is usually found at areas with higher transcriptional activity.
Lampbrush Chromosome
● Found in the growing oocytes (immature eggs) of most animals, except mammals
● Organized into a series of chromomeres with​ large chromatin loops ​extended laterally giving a hairy
”lampbrush” appearance.
● Present during Prophase I
Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes
● Mitosis progresses through a series of stages
○ Prophase
○ Metaphase
○ Anaphase
○ Telophase
● Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase
● A​ mitotic spindle​ is required to divide the chromosomes
○ The mitotic spindle is composed of ​microtubules
○ It is produced by centrosomes, structures in the cytoplasm that organize microtubule
arrangement
○ Contain a pair of centrioles in animal cells
○ The role of centrioles in cell division is unclear
○ Centrioles are absent in plant cells
Stages of mitosis
Cytokinesis
Allium cepa Chromosome Aberration Test for Genotoxicity Analysis
Stages of meiosis
● meiosis I
● meiosis II
Prophase I
● Leptotene
○ The chromosomes are l​ong, thin threads ​occurring in the diploid number.
● Zygotene
○ The homologous chromosomes ​begin​ to pair; pairing is exact.
● Pachytene
○ The chromosomes have ​contracted ​and ​thickened​; each chromosome has doubled itself so that
the chromosome pair at this stage consists of four strands. Crossing over takes place during this
stage.
● Diplotene
○ Each pair of synapsed chromosomes begins to ​uncoil ​and can be seen to contain four
chromatids, two per chromosome (bivalent).
● Diakinesis
○ The bivalents have ​dispersed in the nucleus​; the chromosomes assume different shapes due to
repulsion ​and chiasma attachments.
Gametogenesis
Chromosome mutation
** karyotyping

● Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)​ - Trisomy is the presence of an ​extra chromosome​ in cells. Down
syndrome is an example of a condition caused by trisomy.
● Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)​- The baby has no eyes, no nose opening, and an elongated bulb hanging
from forehead.
● Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18)- ​The baby has elongated skull, short neck, short breastbone,
malformed ears and mentally deficient.
● Karyotype of Metafemale (47-XXX)​/​Turner Syndrome​- unusually short stature; short neck;
undeveloped reproductive system
● Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)​- male with female features such as breasts and shape
● Jacob Syndrome (44-XYY)
● Chromosomal Mosaicism- ​When an individual has ​two or more cell populations​ with a different
chromosomal makeup, this situation is called chromosomal mosaicism.
● Cri-du-chat- ​d​eletion ​of genetic material on the ​small arm​ (the p arm) of chromosome 5.
● Philadelphia chromosome or Philadelphia translocation-​ associated with chronic
myelogenous ​leukemia ​(cancer of the white blood cells); reciprocal translocation between
chromosome 9 and 22
● Robertsonian translocation- ​Chromosome 21 ​breaks off and attaches​ to chromosome 14
● Cancer- ​When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis (A).
Cancer cells avoid apoptosis and continue to multiply in an unregulated manner (B).
○ HeLa Cell Line

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Photosynthesis
● An important biological process
● Sole mechanism of energy input in the biosphere
● Only 5% of the solar energy is converted to carbohydrates in the form of biomass or dry matter

electromagnetic spectrum

photosynthetic reaction

Photosynthetic Reactions: The Light Reactions

WHATEVAAAAAA
method of producing ATP is called ​chemiosmosis
importance of photosynthesis
● everything we eat and breath and even fossil fuels product of photosynthesis
●

https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/highereducation/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis
 BIOMOLECULES 
Shapes of animal cells:
1. ​Spherical- ​the egg cell (ova/ovum) of frogs are rounded with big centrally located nuclei. The
nucleolus are numerous and the cytoplasm occupies the space between the nucleolus and cell
membrane
2. ​Stellate- ​they are motor cells of the dorsal and ventral horns of the frog’s spinal cord. They may be
star shapes or triangular in appearance with one to several protoplasmic processes and are essential for
the conduction of impulses from the spinal cord to different parts of the body
3. ​Squamous- ​found in the outer layer of the skin; flattened,hexagonal cells located at the outer layer of
the skin for protection, they are closely set together like the tiles of a mosaic pavement
4. ​Columnar- ​this cells found in the epidermal tissue along the inner lining of the small intestine. The
height exceeds the width supposedly, and the nucleus is distinctly oval and they are responsible for
nutrient absorption
5. ​Pyramidal- ​found at the tip of the loops of the inner lining of the small intestine. It’s shape is similar
to a triangle. Function is the same as that of the columnar; involved in nutrient absorption
6. ​Fusiform- ​this cells are found at the muscular layer of the intestine or the stomach. They are spindle
shape tapering at both ends(). Function: peristalsis (involuntary control of esophagus, stomach,
pertaining to downward movement of food)
7. ​Cuboidal- ​found in the ducts of gland and kidney tubules
8. ​Polygonal- ​found in the liver. Function: responsible for bile secretion. (Bile is produced in the liver
and goes to the gallbladder. Bile is for emulsifying lipids to be dissolved in water/ emulsification of fats
allowing digestion)
9. ​Amorphous- ​found in the white blood cells, vary in shape and size. Function: immunity/ protection,
engulf bacteria and other foreign bodies.
10. ​Oval- ​oblong in shape; red blood cells. Function: transport oxygen throughout the body.

Animal tissues and organs

● Stem cell
○ ​A cell that can divide and create more stem cells or differentiate to become a specialized cell type
○ Adult stem cells are specialists that differentiate into a limited variety of cells; embryonic stem cells – the body’s first cells –
form all other cells
○ Use of embryonic stem cells or of adult stem cells made to behave like embryonic stem cells could one day help treat
diseases and disorders
● Tissue
○ A collection of one or more specific cell types – and often an extracellular matrix – that are organized to perform a specific task
○ Four types of tissues occur in all vertebrates
■ Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces and line internal cavities
■ Connective tissues hold body parts together and provide structural support
■ Muscle tissues move the body and its parts
■ Nervous tissues detect stimuli and relay information
○ Animal tissues are usually organized into organs
● Organ
○ Structural unit composed of two or more tissues organized to carry out specific tasks
● Organ system
○ Organs and other components that interact physically and/or chemically in a common task
● Homeostasis
○ The process of maintaining favorable conditions inside the body
● Evolution of structure and functions:
○ Structural traits evolve by natural selection
■ Existing structures are modified over generations​ i​ n ways that better adapt their bearers to their environment
○ New structures evolve by modifying existing ones
■ Evolutionary remodeling often results in body plans that are less than optimal
○ Epithelial tissues cover external body surfaces and line internal cavities and tubes
● Epithelial tissue ​(epithelium)
○ Sheetlike animal tissue that has one free surface exposed to some body fluid or the environment
○ Cells are connected by junctions and have no plans that are less than optimal matrix between them
● Epithelium Glands: