Geotechnical Engineering in Ancient India

Dr. A.S. Nene#

Professor of Civil Engineering (Retd.), V.N.I.T. Nagpur

# E mail – prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com

Introduction

There were More than thousand texts (Shilpa Samhita) can be mentioned on
the various engineering sciences. Out of these approximately three hundred
texts are preserved, in some of the Oriental libraries and museums. The vast
technical literature still exists as it is considered as religious and
mythological scriptures.

An attempt has been made herein to present, in brief, the information

related to Geotechnical Engineering as depicted in ancient Indian literature.
Most of the information and practices mentioned in these references are
scientific and relevant even today. Taking into consideration of the period of
references (as back as 5000 BC) it can be seen that importance of
geotechnical engineering was known in ancient India.

Terms and terminology -To understand the subject, one should be aware
of certain common terms mentioned below.

 Shilpa - The Sanskrit word has a very wide meaning, other than a
sculpture or an idol. Sage Bhrugu has given a definition of Shilpa
Shilpa includes many articles (things), machines, innovations, metals,
and artificial means. The word Shilpa is derived from words Sheel
samadhou which mean anything that pleases human mind. One has to
understand certain terminology of the present subject.

नानाविधानां िस्तुनां यंत्राणां कल्ऩसंऩदा ।

धातुनां साधनांच िास्तुनां शिल्ऩसंज्ञीतं ॥ भृगुसंहिता

 Shilpashashtra – It is a science which deals with creation of a Shilpa

 Shilpasamhita means compilation of rules and procedures related to a
particular Shilpa. The exact period in which Shilpa-Samhita i.e.
compilations were made is not known.
  Vidya- Vidya means a particular technique. One must have both
theoretical and practical knowledge of that subject. There are 32
Vidyas related to Shilpashashtra.
 Kala - Kala means an art which can be acquired by practice and
observation. Even a handicapped person can be expert in a particular
art without any theoretical knowledge. There are 64 Kalas related to
Shilpashashtra.
Scope and extent of Shilpashashtra : Sage Bhrugu divided the entire
knowledge related to Shilpashashtra into ten shastra, three Volumes, thirty-
two Vidyas and sixty-four Kalas. The names of these Shilpashashtra are,

1 Biological Science (Krishi)

2 Water Resources (Jala)

3 Mining & Metallurgy (Khani)

4 Surface Transport (Ratha)

5 Water Transport (Nauka)

6 Air/ Space Transport (Vyomayan)

7 Dwellings (Veshma)

8 Forts and Castles (Prakar)

9 Town planning (Nagar rachana)

10 Machines (Yantra)

Information related to geotechnical engineering is available in some of these

Shastras. Kalas and Vidyas related to Geotechnical Engineering- Tables
below indicates the Kalas(K) and Vidyas(V) related to Geotechnical
Engineering.

2.Water Resources - Jala Shashtra

 V4.Water Distribution -Sanchetan

 V5.Drainage -Samharan)
 V6.Storage- Stambhan)

5. Surface Transport -Ratha Shashtra

  V15.Roads - Patha
 V16.Hill roads -Ghantapath
 V17.Bridges-Setu
 K39.Leveling of ground -Samabhumikriya
 K40.Stone selection - Shilarcha K41.Tunneling –Vivarkaran
7. Dwellings-Veshma Shashtra

 V22.Houses- Mandir
 V23.Palaces -Prasaad
8. Forts and Castles- Prakar Shashtra

 V24.Forts- Durga
 V25.Castles-Koota
 V26. Moats-Aakar
 K42.Arch bridges- Vrutakhandabandhan
 K48. Collection of soils for a specific purpose -Mrutsadhan
 K53. Conditioning of soils -Mrudkarma
 K56.Foundations -Talakriya

2 Geology: Ancient Indian literature including the Vedas, Upanishads,

Brahmans, Aranyakas, Puranas and the epics are encyclopedias. These are
full of information on Geology and Geography.

The land of India was formed in three different periods and under different
geological conditions. The entire time period was divided into four Yugas
namely Tretayuga, Krutayuga, Dwaparyuga and Kaliyuga. Modern
geologists call them Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Recent Era.
Shilparatnachp,16 describes these three rock formations as mentioned
below,

 India is the land between Himalayas to Kanyakumari (Cape Cameron).

 Satwik: The formation between Himalayas to Vindhya Mountains.
 Rajas: The formation between Vindhya Mountains to Krishna River.
 Tamas: The formation from Krishna River to Kanyakumari.
 All these formations have different characteristics such as minerals,
vegetation, animals etc.
A map of India as shown below indicates the extent of the above
mentioned three rock formations.
 Subsequently the thee lands were divided into five lands as below

 Parthiv-pradesh
 Agneya-pradesh
 Taijas-pradesh
 Wayaviya -pradesh
 Aksshya-pradesh
The geological activities occurred in the four Yugas are mentioned in
Shilparatna

 Kaliyuga (Recent): No activity.

 Dwaparyuga (Tertiary): Deposition of various rock strata.
 Tretayuga (Secondary): Volcanic eruptions, formations of hills
and mountains.
 Krutayuga (Primary): Continuous movements of lands.

3 Rock Mechanics: Ancient references related to this topic are available

mainly in three Shastras such as Rathashashtra (Surface transport),
Vastushashtra (Dwellings) and Prakarshashtra (Construction of forts).
Tunnel construction (Vivarkaran) was one of the 64 kalas. Tunnels were
known as Bhrugudar as sage Bhrugu developed this art first. Construction of
huge temples, palaces and forts involves use of stones
Classification of Rocks: As per Kashypa Shilpa (c49 v32-37) the rocks
were selected on the basis of Color, Defects, Age and Gender.

Color (VarN): The basic four colors in the order of priority for selection
were White, Red, Yellow and Black. Shades of each of these colors were
quoted by examples.White stones were considered best, followed by red,
yellow and black stones. (Mayamat,c33 v4) and (Vishnupuran c39 v90-92).

The color of the stone should be uniform. Stones with different colors or
different shades of same color were considered unsuitable. The color
variations in a stone can be due to weathering of stones to different degree.
Hence such stones were considered unsuitable.

Age (Vaya): The on the basis of age, stones were classified as child, young
or old. The age of stone is decided by the sound produced when it is hit with
a sludge hammer. This is described below.

 Child-Sound Produced -As un-burnt bricks, long or flat in shape as a

leaf
 Young-Ringing sound like bell, soft in touch, with good smell, without
pores
 Old-Non-ringing sound, highly porous, highly weathered
The stones of first or third category are unsuitable for construction.
(Kashyapa Shilpa c 49.53-54, Shilpratna c14v8&18 and Mayamat c33v13-
15).

Gender (Linga): The on the basis of gender stones were classified as Male,
Female, or Neutral.

 Male-Big, rounded, which produces sparks when hit with chisel

 Female-Medium size, soft in touch, broad at base
 Neutral-Small, broad at top, not sounding.

The masculine stones (of high compressive strength) are used for walls and
roofs, feminine stones (of high flexural strength) are used in plinth and
neutral gender stones are used in foundations.

Defects in building stones: The defects are described in details in many

ancient texts. The defects are lines (streaks), spots and cracks.

Lines: The lines are of thee types, curvilinear (as thread), straight (as sun
rays) and parallel (as rains)
Spots: The spots can be of three types depending upon the size. Lemon fruit
(15-25 mm), grape size (5-10 mm), less than 5 mm. The spots were further
grouped under three heads, brown (like black iron ore), gray (like wasp) or
black. (Kashyapa Shilpa, c 49 v44-45).

Detection of Defects in Rocks: The stones to be used for idol preparation

were carefully inspected. Microscopic defects which are invisible to eyes can
be detected by applying some chemical paints so that the defects are clearly
visible. Similar modern techniques are used to detect faults in metal casting.
An ancient procedure for preparation of such chemical paints is described in
Mayamat and Shilparatna 1.14.22-35

 Mix and grind equal parts of Ativish, Hirakas and Geru in milk, apply
this paint to stone and allow to dry overnight.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Hirakas and Chor in milk, apply this
paint to stone and dry for three days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Kusht, Gaya and Ratree in
decoction of Trifala, apply this paint to stone and dry for three
days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Rog and Ashwamari in rain
water mixed with milk, apply this paint to stone and dry for three
days. Such paints were used to detect micro cracks or fissures.

4 Soil Engineering: Amarkosha (Ancient Lexicon of 12th Century) by King

Amar Singh mentions 38 different meaningful names for the mother earth.
Each name indicates some special property of ground. Refer Amarkosha
V.301-303.

The Sanskrit terms, mentioned in ancient texts, equivalent modern words

related to geotechnical engineering are given below.

Mrud or Mruttika Soil

Urwara Fertile soil

Maru or Dhanwan Aeolian soil

Bandhodak Quicksand

Ushar or Ksharmruttika Saline Soils

 Sushir Permeable Soils

Aprahat or Khil Untilled soil Soils

Jaangal, Anup or Sadharan Three types of land

Pankil Muddy land

Anup Marshy land

Nadwat or Nadwal Bamboo growing land

Kumudwan Lotus growing land

Sharkara or Sharkaril Sandy land

Kaccha Barren land

Samarangana Sutradhara chapter 10 mentions and describes 16 types of

land.

One can find different Sanskrit names for soil particles as mentioned below .

 Karal-Cobble –5.0-10.0
 Mugdi-Gravel -3.0 -5.0
 Gulmas-Sand -0.6-3.0
 Kalk-Silt -0.02-0.6
 Chikkan-Clay -< 0.002

Site Selection: Most of the Puranas have a separate chapter called

Deshnirnaya or site selection. Simple field tests on soils to determine their
suitability of a foundation are described. All such tests were based on sound
scientific principles. For construction of any structure a suitable site must be
available. Site selection is the first step. Out of the five basic energies
(Panchmahabhotas) ground (Prithwi), which supports everything, must be
explored first, planning of superstructure comes afterwards.(Ref.
Matsyapooran, chapter 253-v11).

Necessity of Site Investigations: Matsyapooran ch.253 quotes "First

explore the site and then plan for structure". Other texts such as
Kamikagam, c33, Manushyalayachandrika, c1 v5,etc also emphasize the
importance of soil investigations.
Unsuitable Soils & Defects: Some sites are summarily rejected because of
their unsuitability for establishing a town or constructing a building. Such
sites are described below:

 Site situated near a cremating ground, fissured, full of cracks, porous

due to tree roots, presence of ant hills, dead bodies, hairs, bones,
corn husk etc.
Vishwakarma Prakash, chapter 1and Bhrugusamhita, chapter 4, recommend
keen observation, putting all the perceptual senses (Dnanendriyas- seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling and tasting) in use to assess the site
characteristics.

Visual Examination of the soil: Visual examination is the first method of

testing. Second method consists of conducting field tests on soil. In the first
method, the suitability of the soil is decided upon after examining its color,
smell, taste, sound and temperature. Refer Bhrugusamhita chp 4 and
Viswakarma prakash ch.5, Bhrugusamhita, chapter 4, Samarangana
Sutradhara, chapter 10 verses 48, Matsyapooran chapter 253-verse
11,Kashyapa (Kashyapiyavastu, chapter 3)

Ancient Visual Classification of Foundation soils is summarized in a table

below

Visual Classification of Foundation soils

Classification

Test Good Average Poor Bad

Color White Red Yellow Black/ Blue

Like
Smell Pleasant blood Foul Fishy/
Food

Taste Sweet Pungent Bitter Sour/Salty

Ground
East North West South
slope
 Sound
on
impact Drum Flute Broken Pot Broken Pot
by
rammer

Unpleasant Unpleasant
Touch Oily Pleasant
hot/ cold hot/ cold

Field tests: Field tests for soil investigations / classification are,

Pit test (Relative density): A cubic pit of 45.6 cms in sides (length, width
and depth) is dug. The soil removed from the pit is replaced back in the pit
and is compacted. Excess soil indicates denseness of ground.

It appears that this method of testing of soil was known at Vedic period also.
Refer Shatapatha Brahman , Agneya Purana chapter 92 -v 19, Varaha
Samhita chapter 53, Matsya Purana Chapter 253-v 16-17, Ashwalayan
Gruhya Sutra chapter 3, Samarangana Sutradhara chapter 10-v 67-69 etc.

Field permeability: The cubic pit, as mentioned above, is to be filled with

water up to its brim. Then one walks slowly a distance of 80 meters and
comes back to the pit. If the level of the water remained as it was then it is
the best soil. If the level of the water decreased less than a yava (3mm) or
more than a yava then it is medium or unsuitable soil respectively.

This test method gives the idea of the suitability of soil depending on its
permeability characteristics.

In this test certain types of seeds are sown at the proposed site. Depending
upon the time taken for germination (three, five or seven days) the site is
considered as good, average or bad respectively. For more details refer
Padma Samhita, Poushkar Samhita and Vishwakarma Prakash chapter 3.

Resistance to penetration of a sounding tool: Mayasamhita describes a cone

penetration test which is similar to the one used by modern geotechnical
engineers. As per the ancient practice a wooden cone is driven into ground
by striking with a hammer. The markings on the cone indicate the amount of
penetration. Smaller penetration indicates denseness of the stratum.

Consistency Test of Soil for mud plaster: Soil to be used for mud
plastering or bricks should be malleable and therefore the water content
should be between plastic and liquid limits. Sakaladhikar (by Sage Agasthi)
mentions the most suitable water content is that at which wet soil rolled on
palm shows the palm lines printed on wet clay ball.

5 Foundation Engineering

Essential Requirements: Goubhil Gruhyashastra mentions three essential

requirements of foundation stratum. These are Level ground, Ground
capable of growing grass and ground free from vibrations.

Types of foundations: Three types of foundations were small, medium and

huge depending upon the height of superstructure.

Depth of Foundation: Kashyapa Shilpa chapter 4, recommends that

foundation pit should be excavated till the ground water table is reached
Similar guidelines are mentioned in Vasturajvallabh chapter 1, Shilpadeepak
and Aashwalayan Gruhyasutra chapter 2 -v 2. The soil stratum below ground
water table undergoes least volume change and hence it is stable.
Manasarshilpam chapter 4 states that the depth varies from one to five
meters depending upon the size of the structure. In other words higher the
loads more the depth. Another reference Mulastabhavidhi prescribes various
depths for footings of walls, city gates etc. These depths vary from100 cm to
1400 cm.

Twenty Defects of Houses:Out of the 22 defects related to houses, only

two are related to foundation engineering. One is top heavy (Shiro guru) and
second is foundations at different depths (Vishamstha tulatulam)

Future Extension of Structure: Brihat Samhita chapter 52.114 mentions

about future vertical expansion of the structure. It recommends that the
extension should be uniform (to avoid eccentric loading).

Clear Spacing Between Structures: Jyotirnibandha mentions the clear

spacing between two adjacent structures should be equal to the height of
taller structure.

Taj Mahal (Tejomahal) of Agra

Well foundation had their origin in India and has been used for hundreds of
years as deep foundations for important buildings and structures. The
technique of constructing masonry wells for drinking water is very ancient.
Same technique was used for construction of foundation wells in earlier
stage.

Historical and archeological records mention that,

" It was an efficient system of well foundation interconnected through

massive arches making it up almost into a monolithic, yet dynamic plinth
(Kursi) upon which the gigantic mausoleum could be securely based. "

Each well was composed of a massive circular wall of Kakai brick and lime
mortar of great strength. The core was filled with rubble stones mixed with
mortar. The space between the walls was filled with solid masonry composed
of stones and lime.

6 Environmental Geo-technology

Environmental Geotechnology deals with impacts of geotechnical activity on

environment and vise versa. Some of the ancient texts deal in details with
environmental and geotechnical engineering. The information in these texts
has scientific background and can be very useful to modern scientists and
engineers.

Definition of Environment: As per ancient practice of town planning

neighborhood of six factors i.e. Site, People, Animals, Birds, Trees and Water
was taken into account. Only last two factors i.e. trees and water are
discussed herein.

Trees: Ancient texts clearly specify the trees which are suitable or
unsuitable near the structures. Tree roots cause considerable volume change
within the foundation stratum and thus results in damage to foundation as
well as to superstructure. The trees which are declared unsuitable or suitable
Varah Samhita ch 53, Vastuvidya, ch,2, Vasturaj Vallabha ch 1 mentions the
names of unsuitable or unsuitable trees around structure-

According to Vasturajvallabh the trees should be at such a distance such that

they do not cast shadows in the second or third quarter of daytime. Brihat
Samhita ch.52 -v85, recommend that the unsuitable trees should be
confined by a ring of masonry wall around it and the tree roots crossing this
boundary should be cut as when necessary.

Modern geotechnical engineers too have realized the importance of the

problem and have identified certain parameters (Ref Geotechnique London,
vol. June 83) influencing the damage due to the tree roots. The parameters
were

 Type of tree species,

 Spacing between tree and foundation,
 Climatic conditions,
 Type of foundation stratum etc.
In this context one can admire the utility of information depicted in the
ancient literature.

Ground Pollution Prevention : Bhrugu Samhita mentions that If a land

is waterlogged then the water should be drained out by digging drains
parallel to north east and refilling the trenches by brickbats and stones so
that excess water drains out.

If such drain is not provided then the owner should be fined (54
coins).Bhrugusamhita

7 Ground Improvements
Earliest reference on sol stabilization can be found in Shatapatha Brahman
(2500 – 2000 BC) "Then the ground was stabilized (by Gods) using gravels
and boulders, As leather is stretched by driving nails".

तद् यथा िंकुशभ: चर्मविहिन्यात ्।

एतशर्र्ां प्रशतष्ठां िकमराशभ: ऩर्य्ृि

म त ्॥ ितऩथ ब्राम्िण अ५

Kapisamhita mentions that “The marshy land was stabilized by gods using
sands” Ref. SV7.1)

Viswakarma Vastushashtra (Fig.7.2) describes procedure and materials for

ground improvement. It describe in detail the method of compaction of
foundation pits using rammers of the size of elephants foot and use of brick-
bats, boulders, sand and clay in proper proportion in combination with
water.

तद् भूशर्ऱम््नं कायम दृढीकुयामद्यथविधी ।

शचक्कणैश्च शिऱाखंडैद्यश्च ऩूरयेत ॥५॥
गजऩादै र्ग्ुम दरै ि काष्ठखडै घनीकृ तर् ्।
ऩररतो भगर्नेन विभाजेत्कऩनोशचतर् ॥६॥
विश्वकर्म िास्तुिास्त्र अ ५

Bhrugusamhita has a mention about stabilization of marshy land by

dewatering. Series of parallel drains in perpendicular directions are
excavated. These excavated drains are filled with stones and connected to
streams. Such drains dewater and help in soil stabilization.

Soil Stabilization

A Sanskrit word “sthemne”(strengthening) is used for stabilization.

Shatapatha Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.

Sakaladhikar by Sage Agastya mentions use of coir string for reinforcing

clay idol. It recommends the water content of the soil for plastering should
be such that when a clay ball is rolled on the palm, the lines of palm are
printed on the clay ball. As per author’s experience this water content
corresponds to liquidity index 0.35 to 0.45.

Instead of inorganic material, use of natural polymers was very common for
preparation of soil for brick earths, clay idols, crucible for melting metals etc.
These polymers includes cow dung, decoction of Trifala, white of eggs,
molasses, coconut water, palm tadi, hairs of goat, extracts of barks of milky
trees etc. Inorganic substances such as surkhi, lime, stone dust , ant hill
soil. iron slag etc were also used.

The soil is watered and compacted by feet of elephants or wooden rammer

of the size of elephant's foot. (Ref. Samarangana Sutradhara)

The soil was compacted in layers and not as whole (Ref. Shilpa Prakash)

Tantrasamuchhyaya (1000-1200 AD - Ref. Vastu Vidya) describes soil.

Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD

Mud fort (Gadhi) soils: These are special types of artificially stabilized
soil. Such soils were mainly used for construction of Gadhis or Havelis of rich
persons. Such soils possess some thixotropic properties and impart great
strength on drying. The main constituents of Gadhi soil are local soil, fine
sand, cow dung, lime, extracts of Belphal (Holy tree fruit-Aegle marmelos),
fibers of jute and water for mixing. The mixture is allowed to mature for a
minimum period of 30 days and kneaded every day. Recent Latur
earthquake showed that houses constructed with Gadhi soils were more
earthquake resistant.

8 Earth Structures

King Bhagirath may be considered as first irrigation engineer of India.

Kautilya has described the procedure of construction of dams for irrigation.

Details of 30 ancient Indian earthen dams are mentioned in CBIP Report.

The period of construction of these dams was 11th to 17th century.

Porumamilla Tank A.D. 1369: The inscription gives remarkable

specifications for the selection of tank site and following requisites for a good
tank.
  Bed of tank of hard soil.
 A river conveying sweet water from a distance of 24 miles
 Two projecting portions of hill in contact with it (dam)
 The two extremities of the hills to be devoid of fruit bearing land.
 The bed of the tank to be extensive and deep.
 A quarry containing long and straight stones.
 A water course having stone eddies in the mountain region
It is also interesting that the inscription enjoins six faults to be avoided,
namely

 Oozing of water from dam

 Saline soil
 High ground in the middle of tank
 Scanty water supply and extensive area to be irrigated
Narad Shilpashashtra contains four chapters such as Ponds & Tanks, Arch
Bridges, Water Forts, and River Forts

Bhrugu Shilpasamhita describes the three branches of hydraulics namely

Supply, Drainage and Storage

9 Conclusions

 Though the term Soil Mechanics was coined by Karl Terzhagi in 1925,
the basic principles of this science were well known in ancient India.
 An attempt has been made to collect all ancient Indian references
related to modern science of Geotechnical Engineering.
10-References

A-Ancient References

The ancient Sanskrit references mentioned below are published by various

publishers by appending with English or Indian Language translations
Though these references belong ancient period (5000 BC to1500 AD ), a
definite period of many references is not known.

 Aashwalayan Gruhyasutra .
 Agneya Purana
 Amarkosha by Amar Sinh
 Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD
 Ashwalayan Gruhya Sutra
 Bhrugu Samhita
 Brihat Samhita or Varaha Samhita
 CBIP Report
 Geotechnique London, (vol. June 83)
 Goubhil Gruhyashastra
 Jyotirnibandha
 Kamikagam
 Kashyapa Shilpa
 Kashyapiyavastu
 Manasarshilpam
 Manushyalayachandrika
 Matsyapooran
 Mayamat
 Mayasamhita
 Mulastabhavidhi
 Padma Samhita,
 Poushkar Samhita
 Sakaladhikar by Sage Agastya
 Samarangana Sutradhara
 Shatapatha Brahman
 Shilpa Prakash
 Shilpadeepak
 Shilparatna
 Tajmahal archeological records
 Tantrasamuchhyaya
 Varah Samhita
 Vastuvidya
 Vasturaj Vallabha
 Vastu Vidya
 Vasturajvallabh
 Vasturajvallabh
 Vishnupuran
 Vishwakarma Prakash
 Viswakarma Vastushashtra

B-Modern References

 Iyengar , Kannan and WakanKar (2018) ” Narad Shilpashastra”,Jain

Publications, Bangalore
 Nene, A.S. (1995)” Environmental Geo-technology as depicted in
ancient Indian literature”, Ist.Int.Conf. on Environmental
Geotechnology, Neyork
 Nene A.S. (2011) “Geotechnical Engineering in Ancient India”,
Published by Pune Vidyarth Gruha Prakashan, Pune (Included in Time
capsule at Paris as India’s contribution )
 Nene, A.S. (2011)” Ground Improvement and Soil Stabilization
Techniques of Ancient India. Roorkee
 Nene, A.S. (2011),” Rock engineering in ancient India” Proceedings of
Indian Geotechnical Conference, December 15-17, 2011, Kochi (India)
 Vaze, K.V. (1929),” Prachin Hindi Shilpashastrasaar “,(Marathi),
chapter 7-Khanishastra.
 Vaze.K.V.(1953),”Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (Marathi), Book
published by Varada prakashan, Pune.

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