COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composites generally used in structural applications are best classified as high performance. They are
typically made from synthetic materials, have high strength-to-weight ratios, and require controlled
manufacturing environments for optimum performance. The aircraft industry uses composites to meet
performance requirements beyond the capabilities of metals.

1.2 Characteristics of a Composite Material

The constituents of a composite are generally arranged so that one or more discontinuous phases are
embedded in a continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is termed the reinforcement and the continuous
phase is the matrix. An exception to this is rubber particles suspended in a rigid rubber matrix, which
produces a class of materials known as rubber-modified polymers. In general the reinforcements are much
stronger and stiffer than the matrix. Both constituents are required, and each must accomplish specific tasks
if the composite is to perform as intended. A material is generally stronger and stiffer in fiber form than in
bulk form. The number of microscopic flaws that act as fracture initiation sites in bulk materials are reduced
when the material is drawn into a thinner section.
In fiber form the material will typically contain very few microscopic flaws from which cracks may initiate
to produce catastrophic failure. Therefore, the strength of the fiber is greater than that of the bulk material.
Individual fibers are hard to control and form into useable components. Without a binder material to separate
them, they can become knotted,
twisted, and hard to separate. The binder (matrix) material must be continuous and surround each fiber so
that they are kept distinctly separate from adjacent fibers and the entire material system is easier to handle
and work with.
1.3 Composite Materials Classifications
Composite materials are usually classified according to the type of reinforcement used. Two broad classes
of composites are fibrous and particulate. Each has unique properties and application potential, and can be
subdivided into specific categories as discussed below.
Fibrous. A fibrous composite consists of either continuous (long) or chopped (whiskers) fibers suspended
in a matrix material. Both continuous fibers and whiskers can be identified from a geometric viewpoint:
Continuous Fibers. A continuous fiber is geometrically characterized as having a very high length-to-
diameter ratio. They are generally stronger and stiffer than bulk material. Fiber diameters generally range
between 0.00012 and
0.0074 pin (3-200 pm). depending upon the fiber.
Whiskers. A whisker is generally considered to be a short, stubby fiber. It can be broadly defined as having
a length-to-diameter ratio of 5 < l/d < 1000 and beyond Whisker diameters generally range between 0.787
and 3937 pin
(0.02-100 pm).

1.4 Fundamental Composite Material Terminology

Some of the more prominent terms used with composite materials are defined below. A more detailed list
can be found in Tsai , as well as in the Glossary.
Lamina. A lamina is a flat (or sometimes curved) arrangement of unidirectional (or woven) fibers
suspended in a matrix material. A lamina is generally assumed to be orthotropic, and its thickness depends
on the material from which it is made.
For example, a graphite/epoxy (graphite fibers suspended in an epoxy matrix) lamina may be on the order
of 0.005 in (0.127 mm) thick. For the purpose of analysis, a lamina is typically modeled as having one
layer of fibers through the
thickness. This is only a model and not a true representation of fiber arrangement. Both unidirectional and
woven lamina are schematically shown in Figure 1.5.

Reinforcements. Reinforcements are used to make the composite structure or component stronger. The
most commonly used reinforcements are boron, glass, graphite (often referred to as simply carbon), and
Kevlar, but there are other types
of reinforcements such as alumina, aluminum, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and titanium.
Fibers. Fibers are a special case of reinforcements. They are generally continuous and have diameters
ranging from 120 to 7400 pin (3-200 pm). Fibers are typically linear elastic or elastic-perfectly plastic and
are generally stronger and stiffer than the same material in bulk form. The most commonly used fibers are
boron, glass, carbon, and Kevlar. Fiber and whisker technology is continuously changing.
Matrix. The matrix is the binder material that supports, separates, and protects the fibers. It provides a path
by which load is both transferred to the fibers and redistributed among the fibers in the event of fiber
breakage. The matrix typically
has a lower density, stiffness, and strength than the fibers. Matrices can be brittle, ductile, elastic, or plastic.
They can have either linear or nonlinear stress-strain behavior. In addition, the matrix material must be
capable of being forced around
the reinforcement during some stage in the manufacture of the composite. Fibers must often be chemically
treated to ensure proper adhesion to the matrix.
1. Carbon Matrix. A carbon matrix has a high heat capacity per unit weight. They have been used as rocket
nozzles, ablative shields for reentry vehicles, and clutch and brake pads for aircraft.
2. Ceramic Matrix. A ceramic matrix is usually brittle. Carbon, ceramic, metal, and glass fibers are
typically used with ceramic matrices in areas where extreme environments (high temperatures, etc.) are
anticipated.
3. Glass Matrix. Glass and glass-ceramic composites usually have an elastic modulus much lower than that
of the reinforcement. Carbon and metal oxide fibers are the most common reinforcements with glass matrix
composites.
The best characteristics of glass or ceramic matrix composites is their strength at high service temperatures.
The primary applications of glass matrix composites are for heat-resistant parts in engines, exhaust
systems, and electrical
components.
4. Metal Matrix. A metal matrix is especially good for high-temperature use in oxidizing environments.
The most commonly used metals are iron, nickel, tungsten, titanium, magnesium, and aluminum. There are
three classes of metal
matrix composites:
Class I. The reinforcement and matrix are insoluble (there is little chance that degradation will affect
service life of the part). Reinforce mendmatrix combinations in this class include tungsten or
alumindcopper, BN-coated B or borod aluminum, and borod magnesium.
Class ii. The reinforcemend matrix exhibit some solubility (generally over a period of time and during
processing) and the interaction will alter the physical properties of the composite. Reinforcemend matrix
combinations included in this class are carbon or tungsted nickel, tungsted columbium, and
tungstedcopper( chromium).
The assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of these materials are always presented in the context
of other used materials, resp. composites.
 The advantages of the metal matrix
 high strength and toughness
 usability at higher temperatures
 non-absorbability
 improved/higher radiation resistance
 they do not absorb or release gases into the surrounding area
 mostly non-flammable they conduct electricity and heat well
 the possibility of welding (them) to each other and with other metals
 higher hardness and wear resistance
 resistance to surface damage, and more
Disadvantages of the metal matrix
 more complex production
 relatively underdeveloped technology of production
 high specific weight, density
 typically a higher price
 little experience with maintenance and disposal worse formability
 some are subject to corrosion
.
1.2 Laminates
When there is a single ply or a lay-up in which all of the layers or plies are stacked in the same orientation,
the lay-up is called a lamina. When the plies are stacked at various angles, the lay-up is called a laminate.
Continuous-fiber composites.
are normally laminated materials (Fig. 1.8) in which the individual layers, plies, or lamina are oriented in
directions that will enhance the strength in the primary load direction. Unidirectional (0°) laminae are
extremely strong and stiff in the 0° direction. However, they are very weak in the 90° direction because the
load must be carried by the much weaker polymeric matrix.
While a high-strength fiber can have a tensile strength of 500 ksi (3500 MPa) or more, a typical polymeric
matrix normally has a tensile strength of only 5 to 10 ksi (35 to 70 MPa) (Fig. 1.9). The longitudinal
tension and compression loads are carried by the fibers, while the matrix distributes the loads between the
fibers in tension and stabilizes TYthe fibers and prevents them from buckling in compression. The matrix
is also the primary load carrier for interlaminar shear (i.e., shear between the layers) and transverse (90°)
tension.

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of

Composite Materials
The advantages of composites are many, including lighter weight, the ability to tailor the layup for
optimum strength and stiffness, improved fatigue life, corrosion resistance, and, with good design practice,
reduced assembly costs due to
fewer detail parts and fasteners
Disadvantages of composites include high raw material costs and usually high fabrication and assembly
costs; adverse effects of both temperature and moisture; poor strength in the out-of plane direction where
the matrix carries the primary load (they should not be used where load paths are complex, such as with
lugs and fittings); susceptibility to impact damage and de laminations
or ply separations; and greater difficulty in repairing them compared to metallic structures.
Cermets Cermet is a term for composites produced by powder metallurgy with the matrix of moderate or
refractory metals and a refractory dispersion of compounds (often oxides). The quantity of dispersion usually
exceeds 50%, so there are often pores within the structure in large quantities. Conventional cermets and
special cermets A+W are used primarily where there is the requirement for high abrasion resistance,
corrosion resistance, changes in temperature and high mechanical strength.
Applications
Carbide drills are often made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard tungsten carbide particles inside. Some
tank armors may be made from metal matrix composites, probably steel reinforced with nitride. Boron nitride
is a good reinforcement for steel because it is very stiff and it does not dissolve in molten steel. Some
automotive brakes use MMCs. Early Elise models used aluminium MMC rotors, but they have less than
optimal heat properties and Lotus has since switched back to cast-iron. Modern high-performance cars, such
as those built by Porsche, use rotors made of carbon fiber within a silicon carbide matrix because of its high
specific heat and thermal conductivity. 3Msells a preformed aluminium matrix insert for strengthening cast
aluminium disc brake callipers for AMC pushrods. Ford offers a Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) driveshaft
upgrade. The MMC driveshaft is made of an aluminium boron carbide matrix, allowing the critical speed of
the driveshaft to be raised by reducing inertia. The MMC driveshaft has become a common modification for
racers, allowing the top speed to be increased far beyond the safe operating speeds of a standard aluminium
driveshaft