MHW1

MARINE HYDRAULICS WORKSHOP Rev1.
0 April 11
CONTENTS
1. Advantages of hydraulic systems…………1

2. Fundamental principles…………………… 3-9
3. Block diagram of hydraulic systems……... 10
4. Component and circuit symbols…………..11-16
5. Hydraulic fluid………………………………. 17-18
6. Reservoirs………………………………….. 19-21
7. Filters and contaminants………………….. 22-32
8. Pumps………………………………………. 33-46
9. Direction control valves…………………… 47-58
10. Solenoids for valve actuation…………….. 59-60
11. Pressure control valves…………………… 61-77
12. Flow control valves………………………… 78-86
13. Actuators……………………………………. 87-96
14. Accumulators………………………………. 97-102
15. Modular Valves……………………………...103-104
16. Cartridge valves…………………………… 105-117
17. Proportional valves……………………….. 118-137
18. Safety precautions………………………….138-141
19. Maintenance and watchkeeping…………. 142-147
20. Hoses and hose fittings…………………… 148-149
21. Seals………………………………………… 150-153
22. Troubleshooting hints and guidelines…….154-159
23. Thumb rules for hydraulic systems………. 160-161
24. Safematic operation for strg. gear……….. 162-163
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 0

MARINE HYDRAULICS WORKSHOP Rev1.0 April 11
AIM OF THE COURSE:

1. TO UNDERSTAND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS
2. TO READ HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS WITH THE

HELP OF SYMBOLS
3. KNOW THE CONSTRUCTION & FUNCTION OF IMPORTANT

COMPONENTS USED IN HYDRAULICS
4. OPERATE, MAINTAIN AND TROUBLESHOOT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
ADVANTAGES:
1. AUTOMATIC LUBRICATION.
2. HIGH POWER / WEIGHT RATIO – small component can handle large

power.
3. SIMPLE DESIGN, FEW PARTS & LESS COMPLICATED CONSTRUCTION.
4. FLEXIBILITY – same component can do different jobs

_ can take power anywhere, only pipes, hoses required.
5. EASE OF CONTROL – only a lever required to start/stop/reverse the

actuator.
6. PRECISE MOTION CONTROL – jobs exactly as required, less waste &

better quality.
7. FORCE MULTIPLICATION ACHIEVED WITHOUT LEVERS, PULLEYS,

GEARS, AND CHAINS ETC.
8. BETTER SPEED CONTROL – from <1rpm to >1000 rpm (motor can even be
made to stall).
9. INSTANT STOPPING / REVERSIBILITY.
10. CONSTANT TORQUE WITH VARIABLE SPEED SINCE TORQUE α

PRESSURE AND SPEED∝ FLOW
11. INBUILT SAFETY – actuator can be stalled at full load (even if relief valve
lifts – it will reset immediately when overload is removed.
12. AUTOMATIC BRAKING – by blocking flow, no brakes, linings etc. required.
13. CAN BE USED IN HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS.

PASCALS LAW
Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions, and acts with equal force on equal areas, and at right
angles to them

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1. PASCAL’S LAW: Pressure exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted

undiminished in all direction and acts with equal force on equal areas & at
right angles to them.
2. Hydraulics is a means of power transmission.
3. Work is force acting through a distance.
WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE. W = F x D = Energy used.
4. Power is the rate of doing work. POWER = WORK/TIME = F x D/T.
5. A pump does not pump pressure, its purpose is to create flow. Pumps used
to transmit power are usually positive displacement types.
6. Pressure is caused by resistance to flow. A pressure gauge indicates the
work load at any given moment.
7. Fluids take the path of least resistance.
8. A fluid is pushed, not drawn in-to a pump.
9. Pressure at the bottom of a one foot column of oil will be approximately 0.4
PSI. T o find the approximate pressure at the bottom of any column of oil,
multiply the height in feet by 0.4.
10. Atmospheric pressure equals 14.7 PSIA at sea level. Gauge readings do
not include atmospheric pressure unless marked PSIA.
11. There must be pressure drop (pressure difference) across an orifice or
restriction to cause flow through it. Conversely, if there is no flow there will
be no pressure difference.
12. Flow velocity through a pipe varies through a pipe varies inversely as the
square of the inside diameter. Reducing the diameter by half increases the
velocity by four times.
13. Friction losses (pressure drop) in a pipe are directly proportional to velocity.
14. One H.P. = 33,000 ft.lbs per minute or 33,000 lbs. Raised one foot in one
minute.
15. 1 H.P. = 746 WATTS = 42.4 BTU/MIN.
16. KW = L.P.M. x BAR/600.
17. H.P. = G.P.M. x PSI x 0.000583.
18. H.P. of a prime mover = GPM x PSI x 0.0007.

Hydraulic Principle I:
Movement depends on Flow
For anything to move in a hydraulic machine, the actuators must be supplied with
fluid flow. Nothing moves without flow.
This cylinder is retracted. It can extend only if there is flow into port A. If there is
no flow into port A, the piston will not move.

Hydraulic Principle II:

Rate of Flow Determines Speed
Actuator speed depends upon rate of flow. The faster fluid fills the cylinder, the
faster the piston will move. The faster fluid fills the expanding spaces in a
hydraulic motor, the faster the shaft will turn.
What are the possible causes of

5 GPM
slow actuator speed? Anything
which reduces flow rate in or out
of the cylinder. For example:
10 GPM
Pump flow output may be low. If the pump should be producing 10 gallons
per minute (0.631 liters/second), and is producing only 6 gpm (0.379 l/s)
actuator speed will be slow.
In this case, actuator speed would be affected in both directions.
The Directional Control Valve spool may not have shifted all the way.
Incomplete shifting will restrict flow through the valve, reducing the flow rate
delivered to the actuator.
Notice that in this case speed

may be affected in one direction
only. If the valve shifts fully the
other way, cylinder speed will be
normal in the other direction.

Hydraulic Principle III:

Load Determines Pressure
The pressure developed in an actuator depends on the load. That is, pressure
will rise until the force is exerts on the piston in a cylinder can move the load. The
greater the load, the higher the pressure will rise.
50 PSI
(344 kPa)
150 PSI
(1034 kPa)
Think of it this way: Pressure in an actuator will rise until something gives.
Normally, the load will move.
If the load does not move, it is because either:
The load itself may have become too great, or the cylinder may be binding
or side loaded. Too much force, and therefore pressure, is required to
move the load. In this case, the system relief valve will open at its setting
to prevent damage to the system. Then all pump flow goes through the
relief valve to the tank, instead to the actuator.
Or, the load may be normal but there is not enough pressure available to
move it. The relief valve may be leaking or set too low. The pump may be
slipping its total volume. Other leaks in the system may be absorbing all
pump output and preventing the pressure in the cylinder from rising
enough to move the load.



4. A drain line returns leakage

5. A pilot line operates a valve oil to the reservoirs
or other control.
3. The pressure
line is working
line
1. The pump
Inlet line is
a working
line.
2. Return lines are

working lines
Three Classifications of lines
Drain : In hydraulics, oil automatically lubricates the moving parts, thus there is
always a clearance between fixed and moving components. Since flow is
proportional to area of orifice and ∆P, there will be a leakage at these points.
This is called drain. This drained oil must be led to tank to avoid the build of back
pressure (since oil is incompressible) and component malfunction.
This is done in two ways:

Internal – in those components with tank connection –in this type, the drain is
not shown in the circuit or component symbol.
External – in those components without tank connection, a separate drain
port and drain pipe is required to lead the drain oil to tank – this is shown in
circuit as a dotted line going to tank.
Caution – all drain lines to be led separately to tank to avoid back pressure build
up and inadvertent operation of the valve.
Pilot : In many cases, movement of the valve is done by a pressure signal taken from
the system. This line is shown similar to the drain line but not connected to tank –
thus we can differentiate between a drain line and a pilot line. The pilot line can
be likened to the starting circuit of an electric motor – where control voltages are
much less than the main motor voltage.
Piloting is done in two ways :

Internal – this is done from the same circuit as the one in which the component
is located.
External – this is when the pilot signal is taken from another pumps’ circuit or
from a remote location.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
PUMP ACTUATOR
Pressure Direction Flow
Gear Cylinder
Hyd. Control Control Control
Vane Motor
Piston Energy
Control Signals
Mech. Energy
Mech. Energy
PRESSURE CONTROL: Control of Force

a. Relief valve
b. Compound relief valve
c. Pres. Reducing valve
d. Counter balancing valve
e. Unloading valve
f. Braking valve
DIRECTION CONTROL: Control of direction

a. 1,2,3,4 way (port) valves
b. 2 or 3 position valves
c. Different methods of actuation
Manual, Mechanical, Electrical, Pneumatic, Pilot.
FLOW CONTROL: Control of speed

a. Meter in
b. Meter out
c. Bleed off
d. Non-compensated
e. Pressure compensated
f. Pressure & temp. compensated.

Circuit – Representation Using Graphical Symbols
Cylinder
Flow Control Valve
Check Valve
Pressure-control Valve
Pump
CYLINDER APPLICATIONS

ACTUATORS & PUMPS
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

SPRING EXTENSION

SPRING RETURN
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER WITH

CUSHIONING AT BOTH ENDS
UNIDIRECTION
MOTOR UNIDIRECTION
PUMP, FIXED
DELIVERY
BI DIRECTION
MOTOR VARIABLE
DELIVERY,
UNIDIRECTION
PUMP
SEMI-ROTARY
MOTOR
VARIABLE
DELIVERY,
VARIABLE
BI DIRECTION
DISPLACEMENT
BI DIRECTION PUMP
MOTOR

DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS
2 PORT,
2 POSITION D.C. v/v 3 PORT,
2 POSITION D.C. v/v
A B
4 PORT,
2 POSITION D.C. v/v
P T
A B
4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (OPEN CENTER)
P T
A B
4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (CLOSED CENTER)
P T
A B
4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (TANDEM CENTER)
P T
A B
4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (FLOAT CENTER)
P T
A B
4 PORT SERVO v/v
P T

METHODS OF OPERATION
MANUAL
SOLENOID
PUSH BUTTON
INTERNAL PILOT
LEVER
EXTERNAL PILOT
ROLLER
DETENT
SPRING
MISCELLANEOUS
M ELECTRICAL MOTOR TEMP CONTROLLER
ACCUMULATOR FILTER, STRAINER
HEATER PR. SWITCH
COOLER
RESERVOIR

PRESSURE CONTROLS
Name Pilot Drain

RELIEF VALVE INTERNAL INTERNAL
Limits max. system
pressure
PR. REDUCING INTERNAL EXTERNAL

VALVE (FROM OUTLET
SIDE)
SEQUENCE v/v INTERNAL EXTERNAL
SEQUENCE v/v
WITH INTEGRAL
CHECK v/v
COUNTER INTERNAL INTERNAL

BALANCE v/v OR
EXTERNAL
COUNTER
BALANCE v/v
WITH INTEGRAL
CHECK v/v
UNLOADING v/v EXTERNAL INTERNAL

FLOW CONTROLS
CHECK VALVE
PILOT OPERTED CHECK VALVE
FIXED ORIFICE FLOW CONTROL v/v
FIXED ORIFICE v/v WITH BYPASS FOR REVERSE

FREE FLOW
VARIABLE ORIFICE FLOW CONTROL v/v
VARIABLE ORIFICE v/v WITH BYPASS FOR

REVERSE FREE FLOW
PRESS AND TEMP. COMPENSATED FLOW

CONTROL VALVE
SHUTTLE VALVE

FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OIL
FUNCTIONS :
1. TRANSMITS POWER
2. LUBRICATES COMPONENTS
3. REMOVES AND AIDS IN DISSIPATING HEAT FROM THE SYSTEM
4. TENDS TO SEAL CLEARANCES
5. INHIBITS RUST / CORROSION
6. ACTS AS A BRAKE WHEN REQUIRED
PROPERTIES :
1. VISCOSITY (similar to electrical resistance)
2. LUBRICITY
3. FILM STRENGTH
4. POUR POINT
5. FLASH POINT
6. DEMULSIBILITY (ability to separate from water rapidly)
7. RESISTANCE TO FOAMING (ability to quickly give up air)
8. CHEMICAL STABILITY - resistance to oxIdation
9. ANTI WEAR PROPERTIES
10. COMPRESSIBILITY
Additives are added to the oil to improve the above properties and thus extend
the life of the oil.

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:

IF THE VISCOSITY IS TOO HIGH :
1. The internal friction of the fluid will increase resulting in increase

in the flow resistance.
2. The machine and fluid temperature will increase.
3. Machine operation will be sluggish.
4. Pressure drop throughout the system will increase.
IF THE VISCOSITY IS TOO LOW :
1. Internal and external leakage will increase.
2. Pump slippage will increase and reduce pump efficiency and

increase oil temperature.
3. Increase in friction between the moving parts will result in

increased wear and more heat evolution.
4. The system will operate at a lower pressure.
5. There will be a loss of precise control.

IMPORTANCE OF RESERVOIRS
RESERVOIR:
Functions:
1. To aid in expelling entrained air.

2. Cooling the hydraulic fluid.
3. Aids in removing contaminants.
Important design aspects:
1. Tank capacity should be about 3 – 4 times the gpm of the pump.

2. It should be on legs, not flush with deck – to aid heat transfer & to
enable complete draining.
3. Baffle plate to be placed between return lines and pump suction
line.
4. Breather cap to be fitted & kept tightly in place.
5. Sight glass / level gauge to be kept clean and operational.
6. Return line bottom edge to be chamfered.
7. Level of oil in tank to be maintained at least 3 – 4 “ above the
suction filter.

Typical Industrial Reservoir


FILTERS AND CONTAMINANTS
Filter types :
1. Suction line filter – about 100 – 200 microns.

2. Pressure line filter – about 5 – 10 microns.
3. Return line filter – about 20 – 40 microns.
4. Off line filtration.
5. Full flow filters.
6. Proportional flow filters.
7. Filters with ∆P indicators and / or inbuilt bypass valves.
Importance of regular checks and cleaning / renewal of line filters

cannot be overstressed.
While replacing filter elements, it should be ensured that the new

element is of correct type and size.
SOURCES OF CONTAMINANTS
1. Built in dirt.
2. Present in initial charge of oil.
3. Ingress while filling new oil – to use 10 micron filter.
4. Ingress through loose breather cap – keep tight – check filter
element.
5. Generated in cylinder.
6. Ingress from cylinder oil seals.
7. Generated in pump, valves etc.
8. Ingress of rust, paint flakes from tank.
9. Introduced during repairs.
Maximum abrasion occurs due to particles slightly smaller or the

same size as the clearance between moving parts.

INLET FILTER

RETURN LINE FILTER

Hydraulic Fluid Cleanliness Requirements
Cleanliness requirements for hydraulic fluids have changed significantly in recent years. The
standard of cleanliness that was acceptable a few years ago is no longer sufficient for many of
today’s hydraulic systems. This is especially true for highly-automated facilities, such as electro-
hydraulic servo valves, numerically controlled machines, and aircraft and missiles system. A
hydraulic system may be perfect with respect to the design and construction, but if the fluid that is
used in the system contains excessive contamination, either the operation of the equipment may
be unsatisfactory or damage to the unit may occur.
A number of different classification system have been used by various organization and individual
companies to define and measure the cleanliness level for the hydraulic and lubricating fluids that
are used in equipment. To standardize the method used to express the level of particulate
contamination in hydraulic fluid, the International Standards Organization (ISO) developed
standard ISO4406. ISO 4406 is an internationally recognized standard that not only expresses
the level of particulate contamination of a hydraulic fluid, but it is also used to specify the required
cleanliness for hydraulic components and system. This widely accepted system provides a
consistent and meaningful standard that can be used by all manufacturers and users.
KEEPING HYDRAULIC FLUIDS CLEAN
Cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid and system is essential to maintaining the

longest possible service life of the fluid and to ensuring trouble-free operation of
the system. System cleanliness starts with keeping the hydraulic fluid clean and
free of contamination during the storage and installation.
STORAGE AND HANDLING
Hydraulic fluid suppliers are careful to ensure that the fluid is clean when it is delivered to the
customer. The customer must follow storage and handling precautions to ensure that the fluid is
clean when it is installed in the system. These storage and handling precautions are
recommended to prevent contamination of the fluid by materials such as dust, water and dirt. The
following are some of the precautions for storage and handling that are recommended by
hydraulic fluid suppliers.
Drums of hydraulic fluid should be stored on their sides to prevent any accumulation of moisture,
dirt and dust on the top of the drum.
Drums should be stored indoor or under some sort of shelter to keep the drums out of the harsh
effects of the elements.
The top of the drum must be cleaned of dirt or moisture before opening to prevent dirt or moisture
from falling into the drum and contaminating the fluid.
Hydraulic oils received in bulk should be filtered into clean tanks or other storage vessels.
Equipment that is used to transfer the fluid from the storage containers to the reservoirs (hoses,
pumps, etc) should be equipment that is specifically designated for that purpose. The general use
of any hose or container will cross contaminate the hydraulic fluid. The transfer equipment must
be thoroughly cleaned prior to use. Hoses should have their ends capped, and containers should
be covered after use to prevent the entrance of contaminants.
Because many facilities use different types of hydraulic fluids in different system, equipment that
is used to transfer fluid to these systems should be designated and used for each different fluid to
prevent cross-contaminating noncompatible fluids.
Even though fluid suppliers are careful to deliver only clean fluid, a filtration system should be
used to transfer the fluid to the reservoir. The degree of filtration should be the same as the
filtration system that is used on the equipment. Many fluid suppliers will provide hydraulic fluid
filtration system specifically designed for filtering fluid as it is added to the system.
Facilities should establish and follow hydraulic fluid standards and practices to prevent the
contamination of hydraulic system from the improper storage and handling of hydraulic fluids.

BASIC FILTRATION OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Example :
Sample size = 100 ml
Particle size range Number of particles
5 – 15 µ m 150,000 Thus, total number of particles….
15 – 25 µ m 5,000 > 5 µ m = 156,550
25 – 50 µ m 1,250 >15 µ m = 6,550
50 – 100 µ m 250 These two values are plotted on the
>100 µ m 50 graph as shown, which gives the
code as ‘ 18/13’
TABLE OF ISO CODES AND CORRESPONDING

CONTAMINATION LEVELS

Dear Customer!
In this service Bulletin we will highlight the hydraulic oil and the filtration.
As we all know the cleanliness of the oil as well as the general oil condition is very
important for the lifetime of the system.
The practical life has shown that some of the “FRAMO ships” are sailing around with far
too high particle level in the hydr. Oil.
Our recommended level of particles in the system is :

ISO 4406 code 16/12.
This means :
Number of particles per ml ≥ 5 µm: 320, max 640
Number of particles per ml ≥ 15 µm: 20, max 40
With FRAMO original filter element this cleanliness level should not be of any problem
to maintain.
Neverthless, we have found ships sailing around with more than 2-3 thousand particles
per ml between 5-15 µm.
This is very costly in the end, and we therefore strongly advise you to pay attention to the
filtration and the cleanliness of the hydr. Oil.
As you know the hydr. Oil has four main functions in the system:
1. Transmit the power from the aggregates to the different consumers.
2. Lubrication of all moving parts.
3. Transfer all produced heat back to the cooler.
4. Transfer all dirt back to the filter.
Do not play around with non FRAMO oil filter elements.
Be aware of the following important filter specifications:
1) The filter Beta Ration(β)

Normal FRAMO filters have a Beta ration = β 12 ≥ 75.
This means if 75 particles of 12 µm or bigger come into the filter only one passes
through. In other words the Beta Ration is the filter’s ability to stop the particles, i.e.
β = Particles in
Particles Out
2) The filter dirt capacity
Filter with higher dirt capacity gives longer service intervals and improved economy.
Particles counting combined with pressure drop over the filter is the only safe
indicator when to change the filter element.
FRAMO offices in Bergen, Rotterdam, Houston and Singapore can offer hydr. Oil
monitoring and particle counting.

It is essential that the oil sampling is provided regularly, from the same highlighted
sampling point, and in an absolutely clean sampling bottle.


TYPES OF PUMPS
PUMPS
Hydrostatic Hydrodynamic
Positive displacement Non-positive displacement
Rotary Reciprocating Centrifugal Axial flow

Hi-press., low speed
250/500 strokes/min
upto 700 bar
Gear Vane Piston

High press.
External Internal Unbalanced Balanced Radial Axial

Hi speed, Hi volume Hi speed, Hi volume upto 700 bar upto 350 bar
Low press. Low press.
upto 200 bar upto 200 bar
Normal Vane Intra-vane Intra-vane VQ In - line Bent - axis

upto 150 bar upto 200 bar upto 200 bar

PUMPS
Function : Converts mechanical energy into fluid energy.
Provides flow.
Types :
1. Hydrodynamic - Non +ve displacement

Centrifugal, axial flow etc.
2. Hydrostatic - +ve displacement. This type is used in hydraulic

systems since flow is not affected by load pressure.
Types of Hydrostatic pumps :
1. Gear pumps : These are simple in design, cheap and robust but
heavy, bulky and noisy. They can withstand a higher degree of
contamination.
Pressure rating - about 2000 - 3000 psi.
2. Vane pumps : These are light, small and quiet.

They require a higher degree of filtration.
Easy to maintain and repair (Cartridge type).
Pressure rating - > 3000 psi.
Require a minimum speed of 600 rpm.
Two types - Balanced and Unbalanced.
3. Piston pumps : These are used in high pressure applications.

Require very high filtration.
Two types - Axial and Radial.

COMMON PROBLEMS WITH PUMPS:
1. Contamination - This will result in loss of lubrication & increase in

clearances.
2. Cavitation - This is caused when pressure at pump suction

becomes 5"Hg (about 2.5 psi) below atmospheric.
Causes - Tank oil level low.

Suction filter clogged.
Oil viscosity higher than design - due wrong oil or low temp.
Long length and / or bends in suction line.
Inlet pipe clogged.
Breather cap choked.
Pump running higher than rated speed.
3. Aeration - This is caused by presence of air in the system.
Causes - Can occur only from suction side of the pump.

Leaking suction line fittings.
Pump shaft seal leaking.
Return / drain lines not immersed in oil in tank.
High velocity of return oil.
Both cavitation and aeration will cause the pump to run with more noise than
normal.

NON-POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

SIMPLE POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP








BENT-AXIS PUMP

Diagram showing the relationship of even numbered positions verses the larger
diameter odd numbered position to relate how capacity is affected as rotation
occurs relative to the valve plate of an axial position pump.
A condition unique to the variable displacement an average of two pistons cease to discharge
pump is that seven, nine or eleven pistons are used during one revolution, the effective discharge is
(Fig. 3.14). To explain why this significant, consider six cubic inches per revolution.
an axial piston pump that is designed with eight Likewise, the pump with seven 1.1 inch-
pistons. At some point during the revolution of the diameter pistons has a theoretical
cylinder barrel, two of the active pistons are located displacement of the remaining six pistons is 7.4
directly over the lands used to segregate the two cubic inches per revolution. Therefore, the
semicircular grooves. As the pistons are at the capacity of the pump is improved by using an
extremes of their strokes, as well as not being odd number of pistons.
aligned with either groove, the oil in the cylinders is As previously stated, regardless of the length
unable to pass from the cylinder barrel. Therefore, of the pump stroke, lubrication of all internal
only six of the eight cylinders are at this instance. parts is possible. First, you should realize that
As the cylinder barrel rotates a few degrees, the to have proper lubrication of all internal parts is
pistons that were positioned over the lands become possible. First, you should realize that to have
aligned with their respective semicircular grooves. At proper lubrication, continuous flow of the
the same time, the pistons that pass over the lands lubricant must exsist. The construction of the
next have not as yet passed from the semicircular radial piston pump floating ring, at neutral
grooves. This means that all eight pistons are active stroke, prevents the continuous flow of oil,
at this instance. With the constant change from eight because of the design of floating ring. On the
to six and back to eight active pistons, pulsation’s are other hand, the axial piston pump produces an
developed by the pump. By reducing the number of entierl different lubricating condition.
pistons to seven, only one piston is always exposed
to the lands.
When the number of pistons is reduced to seven,
for example, the piston diameter is increased by one-
tenth of an inch. This also means that the capacity of
the pump is increased. For comparison, the pump
stroke is held at a maximum of 1.25 inches.
Initially, the eight one-inch pistons are found to
produce a displacement of 7.85 cubic inches per
revolution. Since it has already been stipulated that

DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
These valves start, stop and control the direction (path) of fluid flow.
They are classified according to their principal characteristics as given below :
1. Type of internal valving element:

a. Poppet (ball or piston)
b. Rotary spool
c. Sliding spool (this is the most commonly found type)
2. Method of actuation:
a. Manual
b. Mechanical
c. Pneumatic
d. Hydraulic
e. Electric
f. Piloted
3. Number of flow paths:

a. One way (check valve)
b. Two way
c. Three way
d. Four way
4. Number of positions:
a. Two position
b. Three position
Two types of basic direction control valves:
Four port, two position valve Four port, three position valve


TWO – POSITION
FOUR PORT VALVE

THREE – POSITION 4 – WAY VALVES

Three position valves, with center neutral, are used in circuits where the cylinder must
be stopped in mid travel. The 3 – position valve pictured below has all ports blocked in
center neutral, but several other choices of center porting are commonly used, and these
are illustrated in diagrams on the following pages. The two side positions give the same
cylinder reversing action as the two – position valve previously described. The center
position is considered the “normal” position, and in drawing diagrams, all external circuit
connections should be made to the center block.
The three flow blocks showing fluid flow in

the three working position are placed side
by side, then actuator symbols are added
on one or both ends as needed. The valve
shown is a double solenoid, spring
centered valve with closed center spool.



DIRECTIONAL VALVE SPOOL TYPES

TYPE “0” .........
A B TYPE “0” . Open Center: All ports
interconnected when spool is in neutral. Pump
is unloaded. For use when there are no external
forces acting on the cylinder when the spool is
in neutral.
P T
TYPE “1” .........

A B
TYPE “1” . Allows flow from pressure “P” and
cylinder “A “ port to the tank. Can be used to
support a load at cylinder “B” while pump is
unloaded to tank with valve centered.
P T
TYPE “2” .........

A B
TYPE “2” . Closed Center: All ports are blocked
when spool is in neutral. Prevents load from
moving in either direction. Allows pump to be
used for other operations. (When same pump is
P T used to operate less than one actuator).
TYPE “3” ......... TYPE “3” . All ports blocked except cylinder “A”
A B which connects to the tank when spool is in
neutral. Occasionally when both cylinder ports
are blocked, there is a tendency for pressure to
intensify at the rod end of a double acting single
ended cylinder due to leakage. Type “3” spool
P T
prevents this by opening the rod end to the
tank.
TYPE “4” .........
A B TYPE “4” . Tandem Center: Flow to the tank
and both cylinders blocked in neutral with
closed cross-over. Blocked cylinder ports
prevent pressure build-up in the cylinder during
series operation. Closed cross-over permits
P T supporting a load while the spool is shifting.
TYPE “6” .........
TYPE “6” . Pump flow blocked – both cylinder
A B connected to the tank in neutral, permits free
movement of the cylinder or motor when spool
is in neutral. Allows the pump to be used for
other operations. Pilot spools on spring
centered pilot operated valves are type “6” to
P T
permit main spool to center.

TYPE “7” .........

A B TYPE “7” . Flow open to both ports with tank blocked in
neutral. Permits regenerative advance of cylinder with
spool in neutral. Pressure is open to both ends of
cylinder so greater area at cap end causes it to move
forward.
P T
TYPE “8” .........

A B TYPE “8” . Tandem Center: Flow to the tank and both
cylinders blocked in neutral with open crossover. Same
as type “4” except it has “open crossover” and will not
support a load while the spool is shifting.
P T
TYPE “9” .........

A B
TYPE “9” . Restricted flow from all ports to the tank in
neutral. It is usually used as a two position valve to
provide smooth reversals of reciprocating cylinders.
P T
TYPE “33” .........

A B TYPE “33” . Flow blocked – restricted flow from both
cylinder ports to the tank in neutral. Used to prevent
inadvertent drift of a horizontal cylinder by preventing
pressure increase at the cylinder ports due to leakage.
Also used in proportional valves.
P T
NOTE:
The graphic symbol for type #4 and #8 spools depict parallel flow paths adjacent to
pressure connection, while all other types show crossed flow paths adjacent to the
pressure connection. This difference occurs due to the necessity of using a 3 land
spool for a type #4 and #8 and, basically, a 2 land spool for the other types.
Example: Shifting both spools to the right, we find flow out of “A” in a 3 land spool
and flow out of “B” using a 2 land spool.
T A P B T A P B
3 LAND SPOOL 2 LAND SPOOL

Pilot Operated Check Valves

These valves act like conventional non-return valves (i.e. aloe flow in one
direction only), but can be opened by pilot pressure to allow flow in the reverse
direction Being poppet type they are virtually leak-free when closed and are thus
useful in preventing creep or inadvertent movement of an actuator. They may
also be used to prevent movement of an actuator if a hose fails.
Flow into port A lifts poppet 1 off its

seat, passes freely through and out of
port B.
Flow into port B will act on top of the
poppet which with spring 2 it closes
onto its seat preventing reverse flow B
to A.
For reverse flow B to A pressure can
be applied to pilot port X. This will push

1. General description
These modules provide pilot operated check functions in one or both service
lines (A and B), the pilot supply coming from opposite service line to that in which
the check acts. When closed, the check prevents flow from the actuator port to
which it is externally connected. The construction of a dual check module is
shown below:
2. Functional Symbols
DGMPC-3-ABK-BAK
P T B A
DGMPC-3-ABK
P T B A


PILOT CHOKE MOUNTED ON VALVE

SOLENOIDS FOR DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE

ACTUATION.
These are the most common actuators for direction control valves.
The ones used in this application are of the 'on - off' type.
The solenoids always actuate the spool by PUSHING on it.
They can be DC (generally round shape & black) or AC (generally flat
sided and blue)
Solenoids are made up of two main parts - the coil (which receives
the supply) and the armature (which is the moving element).
Two solenoid designs in use are :

Air gap type - here an air space separates the solenoid from the
system. To prevent oil leakage, the solenoid pin is sealed with the
help of a dynamic seal. If this seal leaks, the oil will come in contact
with the coil. Thus the other type …
Wet armature type - here all the solenoids moving parts (armature &
solenoid pin) operate in the oil, sealed inside a core tube, which is
surrounded by the coil. Seals required here are only a static seal
(where the core tube is screwed into the valve body) and a seal at the
manual push pin. Thus, the coil is effectively prevented from coming
into contact with oil. Also, the oil acts as a cushion for the pushpin &
armature, thus quieter operation & longer life. But this design requires
about 1.6 times the electrical power taken by the air gap type.
In both these types, if energised and the armature does not move to
its end position, the current drawn will be too high & the coil will burn
(A.C. Coils).
Reasons for coil burning:

1. Contamination in system - valve spool jammed.
2. Misalignment between solenoid flange & spool.
3. All 4 bolts of above flange not equally tight.
4. Excessive ambient temperature.
5. If both coils are energised at the same time (this is normally
prevented with an interlock arrangement - but to be safe, both
supply wires should not run together.

DIRECT – ACTING SOLENOID VALVES

Figure: A direct-acting solenoid valve is one
where the solenoid armature is directly linked
to the spool and provides the necessary push
or pull “muscle” for shifting it.
In this single solenoid valve the spool is driven
in one direction by the solenoid force and in the
other by spring action after the solenoid is de-
energized. Porting through the valve when de-
energized and energized is shown by the left
and right blocks respectively of the graphic
symbol. This is the same as for any standard 4-
way valve. The usual construction of spool
valves naturally results in having an exhaust
discharge path at each end of the spool. On air
valves these dual exhaust are often brought
out individually, but on hydraulic valves, to
simplify plumbing, they are usually combined
internally and brought out as a single
connection, T, for tank.
Electrical Requirement. The single solenoid valve requires a “maintained” electrical signal to stay in a
shifted position.
Maximum Size. Direct-acting valves of modern design are usually, but not always limited to ¼” maximum
size. The high current and heavy impact of larger solenoids creates many operational problems both
electrically and physically.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
These valves perform functions such as limiting maximum system

pressure or regulating reduced pressure in certain sections of the
circuit and other functions wherein their actuation is a result of a
change in operating pressure.
Some of the most common types and their function are listed below:
1. Direct operated relief valve
2. Balanced piston type relief valve

They limit the maximum pressure in the system.
3. Direct acting pressure reducing valve
4. Pilot operated pressure reducing valve

They maintain reduced pressures in certain branch circuits of
the system.
5. Sequence valve – used when two or more functions

are to be carried out one after another
(sequentially)
6. Counterbalance valve – used to support a vertical

load and prevent cylinder creep.
7. Brake valve - used in cranes and winches to prevent

excessive acceleration and to prevent the
load from ‘running away’.
8. Unloading valve - used to save power by unloading the

pump or pumps when large flows are not
required ( otherwise the extra oil will go
over the relief valve at high pressure).

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

BAR
150 C
S
Y PRESSURE
S
T
B OVER-RIDE
E A
M 100
P
R
E
S
S
50
U
R
E
LPM
0 10 20
BY PASS FLOW
GRAPH TO SHOW: PRESSURE OVER-RIDE

Direct-acting relief valves often start to “leak” part of the
system oil to the tank by the time pressure reaches only 50 to
60% of the pressure at which full flow is discharged. This
naturally produces more heating in the oil and reduces
system efficiency. Although slower to act than a direct-acting
type, a pilot-operated relief valve will keep the system
pressure more constant while releasing oil. They are
recommended for all systems which are designed for frequent
or continual by-pass of part or all of the oil flow to the tank.
Action of a Pilot-Operated Relief Valve. Figure 7-3: Pump
oil is held in the hydraulic system under pressure when the
main poppet of the relief valve is closed. It is dumped to
reservoir if the main poppet opens. The poppet is held closed
by hydraulic pressure which enters the main spring chamber
through the control orifice. The light main spring has very little
effect in holding the main poppet closed. Its main functions
are to get the main poppet in a closed position before the
pump is started, and to enable the relief valve to be mounted
upside down or sideways.
The intensity of the oil pressure holding the main poppet closed is regulated with a small direct-
acting relief valve called the “pilot relief” which is built into the relief valve body or into the top cap of
the relief valve. The intensity of oil holding pressure is set on the pressure adjustment knob. As
system pressure rises, the main poppet remains tightly closed. But when system pressure rises to
equal or exceed the tension which has been set on the pilot spring, the pilot relief valve will not permit
any further rise in pressure inside the main spring chamber. Oil which continues to come from the
pump line through the control orifice into the main spring chamber is simply by-passed to reservoir
through the pilot relief poppet. If at any time pressure in the pump line should exceed the setting of the
pilot spring, the pilot relief poppet would open to prevent any further pressure rise inside the main
spring chamber. Thus, if pressure in the pump line should continue to rise, the main poppet would
open to by-pass enough flow to prevent any further pressure rise.



Vent Connection. Pilot operated relief valves may be remotely controlled by means of an outlet
port from the chamber above the piston. When the chamber is vented to the tank, the only force
holding the piston on its seat is that of the light spring, and the valve will open fully at
approximately 20 psi, see figures.
Occasionally, this standard spring is replaced by a heavier one permitting vent pressure of
approximately 80 psi when required for pilot pressure. A second benefit of the heavier vent spring
is that it causes faster and more positive seating of the piston.
Remote Control. It is also possible to connect a direct-acting relief valve to the vent connection
to control pressure from a remote location (see figure). To exercise control, the remote valve
must be set for a lower pressure than the integral pilot stage. An application of remote pressure
control is illustrated in.
Multiple Preset Pressures: Multi-pressure, solenoid operated relief valves are also available
that provide ability to electrically select one pressure from a set of given preset pressures.
Bipressure relief valves can be used to select either of two preset pressure or one pressure and a
vent. Tri-pressure relief valves (see figure) can be used to electrically select any one of three
preset pressure, or two pressure and a vent. The main stage in either valve is a balanced piston
type relief valve, and the intermediate stages are of spring loaded poppet type. Heads in the
intermediate stages contain springs with different ratings. Typical spring ratings for three different
heads might be : 125-1000 psi, 500-2000 psi, 1500-3000 psi.
Different pressure are obtained by connecting the vent to the tank through one of the valve with
the help of a 3-position directional control valve.
Electrically Modulated. An electrically modulated relief valve provides the capability to modulate
system pressure using a remote electrical controller. The pressure setting of the valve is
approximately proportional to the input current, increasing current provides increasing pressure.
An electrically modulated relief valve (see figure) consists of three basic parts: a main stage, an
intermediate body, and the electrically modulated pilot. The main stage is similar to the standard
relief valve. The intermediate body contains standard relief valve pilot parts to provide manual
adjustment and has a mounting pad which accepts the electrically modulated pilot. The pilot
contains a flapper valve assembly, a blocking valve, and a ball-type check valve.

2. Pressure-reducing valve
2.1 Function and graphical symbol

It is the task of the pressure relief valve
to limit the pressure in the complete
system to a given level. The task of the
pressure-reducing valve, on the other
hand, is to reduce the pressure in a
particular branch of the circuit to that
required by a special load or consumer.
When the input pressure exceeds the
selected pressure, the valve continuously
closes a connection, which initially is fully
open. The graphical symbol shows the
initial open state as well as the control
from the output.
2.2 Directly-operated pressure-reducing valve

With this valve, the outlet pressure is applied to a
measuring surface, and not the input pressure.
The resulting force is then compared with the
force of a spring. If the force from the measuring
surface exceeds that force set at the spring, the
valve spool shifts and closes an initially open
connection between the two ports. The pressure
level which is to be reduced is regulated
independent of the through flow, whereby the
valve spool assumes any intermediate position
(regulating valve). Pressure-reducing valves are
designed almost without exception as spool-type
valve because in this application the emphasis is
upon precision control, even with the smallest of
flows, rather than upon lack of leakage.


2.3 Pilot-operated pressure-reducing

valve
Pressure-reducing valves are pilot-operated
when designed to handle large throughflows
for the same reason as outlined in 1.3. Such
devices are comprised of a main and a pilot
stage. The latter being a simple pressure-
relief valve of the poppet type. Generally, the
main s5tage is designed as a spool-type
valve (precision control) and is open in its
initial position. The output pressure which is
to be controlled is applied to the bottom end
of the main valve and via an orifice, to the
upper end. From the upper end, there exists
a connection to the pilot valve.
When the response pressure is reached, the
pilot valve opens and a quantity of control oil
flows through the orifice in the main valve.
Due to the pressure drop, the main valve
shifts upwards against the force of its spring,
and closes the connection between the input
and output in order to maintain the output
pressure constant. Pilot-operated pressure-
reducing valves maintain control of the
pressure even when the load does not need
any oil. During the control process though, a
certain control-oil flow must always be upheld
through the input. As a matter of principal,
this control-oil flow must be drained
externally.
The same as the pilot-operated pressure-
relief valves, these pressure-reducing valves
can feature remote-control pilot-operation, as
well as the “read-back” facility when
connected to a number of pilot valves.
2.4 3-way pressure-reducing valve

If an external force is applied to the load from
the outside, then a simple pressure-reducing
valve does not suffice for pressure reduction
in the branch concerned. Some arrangement
must be made to relieve the pressure in this
branch. To this end, an additional pressure-
relief valve can be used which is set to a
slightly higher pressure than the pressure-
reducing valve.
This combination of a pressure-reducing
valve and a pressure-relief valve can be
incorporated in a single device: the 3-way
pressure-reducing valve. With this valve,
when the outlet pressure rises the inlet
connection from the pump to the load is at
first interrupted, and finally a connection from
the load to the tank is opened. The drawing
shows a directly operated version of such a
valve.

6 BAR
S
M
MARINE HYDRAULICS WORKSHOP
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE

5 BAR
PR
FROM PUMP
70
ILLUSTRATION OF A PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE AND SEQUENCE VALVE CIRCUIT
Operation of the motor can only commence after the clamping operation has been completed
Rev1.0 April 11


UNLOADING VALVE



COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
LOWERING CYLINDER RASING CYLINDER
A counterbalance is used to maintain control over a vertical cylinder so that it will

not fall freely because of gravity.
The primary port of the valve is connected to the lower cylinder port and the
secondary port to the directional valve.
The pressure setting is slightly higher than is required to hold the load from
failing.
When the pump delivery is directed to the top of the cylinder, the cylinder piston
is forced down causing pressure at the primary port to increase and raise the
spool, opening a flow path for discharge through the secondary port to the
directional valve ad subsequently to tank.
When the cylinder is being raised, the integral check valve opens to permit free
flow for returning the cylinder. The counterbalance valve can be internally
drained.
In the lowering position, when the valve must be open, its secondary port is
connected to tank.
In the reverse condition, it does not matter that load pressure is effective in the
drain passage, because the cheek valve bypasses the spool.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

The function of these valves is to control the flow of oil and thus, the
speed of the actuators.
They are normally fitted after the direction control valve to prevent
power loss.
Flow control valves are essentially designed to control flow in one

direction only and this direction is marked on the body by an arrow &
thus care should be taken to ensure the valve is fitted correctly.
Check valves bypassing the flow control valves are provided, if

required, to allow for unrestricted flow in the opposite direction.
There are 3 methods of accomplishing flow control :
1. Meter-in circuit
2. Meter-out circuit
3. Bleed off circuit
Meter-in & Bleed off circuits can only be used with opposing loads
and not with 'runaway' loads, whereas meter-out circuit can be used
with runaway loads.
Note : Meter-out circuit can give rise to a condition called pressure

intensification.
Both meter-in & meter-out circuits require the pump to operate at

relief valve settings thus causing power loss.
This is not the case with the bleed off circuit, but here the
disadvantage is that the measured flow goes to tank rather than to
the actuator. This causes the actuator speed to be prone to slight
variations in the pump delivery and also to leakages in the hydraulic
system.
Since, Flow α ∆P, any change in the pressure drop across the
orifice of the flow control valve will result in change in flow. To
prevent this, we have valves called Pressure compensated flow
control valves.
TYPES OF FLOW CONTROL
METER IN
METER OUT
BLEED – OFF
CONTROL


RESTRICTOR TYPE, PRESSURE-COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL

PRESSURE AND TEMPRATURE-COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL

PRESSURE COMPENSATED RESTRICTOR TYPE FLOW CONTROL



INTENSIFIERS
An intensifier is a device used to multiply pressure. Certain applications, such as riveters
or piercing machines, may require a small amount of high-pressure oil for the final
portion of the work cylinder travel. An intensifier can develop pressure several times
higher than that developed by the pump.
Pressure on the large area exerts a force requiring a considerably higher pressure on
the small area to resist it. Pressure increases inversely proportionate to the area ratios.
However, the volume of fluid discharged at high pressure will be proportionately less
than that required at the large end.

ACTUATORS
These convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
There are two types of actuators:

1. Cylinders: these are linear hydraulic actuators.
2. Motors: these are rotary hydraulic actuators.
CYLINDERS:
There are various types of cylinders, namely

1. Single acting
2. Spring return
3. Double acting
4. Double rod
5. Tandem
Some types of cylinders are provided with cushioning at the end of their stroke
(to slow down the piston and prevent it from hammering the end cap).
Maintenance & care :

1. Prevent side loading.
2. Rectify internal and external leakage if they occur.
3. Ensure rod wiper seal in good condition.
4. Check foundation bolts regularly.
MOTORS:
These closely resemble pumps in their construction, the difference being instead
of pushing on the fluid as in pumps, they are pushed by the hydraulic fluid and
thus develop torque and rotating motion.
They can be either fixed or variable displacement depending on their type /
design.
Types:
1. Gear motors
2. Vane motors
3. Piston motors
4. Limited rotation motors


CYLINDER CUSHIONS – ROD RETRACTING








ACCUMULATORS
Since hydraulic fluids are essentially incompressible, they do not have the ability to store
power.
Hydraulic accumulators store the potential energy that is in the incompressible fluid for
subsequent conversion to useful work.
Functions :
1. Pulsation damper and shock absorber:

It dampens the pulsations of the pump delivery to tolerable levels. Also, heavy
pressure surges can be set up by the sudden closure of a valve in the system - this
would normally cause heavy sound and vibration - accumulators absorb / cushion
this shock and reduce its effects.
2. Compensating device for any pressure fluctuation due to temperature variation.
3. Safety / Emergency - used for emergency energy storage - in case of sudden power
failure.
4. Power saving device - pump can be unloaded to tank (when system pressure is
reached) while the accumulator maintains system pressure.
Types of accumulators:
1. Weighted type
2. Spring type
3. Gas charged piston type
4. Gas charged bladder type
The gas charged bladder type is the most popular and common type in use.
Charging procedure:
The accumulator must be completely drained of hydraulic fluid before charging. The
charging pressure should be between 2/3 and 3/4 of system pressure and should never
be allowed to drop below 1/4 of the system pressure.
For charging, connect the charging hose and fill slowly till reqd. pressure is obtained.
Stop filling and wait for about 10 mins. - then fill again (if pressure has slightly dropped)
to reqd. pressure and then disconnect after releasing the pressure from the hose.
Note: Never open any component or fitting in the hydraulic system before
ensuring that the accumulator fluid has been drained to tank.
Other ways of reducing vibration:
1. Clamp pipes at short intervals.

2. If possible pump to have flexible hoses at suction at delivery ends for about 1/2 mtr.
3. Motor and pump to be mounted on foundation using shock absorbers.

TYPES OF ACCUMULATORS
Types of Accumulators
Although piston-type accumulators are probably more widely used, several other types are in
limited use. Of the types illustrated, the rubber bladder type is next in popularity to the piston
type.
Bladder Accumulator. A rubber bag (the bladder) keeps oil and nitrogen separated and floats
between the two media. In case oil should be completely discharged (as for pre-charging), bag closes
a valve to prevent its own extrusion into the oil line. Circuits using this type should be designed to
always retain 1/4th oil volume at maximum discharge to avoid stretching the rubber, shortening its life.
Spring-Loaded Accumulator. Usually built only in small sizes for a shock dampener. Never needs
pre-charging which makes it ideal on installations where maintenance is not practical.
Weight-Loaded Accumulator. Originally used before development of other types. Built in large sizes
where ample mounting space is available. Pressure remains constant as oil is discharged.
Diaphragm Accumulator. Built in small sizes primarily as a shock dampening device. Rubber
diaphragm separates oil and nitrogen, their discharge capacity is small and their maximum size is
limited. The screen prevents the rubber diaphragm from blowing out when all oil is discharged.
Charging and Gauging.
On hydraulic system using accumulators, a
charging and gauging assembly to fit brand
accumulator used should be on hand for use
of maintenance people. A pressure bottle of
oil pumped (dry) nitrogen should also be on
hand.
The assembly may also contain a shut off
valve between the gauge and bottle adapter
so the assembly can be left attached to
monitor gas pre-charge. All oil must be
discharged before checking or adjusting pre-
charge pressure.

ACCUMULATOR

ACCUMULATORS
Function 2. There is a slit or tear some 10-40 cm from the
A hydraulic accumulator is a vessel in which a bottom end of the bag.
fluid may be kept under pressure. When liquid is Causes: After installing the bag it has been
supplied to the accumulator through the oil charged too rapidly. During installation, the
valve, the rubber bag is compressed, and the entire oil valve must be introduced into the
pressure of the oil mounts. When the oil accumulator. The nether part of the bag may
pressure drops, the rubber bag expands, and then be forced upwards or even folded on
the accumulator delivers oil to the hydraulic itself. With a high charging rate, the bag is not
system into which it is connected. given time to assume its correct shape, but is
severely strained in its lower peripheral parts.
Hydraulic Accumulators Large bags are often folded down the middle
Components to facilitate their introduction into the
The hydraulic accumulator consists of four main accumulator vessel. The filling of the bag must
components Fig. 1: then be done at a sufficiently slow rate in order
1. A steel container. that the bag shall have time to open up into its
2. A rubber bag, or diaphragm, separating correct shape.
the liquid and gas phases. If the nut on the charging valve is tightened
3. An oil valve which prevents the bag from without maintaining the valve proper stationary the
being forced out of the pressure vessel if upper part of the bag will be distorted, and the
the circuit pressure drops below the effective length of the bag reduced. Fast charging
charging pressure of the bag. will then cause excessive strain and rupture of the
4. A gas valve integral with the bag, for
bag.
charging the bag to the desired pressure.
N.B. The accumulator must not be vented!
Malfunctions and their causes.
Faulty operation of hydraulic accumulator is
relatively rare as compared with other hydraulic
components. In about 99 cases out of 100,
malfunctions are due to punctures of the bag
and may generally be traced back to an error in
installation or bad maintenance, e.g. improper
surveillance of the charging pressure.
Typical damage encountered:
1. The bag has developed a small puncture
at a distance of some 2-10 cm from the
charging valve.
Cause: The charging pressure has dwindled
to nothing (through diffusion over several
years of operation or because of a leaking
charging valve or through failure to check the
tightness of the valve after charging). The
bag has been compressed by the hydraulic
circuit pressure until the upper part of the
bag has folded itself over the charging valve
and been punctured by it.
There is a slit or tear some 10-40 cm from the
bottom end of the bag.

ACCUMULATORS
N.B. Check the charging pressure of the bag 9. Close the nitrogen bottle shut-off valve
every year (approx. 1000-hour intervals) and also tightly
when replacing the oil cooler in the system. 10. Open the discharge valve of the 3-way
Insufficient gas pressure in the bag may cause the valve to vent the pressure in the filling
following kinds of damage: hose to the outside air.
1. The rubber bag in the accumulator is 11. Return the reducing valve to zero.
compressed by the hydraulic circuit 12. Remove the charging equipment from the
pressure, and is torn by the charging valve. nitrogen bottle and from the accumulator.
A new accumulator must be installed. 13. Use a soap solution in water to check that
2. Hydraulic pumps and motors may break the accumulator charging valve is perfectly
down. They require a constant refilling tight.
pressure. 14. Replace the valve cap and safety screw
3. Excessive brake release times may over the charging valve.
eventuate, causing brake linings to wear N.B. The screw must be fitted an O-ring and
too fast and possibly reducing the must fit correctly in its groove.
operational safety of the equipment. 15. After charging, fit a label or tag to the
To charge a hydraulic accumulator, the equipment accumulator giving the date of filling, and
of Fig. 2 is required (available from bearing the signature of the operator.
HAGGLUNDS). It comprises a 3-way valve, a 0-60 16. N.B. When charging, it is not necessary to fit
bar (600 kPa) pressure gauge, and approximately
2 meters (7 feet) of pressure hose fitted with a
W24 connector for connecting to the nitrogen
bottle. Reducing connectors W24/32M and
W24/14D also form part of the charging set.
Charging hydraulic accumulators with nitrogen

(N2). (Air/oxygen should not be used).
3. Connect the 3-way valve to the
accumulator charging valve. The filling
screw of the 3-way valve shall be fully
opened, and the discharge valve closed
tight.
4. Connect the charging equipment to the
nitrogen equipment to the nitrogen bottle
reducing valve.
5. Open the reducing valve adjusting screw
until the valve spring is unloaded.
6. Open the valve of the nitrogen bottle.
7. Adjust the reducing valve until the correct
charging pressure (see table on page 4) is
obtained.
8. Turn the 3-way valve filling screw clock-
wise, but not too tightly as this may
damage the accumulator charging valve.
9. Fill the accumulator bag with nitrogen.
10. Check the nitrogen pressure in the bag
when the temperature and pressure of the
gas have stabilized. When the correct
pressure has been obtained, back out the
filling screw of the 3-way valve.
Maintenance tip: watch gage to monitor precharge pressure
The precharge pressure in a bladder should be checked at least once in a month

according to one accumulator manufacturer. This simple preventive maintenance
action will assure consistent flow to the circuit and extended bladder life.
The conventional way to check precharge is to shut of the pump and discharge
all pressures from hydraulic circuit. Then uncap the accumulator charge value,
install a gage head assembly, and open the charge valve with its tee handle. If
the precharge pressure reading is correct, reverse these procedures and go to
the next accumulator.
Note, however that every time the above procedure is followed, some gas is
lost- and there also is a chance the valve might leak after it has been unseated
and reclosed. An easier, faster and more reliable way to check the accumulator
precharge is to watch the pressure gage in the accumulator circuit after the pump
is turned off. Most accumulator circuits include an automatic dump valve that
discharge store energy every time the pump shuts down. All accumulator circuits
should at least have a manual unloading valve to discharge any store energy.
Whichever way your circuit is designed the pressure gage in the accumulator
circuit will show pressure as long as the accumulator has any oil in it.
As the accumulator discharges, the pressure will fall steadily until precharge
pressure is met. As soon as precharge pressure is reached , the gage will
suddenly drop to zero. The pressure reading at this abrupt drop approximates the
gas precharge. Although it’s difficult to read most pressure gages accurately, the
reading will be close enough to indicate a problem, and may be followed by the
standard checking procedure and recharging if needed. Written records of dates
and pressure readings should be maintained.
As an alternative, the pressure gage in the accumulator circuit can be

monitored as the pump is turned on. There will be a sudden pressure climb,
which slows when the precharge pressure is reached. This slowing pressure
climb is even harder to read accurately, but again will give some indication of a
problem.
For multiple-accumulator circuits this gage check will indicate the condition of
the lowest precharge pressure. If that pressure shows less than required, checks
of each individual accumulator will be necessary.



ADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE VALVES

• High flow rate (over 250 lpm)
• High working pressure (>200 bar)
• Compact and light
• Complex circuitry made simple
• Fast response
• Low internal and external leakages
• Good stability
• Low noise level
• High reliability
• Higher contamination tolerance
• Easy to maintain, operate and repair
APPLICATIONS :
• 1:1 & 1:1:1 = Pressure control function

• 2:1 = Direction control function
• 2:1 with notched skirt = Flow control function
ORIFICE PLUGS :
0.5 to 2.3 mm dia. In 0.1 steps
SPRINGS :
Light >0.25 bar (3.625 psi)

Medium >1.25 bar (18.125 psi)
Heavy >2.5 bar (36.25 psi)

2-WAY CARTRIDGE VALVES (CARTRIDGE SYSTEM)
1. General
The “classical” method of hydraulic control using
elements connected by piping still plays an
important role in modern day hydraulic.
Demands for more compact solutions requiring
less labour contented to the development of
horizontal and vertical modular system, as well
as special manifold blocks. With these systems,
the valves are bolted on directly and the piping
is replaced by passages bored in the blocks.
In order to further improve the power efficiency

and a number of other factors such as costs,
switching behaviour, noise and efficiency etc.,
the individual control elements such as
directional, flow and pressure-control valves as
well as check valves were now incorporated
individually directly in the appropriate passages
of manifold blocks. This meant that complex
valve-switching functions could be realized with
a relatively low number of basic elements (2-wat
cartridges) and series-production pilot valves.
Using this method it now became possible to
produce single high-performance controls for
which there were previously no conventional
valves available which were large enough or of
reasonable price.
This system has become known as the

“Cartridge System”. The installation dimensions
are standardized according to DIN, CETOP and
ISO standards. Dimensions are to be
supplemented by generally valid symbols. At
present, slightly different presentations are still
used which are based on the actual designs.
Manifold blocks
Special manifold blocks are usually designed if
particular control tasks are to be performed. The
cost effectiveness is determined by the
production quantity. CAD/CAM is being used
more and more for design and production.
Depending upon the size of the block and the
pressure involved, a variety of casting qualities
are used. Complicated control circuitry is
subdivided into a number of individual blocks.
Recurring part-functions are to a large extent
standardized.

Cartridge Systems (Also called LOGIC ELEMENTS)
Special characteristics of control using cartridge valves

1. Economic solutions to hydraulic problems
Complex controls can be realised using but a few standard elements. Work processes with a high
labour content are for the most part eliminated. The cost-effectiveness is determined by the quantity
produced. This justifies the high constructional outlay and the production engineering involved in the
manufacture of a given manifold block.
2. Reduced leakage flows
Leakage only occurs in poppet-type cartridge valves at the poppet guiding channel between the spring
chamber F and the port B, and in the pilot valve. The total leakage is only about 10% of that
encountered with conventional controls.
3. Low voltage peaks
The opening and closing times for the individual control edges can be influenced as required. This
means that the oil flows can be optimally controlled. Due to the poppet valves not having overlap, the
reaction to pressure peaks is extremely rapid.
4. High switching speeds
This is due to the masses of the poppet valves and also due to the fact that these valves are without
overlap stroke. The opening and closing speeds are for the most part dependent upon size and
switching times of the pilot valves (fastest possible times: 20-50 ms with the NG 25 cartridge valves).
5. Low volume and weight
Compared to conventional hydraulic installations. It has been possible to considerably reduce the
volume required. This is attributable to a number of facts. Firstly, a number of different functions can be
combined in a single cartridge valve. Secondly, the cartridge valve is not provided with a housing in the
power circuit, and the mass of a cartridge valve is only a fraction of that of a spool-type valve of
conventional construction.
6. Better noise figures
One of the most important primary causes of noise can be eliminated by avoiding pressure peaks.
Due to the volume of the control circuit being smaller, there is less radiating surface available for
oscillations.
7. High flexibility
A large number of component variants (different area ratio, different springs and control throttles etc.),
as well as the possibility of variable pilot control, mean that if the cartridges are arranged in a particular
order, functional modifications can be carried out in the shortest possible time.
8. Ease of maintenance and servicing
The compact design and the reduction of the number of screwed fittings to a minimum, result in a
minimum of external leakages. It is often the case when a defect occurs that it is sufficient to merely
replace individual cartridge elements instead of complete valves In this manner, a general overhaul of
the installation becomes a more economically priced proposition.
Furthermore, the low number of basic elements means that spare part storage is simplified.
Experience has long since shown that, as a matter of course, the service life of the cartridge valves will
exceed that of comparable spool-type valves.
9. Better contamination tolerance.
10. Good stability.
11. High reliability.
12. Higher efficiency due to lower.
13. Longer machine life because of reducing system shocks (Pressure up to 350 bar and flow rates up to
2800 lpm).
(Proportional Cartridge Valve, P – 310 bar, G – 900 lpm)
Disadvantages
1. In order to carry out repairs on systems using cartridge valves, the service personnel must be better
trained than was the case with conventional systems.
2. Taking a prototype into service for the first time can be much more time-consuming than was the case
with conventional systems. This is because, under certain circumstances, the dynamic behaviour of
individual valves will have to be optimized by experimenting with different control nozzles and springs.
3. Trouble-shooting becomes more difficult if measurement ports are not provided on the manifold blocks.
4. If the manifold-block walls are cracked, or porous, it may be necessary to replace the block.

CARTRIDGE VALVES
The main components of a cartridge valve are fitted inside a manifold block
leaving only the pilot control valves on the block surface. The basic component
(insert kit), consist of a sleeve, poppet, spring and the necessary ‘O’ rings and
back-up rings as shown in figure.
Cover
Spring
Poppet
Sleeve

MAINFOLD ASSEMBLY


Energizing solenoid S-1 drains the “AP” areas of cartridges 2 and 4 while maintaining pilot
pressure on the “AP” areas of cartridges 1 and 3. System pressure acting over the “B” area of
cartridge 2 forces the valve open, directing pump flow to the cap end of the cylinder.
Return flow from the cylinder rod end passes to the tank over cartridge 4 when rod end pressure is
high enough to overcome the spring acting against the cartridge valve poppet. The piston of the
cylinder moves to the right. Energizing solenoid S-2 drains the “AP” areas of cartridges 1 and 3 and
applies pressure to the “AP” areas of cartridges 2 and 4. This causes the piston to move to the left.
Conventional spool valves must be sized for the highest flow at any one port. Cartridge valves, on
the other hand, are sized to handle only the flow required through their individual ports. Economies
are realized and system size is optimized.
Large system flows can be controlled with a small pilot directional valve and four cartridge valves.
This arrangement is similar to a spool-type directional valve with three distinct positions, which is
shown on the right in Figure 12-8. The parallel paths, the crossed arrow paths, and a center
condition are shown. Notice that in the center condition, a check valve appears in each cylinder port
line. This is done to indicate that when neither solenoid is energized, an external force pushing on
the piston rod could cause valve 2 to open. This could happen when the cylinder cap end pressure
exceeds the system pressure. In such a case, the system pressure acting on the “B” area, plus
slightly more than system pressure acting on the “A” area, combine to overcome system pressure
and the spring acting on the “AP” area. (If the rod is pulled instead of pushed, valve 3 rather than
valve 2 will open). In either case, the cylinder piston is not hydraulically locked into position as it is
with a spool-type closed-center valve.
If the pump is unloaded or shut down, pilot pressure is lost and each cartridge can open when its
spring force is overcome This condition is not acceptable when vertical loads or external cylinder
forces can be high enough to produce cylinder piston movement.
COMPLETE CARTRIDGE FOUR WAY DIRECTIONAL VALVE

A B
1 2 3 4
T T
S-1
SINGLE-SOLENOID VALVES
EQUIVALENT
SPOOL-VALVE
A B POSITIONS
P T
S-1 OFF ON OFF ON
S-2 OFF OFF ON ON
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL CIRCUIT WITH REGENERATOR
Directional Control Circuit With Two additional two-position, single-solenoid

Regeneration valves are added in Figure 12-11 to create an
independent pilot control circuit. Operating each
Figure 12-10 shows how the cylinder in the cartridge valve with a solenoid valve produces
four-cartridge valve circuit from Figure 12-8 the equivalent of a sixteen-position spool valve,
can be operated regeneratively without adding as shown at the bottom of the Figure 5 of these
more solenoids. The three-position, double- positions give the same flow conditions, which
solenoid pilot valve is replaced with two, two- leaves twelve different possible flow path
position, single-solenoid valves. When the two combination. This arrangement enables the
solenoids are energized simultaneously, the independent control of each cartridge, which
cylinder operates in regenerative manner. allows a smooth transition from one operating
phase to the next.

A B
1 2 3 4
T T
S-1 S-3
S-2
S-4
EQUIVALENT SPOOL-VALVE POSITIONS

A B
P T
S-1 OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON
S-2 OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON ON
S-3 OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON ON
S-4 OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
INDEPENDENT DIRECTIONAL CONTROL CIRCUIT

Independent directional control circuit
If each of the cartridge is controlled by its own special pilot valve, the various
through-flow symbols can be put into effect by means of appropriate electrical
signals. Here, the switching logic is transferred from the hydraulic power circuit to
the electric control circuit. Switching transitions can be influenced and controlled
at will by delaying the switching times.
This form of individual control prevents the cartridge valves from affecting each
other and is the method that is mostly applied in

practice.


Relief Valve Functions
The 1:1 poppet shown in figure. 9 is used for relief valve functions, and the basic
relief valve configuration is shown in figure. 28.


PROPORTIONAL VALVES :
They fill a gap between conventional solenoid (On/Off) and servo

valves. Cheap, simple in design and easy to maintain, they can take
up an infinite number of positions witin their working range.
They have many of the control features of the more sophisticated

servo valves, without their inherent complexity and high cost.
SERVO VALVES :
Servo valves are basically direction control valves combined with flow
control function. They have improved performance characteristics
(response time, hysterisis, linearity, deadband etc.) when compared
to proportional valves.
A torque motor creates a force proportional to the imposed current

which moves the spool to give the required flow and direction. This
force is balanced by a mechanical spring force.



ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC PROPORTIONAL VALVES
INTRODUCTION AMPLIFIER FUNCTIONS :

Electrical control of hydraulic valves had been 1. Deadband Compensation: deadband is mainly
confined to direction only till the advent of electro- due to the spool overlapping the valve ports,
hydraulic proportional valves. Solenoids provided giving certain time lag before flow starts, this
on/off or “BANG-BANG” control i.e. starting and can be compensated by this control.
stopping but without eliminating shocks. If flow 2. Gain A: Output voltage/input voltage i.e. Output
rates or pressures had to be varied, manually signal is an amplified version of the input
adjusted valves were used. signal.
For high precision position or velocity control, servo 3. Dither: Low voltage a.c. signal (50/60 Hz) to
valves are used which are high cost, high reduce effect of frictional forces.
specification valves requiring special filtration 4. Ramp: Provides smooth acceleration and
arrangements (1 micron or less) and are difficult to deceleration to avoids shocks and vibrations.
maintain and repair. 5. Overload Safety: Limiting the maximum current
The introduction of electro hydraulic proportional to the solenoids.
valves has opened an altogether new field. These 6. Drive Enable: This facility can be used as an
valves are simple in design, relatively cheaper and emergency stop. The valve current is enabled
easy to maintain and repair. Today they can meet when activated and becomes “zero” as soon as
most of the industry’s requirements which needed “disabled”.
servo valves earlier. 7. Current Feedback: When current is passed
A proportional valve is a solenoid operated valve through a coil, heat is generated and the
whose output is varied according to the applied resistance of the coil goes up. This will change
electrical signal. The output can provide variable the current to the solenoid which will give
pressure, flow or a combination of flow and erratic response. In order to compensate for
direction remotely. Servo valves vary only direction this change, current feedback is used which
and flow. will keep the current constant for a particular
The use of electro-hydraulic proportional valves signal value. This also takes care of voltage
has resulted in reducing the number of flow and variations.
pressure control valves. These have now been 8. Pulse Width Modulation: This technique is used
replaced by electrical components which are to reduce the heat generated in the amplifier
smaller, cheaper and more accurate. Leakage is whose output stage acts like a variable resistor
eliminated as there are no extra pipes which were similar to the earlier fan-regulator. Instead of
needed for connecting additional valves. This feeding a continuous current to the solenoid, a
results in simpler, cheaper, faster and lighter series of pulses are fed.
packages.
CONTROL AND FACILITIES REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:
Input signal: The initial input signal to control the Proportional valves require a properly installed
proportional solenoid valves may be provided by: D>C. power supply to operate the amplifier and the
(A) Potentiometers. valve This can be provided by a battery or by a
(B) Temperature sensors. rectified A.C. supply. The output D.C. from the
(C) Pressure transducers. rectifier should be regulated and of proper current
(D) Tachogenerators. rating.
(E) Microprocessors/PLCs
APPLICATION
These are low-power sources in terms of These valves can be used to vary pressure, flow or
voltage/current and therefore, need an amplifier to both flow and direction in a number of different
move the proportional valve. The amplifier applications. They can be used to obviate shock
produces a larger current proportional to the input caused by rapid pressure changes and the quick
to move the valve spool. start and stop of a heavy mass. Examples include
The direction of the movement is automatically control of hydraulic motors, single and double
controlled by the + ve or – ve input signal. acting cylinders and variable pumps.
“PROPORTIONAL VALVES PROVIDE THE DESIGNER WITH SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

THAT WOULD BE DIFFICULT IF NOT IMPOSSIBLE TO SOLVE”


4 Proportional valve construction
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the actuating

device of a proportional valve is a
proportional solenoid. This can either be
used to operate the valve spool or
poppet directly, or to control the pilot
stage of a two-stage valve. Also,
positioning of the valve spool can either
be achieved by balancing the solenoid
force against spring force or by using a
spool position sensor incorporated into
the valve. Before considering the detail
operation of the valve range, it is
therefore useful to examine the
component parts of a proportional valve.
4.1.1 Proportional solenoids

In terms of construction, a proportional
solenoid is very similar to a conventional
on/off DC solenoid of wet armature
design (fig. 4.1).
In this case, the solenoid coil is
encapsulated in a glass filled polyester
material and fits over the valve core tube.
The core tube is manufactured from a Passing a current through the
‘sandwich’ of magnetic and non magnetic solenoid coil creates a magnetic
material in order to concentrate the force which pulls the armature
magnetic field into the gap between the towards the pole piece, the
armature and pole piece. The pole piece magnitude of the force being
fits into the front end of the core tube and proportional to the coil current. The
provides a stop for the armature when solenoid force created is transmitted
the solenoid is energised. Total closure to the valve spool or poppet by the
of the armature/pole piece gap is push pin.
prevented by a non-ferrous washer which The main difference between a
limits the maximum solenoid force and proportional solenoid and a simple
prevents the armature ‘sticking’ to the on/off solenoid is in the design of the
pole piece when de-energised. The armature, pole piece and core tube
armature is attached to a push-pin which assembly which are shaped to
in this example, is supported by a low– provide a more constant force over
friction bush in the pole piece and a ball the solenoid working stroke. Figure
race in the back end of the core tube. 4.2 illustrates typical force/stroke
This construction ensures minimum curves for the two types of solenoid.
friction and so reduces the valve As can be seen from Figure. 4.2, the
hysteresis. proportional solenoid force remains
The armature has through holes to virtually constant over the working
enable fluid to pass easily from one end stroke whereas the conventional
to the other when operating. A light solenoid force increases as the
spring pushes the armature/push pin armature/pole piece gap closes. The
assembly into contact with the spool and relationship between solenoid force
ensures that all clearances are taken up, and coil current is a linear one which
even when the valve is mounted means that for any position of the
vertically. In some cases, to ensure armature within its working stroke,
stable operation of the valve, it is the solenoid force is determined only
necessary to purge air from the core tube by the coil current (Figure. 4.3).
and bleed screws are fitted this purpose


Position sensors
An input signal is fed to the The sensor used for spool position
control amplifier which in turn feedback is an LVDT (Linear
The AC supply signal can be
produces a corresponding output Variable Differential Transformer) created from a DC voltage by a
signal to drive the valve solenoid. such as illustrated in Figure 4.8. device known as an oscillator
The solenoid then moves the The LVDT consists of a primary and and it is now common practice to
spool until such a time as the two secondary coils surrounding a incorporate both the oscillator
feedback signal from the position soft iron core attached to the and the demodulator into the
sensor corresponds to the solenoid push pin. The primary coil LVDT housing. This means that
demand input signal. The is connected to a high frequency AC
amplifier then maintains an output
the LVDT assembly requires
supply which creates a varying only a DC supply and also the
sufficient to hold the spool in the magnetic field in the core. The
required position. This technique magnetic field in turn induces
feedback signal to the amplifier
enables the spool to be voltages in the two secondary coils is in the form of a DC voltage or
positioned very accurately within by transformer action. If the two current. Using a current
the valve body and any secondary coils are connected in feedback signal as opposed to a
disturbances caused by frictional opposition, then with the core voltage, provides greater
flow or pressure forces are centralized, the induced voltages in immunity to electrical noise and
automatically corrected. each coil will cancel out producing a also avoids the problem of
On two-stage valves, position net zero input. As the core is moved
sensors can be attached to the
voltage drops in long cables. In
away from center, the voltage in one practice, the current signal may
main spool of the valve for secondary coil will increase and in
medium performance the other coil will reduce. This now
have a range of 4 to 20 mA,
applications, or to both the main produces an output voltage, the where 4mA represents full spool
stage and pilot stage for high magnitude of which is proportional movement in one direction, 20
performance valves (fig 4.7) to the amount of movement. The mA represents full movement in
The use of a double feedback phase shift of the output relative to the opposite direction and 12
arrangement on two stage valves the input indicates the direction of mA indicates the spool is in the
provides additional control movement. The output is then fed to center position. This can then
stiffness resulting in a faster valve a phase sensitive rectifier
response.
provide indication of a
(demodulator) which will produce a transducer error (if the signal
DC signal proportional to movement
and polarity dependent upon
drops below 4mA) and the
direction. amplifier output can be inhibited
in this situation.

4.14 Spool Lap Condition
Sliding spool type proportional valves will

normally have a certain amount of overlap
between the spool lands and the body port
(Figure. 4.9).
This means that the spool has to move a

certain distance before it starts to uncover
the port and flow can take place. This initial
amount of movement is known as the
DEADBAND and typically accounts for
approximately 20% of the total spool
movement. The deadband will be apparent at
the start of movement of a throttle valve
spool and either side of the centre position in
the case of a directional valve.
Spool overlap is provided for several
reasons including:
• It reduces the amount of spool
leakage in the de-energised
condition.
• It provides a greater degree of
security in the event of an electrical
power failure to the valve (i.e.
reduces actuator creep).
• It relaxes the manufacturing
tolerances and hence cost of the
valve.
The disadvantage with an overlapped

spool however, is the fact that the valve
will not effectively react to low input
signals, typically anything less than 20%
of the maximum solenoid signal. In
applications where this is undesirable,
the possibility exists to significantly
reduce the effect of the deadband by
including electronic compensation into
the control amplifier. This will be
described in more detail in chapter 5.
Alternatively, it is also possible to specify
a valve with a zero lapped spool where
the edge of the spool land and the edge
of the valve port exactly coincide in the
null position (Figure. 4.10).
This will now virtually eliminate the valve
deadband enabling flow to take place at
very low signal levels. In general, this will
only be a requirement in critical control
applications, for example, where the
valve is being used in a closed loop
control system.
Deadband Compensation
Sliding spool type proportional valves will In some application, a certain
normally have a certain amount of amount of deadband is desirable, for
overlap (or deadband) either at the start example where a valve is being
of spool movement (for throttle valves) or controlled by a joystick
around the centre position (for directional potentiometer. In such cases, the
valves). Typically, the deadband will ability to adjust the effective
account for approximately 15 to 25% of deadband electronically is very
the total spool movement. The purpose useful.
of the overlap is both to reduce spool Ramp Functions
leakage in the de-energised condition As already mentioned, one of the
and also to provide additional security, most useful features of proportional
for example in power failure situations, valves is their ability to control
when flow through the valve should be actuator, acceleration and
blocked off. deceleration or rate of change of
The effect of spool overlap however, is pressure. This is achieved by
that a certain minimum signal level has to incorporating a ramp generator into
be provided to the valve solenoid coil the electronic amplifier which will
before the spool starts to uncover the determine how quickly the amplifier
valve port and flow can take place output signal can change from one
through the valve. (Figure. 5.9). level to another. With the ramp
function selected, a step change in
input signal will create a gradual or

ramped change in output signal as
In many applications this may be the valve spool rapidly to the edge of shown in Figure. 5.12.
undesirable since it means that the valve the deadband so that flow through the An amplifier will also include the
will not respond to small input signals valve will commence once the input facility to change the steepness of
(i.e. less than 15 to 25% of the maximum signal exceeds the 1 – 2% threshold the ramp (normally by means of
signal). To overcome this, amplifiers can level (Figure. 5.11). potentiometer adjustments) between
incorporate a deadband compensation In most cases the deadband minimum and maximum values.
adjustment which will almost eliminate compensation is adjustable to cater for Adjustment ranges are specified in
the effect of the deadband. Once the different spool configurations and flow terms of ramp times (for example, 50
amplifier input signal reaches ratings so it is therefore possible to mSec to 5 mSec), but in practice the
approximately 1 – 2% of its maximum, over compensate for the deadband. In actual ramp time obtained will
the amplifier output increases suddenly this case the output step from the depend not only on the adjustment
to a level determined by the deadband amplifier moves the spool beyond the of the ramp angle but also the
adjustment. Increasing the input signal overlap region causing a sudden setting of the gain and deadband
further then produces a corresponding increase in flow through the valve and compensation adjustment and the
increase in output signal as determined preventing the control of very low change in level of input signal. The
by the gain setting (Figure. 5.10). flows. The remedy in such a situation ramp adjustment therefore
The step change in output signal at the would be to reduce in such a situation determines the rate of change of
1 –2% input is designed to move would be to reduce the compensation output signal (i.e. how steep or
adjustment to the optimum level. shallow the ramp is), but the time
taken to change from one output
level to another depends on a
number of other factors. (Figure.
5.13).

2.6 Ramp Signals By incorporating a ramp signal

Mention should be made at this point generator into the amplifier however,
of one of the most useful amplifier a controlled rate of change from one
features which is its ability to level to another can be achieved
generate what is known as a RAMP from the amplifier output (Figure.
SIGNAL. A ramp signal is simply a 2.16).
controlled or gradual change from The amplifier will also normally
one condition or setting to another. incorporate a means of adjusting the
Considering the situation where the steepness of the ramp.
input signal to a proportional valve When controlling a proportional relief
needs to be switched between two valve, a ramp signal will determine
levels, this could be achieved by the rate of pressure rise or fall when
using two demand signal switching between two or more
potentiometers to generate the input levels. In the case of a proportional
signal voltages and a switch to select throttle or directional valve, a ramp
one or the other (Figure. 2.14). signal controls the rate of change of
flow i.e. actuator acceleration and
deceleration. The major benefit
obtained from using ramp signals is
the reduction or elimination of shock
in the hydraulic system caused by
sudden changes in pressure or rapid
starting and stopping of high inertia
loads.
An analogy of this feature would be
the situation where resurfacing work
on a road sometimes leaves a
temporary difference in level
between the old and new surfaces. If
the contractor provides a ramp
between the two levels, it is
considerably smoother to drive over
than if it is simply left as a step
(Figure. 2.17).
As the switch is changed from P1 to

P2, the input signal to the amplifier
will change in the form of a step
(Figure. 2.15).

To provide independent
acceleration and deceleration
ramps for both directions of
movement, four adjustments are
required sometimes referred to
as a ‘four quadrant’ ramp
(Figure. 5.16).
Depending upon its type, an amplifier

may have either one, two or four ramp
adjustments. Where only one adjustment
is provided (in the case of plug mounted
amplifier), the ramp angle will be the
same for both increasing and decreasing
output signals. When used with a
proportional throttle valve for example,
the acceleration and deceleration rates of
the actuator would be equal (Figure.
5.14).
When two adjustments are provided,

acceleration and deceleration ramp
angles can be set independently of each
other thus providing, for example, a rapid
acceleration and a slow deceleration. In
the case of directional valves however,
the acceleration and deceleration ramps
would be the same for both forward and
reverse movement of the actuator
(Figure. 5.15).

Directional valve applications
As mentioned previously, the

standard method of controlling
actuator movement in industrial
systems is to use solenoid controlled
directional valves, either direct acting
or pilot operated depending upon the
flow requirement. Where control of
actuator speed is required, there is
the option on two stage valves of
limiting the main spool stroke to
provide a degree of throttling action.
This is achieved by fitting stroke
adjusters to the end caps of the main
stage body. A more common
arrangement however, is to use
separate flow control valves to control
flow independently for each direction
of actuator movement.
Substituting a proportional directional

valve for the solenoid valve however,
means that the control of both
actuator direction and speed can now
be performed by the one valve
If two forward speeds are required on

the cylinder, a conventional system
would require the addition of a further
flow control valve and solenoid valve.
The proportional system would simply
require one extra potentiometer or
other means of generating an
additional input signal
It now starts to become clear that as

the circuit complexity increases, the
proportional valve system becomes
more and more advantageous in that
one valve can take place of several.
One proportional valve has replaced
two solenoid valves and three flow
control valves.

3.2 Flow Control Applications

Many of the benefits discussed for proportional
pressure control valves also apply to
proportional flow controls. For example, remote
operation of a flow control valve is easily
achieved using proportional techniques. A
single electrical connection to the operator’s
station is all that is required as opposed to the
full flow, high-pressure pipework of a
conventional system (Figure. 3.11).
Ideally, flow control valves should be mounted
close to the actuator they are controlling in
order to obtain good control and to minimize
the effects of fluid compressibility. With
manually adjusted valves, compromises
sometimes have to be made so that valves are
easily or safely accessible. No such problems
exit with proportional valves since the demand
signal can be created in any convenient
position leaving the valve free to be mounted in
the optimum position for controllability.
To obtain different actuator speeds using
conventional valves may require a flow control
valve and switching directional valve for each
speed. Figure. 3.12. illustrate a typical
arrangement for a 3-speed system, in practice,
it may be possible to combine single solenoid
valve functions into a double solenoid valve or
to use two flow control valves to obtain three
speeds.




Advantages of Proportional Valves
The potential advantages to be gained from using proportional control valves

depends entirely upon the application. In simpler systems where the features offered
by proportional valves are not required, then conventional solenoid valves with
manually adjusted flow and pressure controls will continue to prove the most cost
effective solution.
The trend in both industrial and mobile machinery however, is towards increasing
levels of sophistication which may include:
• Increased automation
• Shorter cycle times
• Easier set-up
• Less power wastage
• Self-diagnostics
• Improved product quality
• More reliable operation
• Zero external leakage
• Control of acceleration / deceleration
Proportional valve technology is ideally suited to contribute towards meeting all these
objectives.

+10v
AMPLIFIER SPOOL
SOLENOID MOVEMENT
INPUT OP-AMP
SIGNAL
-10v
FEEDBACK POSITION
SIGNAL SENSOR
INVERTED AMPLIFIED
OUTPUT
C1
- X2
C0
+ NON-INVERTED
OUTPUT


SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS
BEWARE OF :
1. Leaks : can make the area slippery.

: can constitute a vapour and fire hazard.
: leaking fluid could be hot.
: fluid could squirt out under very high pressure.
2. Hot components : Pumps, relief valves, flow control valves could all be very
hot to touch. Any component where oil is leaking off at
high pressure without doing mechanical work will be hot.
3. Stored energy : Tension springs.

Suspended loads.
Charged accumulators.
Electrical voltage.
While disconnecting any joint or fitting in the system, ENSURE that there is no
hydraulic pressure present inside - Remember that even if pump is off, pressure
can still be present due to the accumulator.

RELIEVING SYSTEM PRESSURE

Pressure may be due to external loads or forces. Eliminate them.
• Lower or move all parts to the rest, or untensioned position before shutting
the system down.
• Carefully open adjustable valves that may be counterbalancing loads.
(Note the setting first, so the valves can be reset).
• Jack or wedge the load enough to relieve hydraulic pressure
mechanically, if necessary.
Pressure may also be due to internal forces such as air compressed in the lines
or charged accumulators. In this case,
• Securely block anything that might move when pressure changes.
• Work DCVs through all positions so that all lines will have a chance to
discharge.
• Discharge accumulators.
System controls-electrical and pilot operated-may be involved in relieving system

pressure. There may or may not be manual over-rides.
A full understanding of system operation is essential!

Even after you think you have relieved all pressure,
• Loosen lines slowly and carefully.
• Have rags and runout bucket ready.
Before restarting a machine,

• Warn people to stand clear.
• Be ready for an emergency shut off.

LOWER OR
MECHANICALLY
SECURE
ALL SUSPENDED
LOADS
EXHAUST ANY
PRESSURE
LOCKED IN
THE SYSTEM
DRAIN DOWN
ALL
ACCUMULATORS
ISOLATE THE
ELECTRICAL
CONTROL
SYSTEM
ISOLATE THE
ELECTRICAL
POWER
SUPPLY
SAFETY PROCEDURE FOR SHUTTING DOWN

MACHINES
SYSTEM INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
CLEANING OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

How clean should the Hyd. Fluid be ?
Hydraulic fluid serves as a medium for transmitting force from one place to another. It
must quickly reflect changes in force’s direction and magnitude. To meet these needs, a
fluid must have :
• enough viscosity to efficiently transmit force, prevent cavitation and guard against
overheating
• sufficient lubricating capability to protect system components
• temperature between the fluid’s pour point and 60 deg.C – ideal range is 50-55
deg.C
• anti-wear protection, if needed
• oxidation stability
• adequate pour point
• good demulsibility
• rust inhibition
• resistance to foaming
• compatibility with seal materials
Only a few fluids have these characteristics when new, and even new fluid contain some
contaminants that may negate these abilities.
Fluids lose their ability to do the job as water, dirt and other contaminants foul the fluid,
something that happens as a function of time. Purification, then, must be through
enough to maintain these characteristics.
Results of uncontrolled contamination :

Frequent disposal and replacement of fluid
Environmental problems from fluid disposal
Equipment wear, parts sticking, breakdowns, downtime and replacements
Only regular and continuous purification can avoid these problems.
Why do hydraulic systems fail?
Results of a study -
• 10% - because troubles were improperly diagnosed or repairs were done wrong
• 10% - mechanical causes such as bearing or seal failures
• 5% - units were operated beyond recommended limits of speed, pressure or volume
• 5% - misc. causes, from excessive packing friction on rams to chatter resulting from
inadequate lubrication of ways
70% - poor condition of hydraulic fluidWHILE SERVICING ANY COMPONENT :
WARNING – Before breaking a circuit connection, make sure power is off and system
pressure is released. Lower all vertical cylinders and discharge accumulators.
CAUTION – Absolute cleanliness is essential when working on a hydraulic system. The

presence of dirt and foreign materials in a system can result in serious damage or
inadequate operation.
NOTE – Discard and replace all ‘O’ rings, gaskets and back up rings removed
during disassembly.
MAINTENANCE AND WATCHKEEPING
The three chief dangers to hydraulic systems are contamination, heat and
leakage (both internal and external).
75% of hydraulic failures can be directly attributed to poor condition of hydraulic

oil.
Heat, leakage and contamination all follow each other and so it is imperative to
keep the system clean, cool and leak free.
During o’haul, the work table and components to be kept clean, all parts to be
cleaned in kerosene, preferably.
Filter indicators to be monitored & filters cleaned / renewed as required.
Hoses to be compatible with oil in use, to be fitted without kinks or twists

(reference line to be observed) and should not be very taut.
Fittings should not be overtightened, just enough to prevent leaks.
During rounds, special care to be taken of filters condition, tank oil level,
any hot components, leakages and any unusual noise from the
components.

POINTS TO BE CHECKED
• Level in reservoir – Daily
• Suction strainer – Clean it regularly
• Return line & pressure line filters – replace every 500 hrs
• Intake lines, Mounting bolts & Brackets – keep them tight
• Direction of pump rotation
• Oil viscosity – proper
• Speed of the pump – within limits
• Operating pressures – should not be set too high or too low
• Oil leaks – stop them
• Oil temperature – within limits
Note: Keep a record of defects / oil change or other actions taken
TROUBLE FREQUENCY
Cavitation
Cylinder packings worn out
Pilot – operated relief valve malfunction due to dirt
Aeration
Incorrect pressure setting
It is important that oil be kept clean at all times. Oil rarely wears out.
Premature failure of oil or system is more likely the result of careless
handling or inadequate protection from contamination.
About 70% of all failures are due to contamination.
THREE SIMPLE MAINTENANCE HINTS :
• Maintain proper oil level in tank

• Keep the oil clean
• Fittings, bolts and brackets must be tight (but not too tight)

COMMON SYSTEM FAULTS

When hydraulic systems fail, it is usually because one or more of these
conditions exist:
• Choked inlet strainer

• Pump slippage or leakage
• Pressure compensated pump set wrong or sticking
• Relief valve set wrong, leaking internally, opening before system
pressure rises to setting or stuck open
• DCV’s sticking, leaking internally or not shifting fully
• Flow control or pressure reducing valves set wrong, sticking,
choked or bypassing
• Pilot operated valves sticking, pilot orifices or passages blocked
• Actuator leaking internally, overloaded or side loaded
• Sequence or counterbalance valves set wrong, sticking or blocked
• Electrical source has failed
CARE AND MAINTENANCE:
• Use a 10 micron filter while filling oil (use a pump for filling)
• Air breather should be of proper size with a 10 micron filter
• Reservoir should be well designed, well ventilated and airtight.
Lines should be dipped in oil at all times.
DURING REPAIRS:
• Hands must be clean

• Use clean tools
• Work on a clean surface which is above ground level
• There should be nothing left on the table from the previous job
• Mark components during dismantling (scratch marks)
• Cotton waste is NEVER to be used
• Lubricate (with the same oil) components before refitting.
• Use kerosene for cleaning the components

ROOT CAUSES
A good troubleshooter understands hydraulic machines well enough to see

behind the immediate cause of a breakdown .Is there a deeper problem with the
system that allowed the fault to occur.
The machine can be kept running only by eliminating that problem
Contamination in some form is root cause of most machine

malfunction. There may be dirt; grit water, air and much other
substance circulating through the machine in the fluid .the fluid itself
may actually be contaminating the system if its additives have broken
down.
Excessive system heat is a common cause of contamination .a

system that runs hot becomes contaminated.
Leakage is often responsible. Leakage causes heat build-up.
These three root causes of hydraulic problems can be prevented or

delayed by proper maintenance.
There are a lot of practical things you can do that will keep your
hydraulic machines running right, and make your job much easier and
less hectic.

HYDRAULIC LEAKS
External leaks can be dangerous but they are usually easy to find Internal leaks
however can be difficult to locate.
Leaks can affect system operation

Actuators may move too slowly because fluid flow is reduced.
Maximum available system pressure may be limited.
Actuators may move when they should not, causing load to settle or creep out.
Load setting
Leakage can allow suspended
loads to move when the actuator
is supposed to be holding them in
place Cylinder leakage is often
responsible, Although in some
circuits other leak will also allow
setting.
If fluid can blow by the piston
seals a heavy load may settle,
forcing the rod into the cylinder
'the only way the rod can come
into the cylinder is if some fluid
leaves the cylinder Some fluid will
leak out through the directional
control valve. But since pressure
in the cylinder is intensified the
rod seals will probably fail.
Cylinder creep.
When a closed center directional
control valve is in its center
position all ports are closed.
However there is always some
clearance between the spool and
bore for lubrication. Leakage
across the lands allows a small
amount of fluid to enter the
cylinder.
Pressure builds up in both ends.
Eventually this flow will move the
piston rod out, even though the
pressure on both the sides of the
T A P B piston may be the same.

LEAKAGE AND HEAT CONTRIBUTE TO EACH OTHER

Fluid flowing under pressure through leaks will
generate heat.
Heat will often create leaks by deteriorating synthetic
and rubber components. Heat also reduces fluid
lubricity, which will cause metal parts to wear more
quickly. Increased clearance between worn moving
parts allows more fluid to leak.
Fluid flow carries away some of the heat, but some of it
remains at the leak. Bad leaks, under high pressure,
produce hot spots-noticeably hotter than the line
bringing the fluid to the component.
SYSTEM HEAT
If any hydraulic machine or system is running too hot,
either one or both of these possibilities is the cause:
A. Too much heat is being generated internally.
B. Too little heat is being lost to the environment.
Testing Possibility A
1. Check system-operating pressure. Is it higher than when the machine was new?
There must be either a flow restriction or a higher load. Check for line or hose
damage-kinks and pinches. Check also for cylinder side loading and mechanical
binding in the load.
2. Make sure that no fluid is dumping to tank through the relief valve when it is not
supposed to. If the system uses an unloading valve or some other means to unload
the pump, make absolutely certain that the pump is unloading when it should.
3. Feel how components are.
• Pumps and hydraulic motors. Worn pumps and hydraulic motors with a lot of
internal leakage, or slippage, will run much hotter than normal.
• Relief valves. If a system is operating well below the pressure setting of the
relief valve, yet the relief valve is unusually hot, pump flow is probably
leaking through the valve to the tank.
• Cylinder. Heat from leaking piston seals (blowby) is usually spread out, as
the piston moves back and forth. If you suspect blowby, shift the DCV to hold
pressure in the cylinder fully extended, and then fully retracted. If a hot spot
develops near the piston in either position, the piston seals are probably
leaking.
Testing Possibility B
1. Fluid level in the reservoir may be too low. When the reservoir is full, fluid has more time
to cool.
2. The reservoir may be caked with dirt, and unable to transfer enough heat to the air.
3. Ventilation around the reservoir may be restricted.
4. Some external heat source-such as the sun, or an exhaust or steam pipe-may be
creating a local hot environment near some part of the system. Perhaps the whole plant
is hotter than it used to be. If plant temperature goes up by 20 degrees, so will fluid
temperature.

HOSE AND HOSE FITTINGS

Hose Construction Maximum hose life
Whenever a connection between moving parts Hose leakage or failure usually occurs where the end fitting
is necessary, a flexible hose is usually the grips the hose. It may be that the hose manufacturer’s
answer. They are also used in some hydraulic instructions were not followed on proper crimp or swage of
systems to reduce the effects of vibration and the hose fitting. Check the system for pressure spikes or
hydraulic shock. The typical industrial hose surge. Make sure operating pressures do not exceed 25%
consists of (1) an inner tube for conducting the of hose rated minimum burst pressure. If bulges or bubbles
fluid, (2) a reinforcement for the inner tube, and occur on a flexible hose, a leak is taking place within the
(3) a cover layer to protect the reinforcement. inner layers. The hose should be replaced.
All three are bonded together, see Figurer. 19. High oil temperatures (over 200 deg F) quickly harden or
stiffen the nitrile inner tube. When pressure pulses flex a
hardened hose, it fails by cracking. Every increase in 25
deg F cuts hose life by half. Use a hose rated 275 deg F if
fluid temperatures are above normal. Keep a log of hose
use so replacement can be made before failure occurs.
Sometimes on low pressure lines, the hose is clamped to
the fitting like those found on auto radiators. While there
may be no apparent fluid leakage out past the clamp, there
may be considerable air leakage into the system, esp. on
pump inlet lines. As a result the system gets spongy.
Nitrile (Buna N) and Neoprene go into most Actuator response slows and the pump may get damaged.
tubes and cover stocks of hydraulic hose. Inner Tighten clamps!!
tubes of Butyl or ethylene propylene are
usually specified with fire resistant phosphate Hose Installation
ester hydraulic fluid. Nylon, however, has found The foll. drawings indicate wrong and right hose installation:
increasing acceptance and use because it
does not age-harden.
Hose Fitting Types
The hose fittings may be either permanent or
reusable. The permanent type, Figure 20, may
be crimped or swaged onto the hose at the
factory or in the field. Special equipment is
required for the clamping or swaging. The
entire assembly is thrown away when the hose
is replaced. The hose is to be fitted with a little slack for movement
The reusable type hose fitting, Figure. 21, has while working. A hose fitted too tightly may fail early. At
a definite advantage today with many items in bends, provide enough hose for a wide radius curve. Too
short supply. Only the hose is discarded, while tight a bend pinches the hose and restricts the flow. The
the fittings are saved. line could even kink and close entirely. In many cases, use
of the right fittings or adaptors can eliminate bends or
kinks.

If a hose is installed with a twist in it, high In applications where there is considerable
operating pressures tend to force it straight. This vibration or flexing, allow additional hose
can loosen the fitting nut or even burst the hose at length. The metal hose fittings of course, are
the point of strain. not flexible, and proper installation protects
metal parts from undue stress and avoids
kinks in the hose.
When hose lines pass near a hot surface, they

should be insulated by a heat resistant boot or a When 90 deg. adaptors were used, this
metal baffle. In any application, brackets and assembly became neater looking and
clamps keep hoses in place and reduce abrasion. easier to inspect and maintain. It uses less
hose, too !!

Dynamic Seals
Seal life
Dynamic seals prevent or control leakage between
surfaces that move past each other. Since these seals
contact moving surfaces, they will eventually wear out
or fail. Periodic replacement of the seal is required.
With proper installation and maintenance, however,
dynamic seals may last several hundred to several
thousand hours. High pressure, temperature, speed
and surface roughness work to reduce seal life.
Where the action is

Typical locations for dynamic seals are pump and
hydraulic motor drive shafts, pintles on variable delivery
pumps and motors, directional valve push pins and
actuator rods. In brief, dynamic seals prevent leaks
where the action is taking place. Surface finish
Three types of dynamic seals are lip seals, face seals Tests have shown maximum seal life is obtained when
and packings. the shaft sealing surface is 8 to 20 microinches. If the
shaft is too smooth, it won’t support a film. If too rough, it
Radial Lip Seals wears the seal lip. In either case, premature seal failure
Radial lip seals, commonly called oil-seals or shaft may occur. Finish marks should be circumferential rather
seals, are used to retain fluids in or keep dirt out of the than axial to retain the fluid.
equipment with reciprocating or rotating shafts. The
simplest type, the single lip-seal, fig. 22, is used only Lip seal installation
for low speeds and low pressures. 1. Lip seals must be installed correctly to operate
successfully. But you must start with a good product.
Examine the seal to be sure it is the correct part, has
not been damaged, nor lost its spring.
2. A press should be used for installing the installing the
oil seal into the bore. The press ram or driving tool
should not be more than 0.25 mm smaller in OD than
the bore diameter and should have a flat face to
contact the back of the metal case on the seal. If
installing the seal in the reverse position, be sure that
ram pressure is applied only to the rollover bead
around the outer diameter of the seal face and not to
the inside face or to the filler ring inside the metal
outer case.
Seal Dynamics
Seal is normally a result of a interference fit
between the flexible sealing lip and a shaft.
However, as seals age and temperatures change,
the interference fit or lip pressure falls off. To
maintain a more constant load on the shaft, a
garter or finger spring is used, fig. 23. This permits
operation at higher speeds and moderate
pressures. It should be noted, the seal lip DOES
NOT act like a squeegee to wipe the shaft dry.
The lip must ride on a thin film of lubricant to be
successful. If the film gets too thick, the seal leaks.
If it gets too thin, the seal lip wears and gets hard.
The harder the seal, the more difficulty the lip has
in following the shaft movement.
3. Polish shaft to remove burrs, sharp or rough

edges that touch seal lip during assembly. Use
mounting thimble as in fig. 25, to protect the seal.
The thimble wall should be as thin as possible
(0.012 inch max.) to avoid seal lip distortion during
assembly. We recommend lubricating the shaft and
oil seal lip before mounting the seal over the shaft
To reduce misalignment, it is necessary to remove the

cause: shaft bearings, housing or shaft side load.
To lower runout, replace the shaft.
Some other suggestions in reducing lip seal
leakages.
Lip seal Leakage analysis
4. If a press cannot be used, the seal may be seated Possible source of Suggested Remedy
trouble
with a driving plug or tool, fig. 25. This tool is
placed into position and tapped with a mallet. When 1. Worn shaft: Check shaft sealing surface hardness-
large seals are being seated, or in an emergency, a Rockwell C30 minimum necessary.
Replace seal. Use wear sleeve on shaft if
block of wood resting squarely on the seal may be available. Otherwise replace shaft.
used instead of a driving tool. Never hit the seal Lubricate parts.
directly !! 2. Rough finish on shaft: Finish shaft surface to 0.2 – 0.5 mic.
5. Check shaft to bore misalignment and dynamic
3. Damage shaft: Replace shaft. Protect seating surfaces
runout. Mis-alignment is the distance that the shaft
during handling and assembly
is off center with respect to the bore, fig. 27.
Runout is the amount by which the shaft, at the 4. Adhesive or paint on Clean with corcus cloth. Mask shaft during
sealing surface, does not rotate around its true sealing surface: seal assembly into bore or painting of unit.
center, fig. 28.
5. Seal cocked in bore: Use proper driving tool. Install seal at right
angle to shaft surface.
6. Seal lip reversed: Check stock seal whether it has double lip
before replacement. Some seals have
double lips. One lip faces inward to retain
fluid, one faces outward to exclude dirt.
7. Seal lip cut or torn: Replace seal. Lubricate seal/shaft. Use
thimble to carry lip over keyways, splines
and sharp edges. Be sure lip I.D. is not
stretched over 0.889 mm.
8. Seal lip worn, glazed or Check for hot oil, high case pressure and
hardened, shaft O.K.: correct seal size. Is seal lubricant good?
9. Seal spring damaged: Replace seal avoiding excessive

spreading of sealing lip and spring. Check
for proper storage and handling of seals.
10. Excessive eccentricity Align shaft, eliminate shaft side load, or

or misalignment – seal use a better flexible coupling.
lip can’t follow shaft
Misalignment plus runout is called eccentricity. For a movement:
given eccentricity, the probability of shaft seal leakage 11. “Built-In” seal flaw such Replace seal.
increases as shaft speed increases. The recommended as contamination, poor
maximum eccentricity which exist in the standard lip rubber bond to metal or
flesh on seal lip:
seal application is shown in fig. 29.
Face Seals
The mechanical face seal is one of the most effective
devices in preventing leakage along a rotating shaft
which passes in or out of an area of pressurized to the
shaft. The seal seat is attached to rotates with the
shaft, while the spring loaded seal head is stationary.
fig. 30.
Test Assembly
To insure against goofs, test the mechanical seal
The usual seal face materials in hydraulic applications assembly with low pressure filtered air (0.35 to 1.4 bar)
are hard carbon for the seal head, and steel or cast iron before installing the component on a machine. For
for the seal seat. The two are separated by an oil film. example, an externally drained piston pump housing is
Within an excellent matching of sealing forces and seal easily pressurized through the drain port connection.
flatness, oil surface tension can complete the seal and
there is no leakage. Elevated pressure can induce seal Packings
wear, but with proper balancing, pressure induced A packing is a material, deformed so as to throttle
sealing forces can be kept low. leakages between a moving or rotating part and a
Repair of Worn Parts stationary one. With rapid motion, there must be
Only a properly trained person should attempt to repair enough leakage to lubricate and cool the packing. On
the sealing surface of face seals. The condition of the some large applications using compressed packings,
seal surface is so critical that one company provides 40 the desired leakage rate may be as high as 10 drops
hours of training to its personnel on face seal operation, per minute. On some small O-ring applications with
repair and installation. rapid motion the leakage rate may be as low as one
Handle With Care drop per every other hour. Where there is relatively little
With the new, correct replacement parts, don’t touch motion, packings can seal without fluid leakage. Three
the sealing surfaces with fingers or an old wiping rag. basic types are compression, lip and squeeze
Make sure the seal seat is perpendicular to the shaft packings.
within 25 micron TIR. Figure. 3. Lubricate the sealing
surfaces well with the fluid to be sealed before Compression Packing
installation. Compression packing used in chemical processing is
TIR is the change in indicator reading during one rarely found in industrial hydraulic service. The packing
complete rotation of the shaft. is made of twisted, woven, or braided cotton, flax or
Troubleshoot asbestos fiber. Metal foil or wire is sometimes added
Examine the old parts for telltale signs. Abrasive wear for reinforcement along with solid lubricants such as
of the sealing faces means contaminated oil. Burned graphite, mica or PTFE.
faces indicate dry running of the seal. Heavy wear may
mean either excessive operating pressure or a hung-up Characteristics
spring. A cracked carbon ring leaks badly. Worn The packing is sufficiently pliable when axially
bearings should be replaced if end play exceeds 50 mic compressed to provide radial sealing for a moving shaft
or radial looseness is greater than 100 mic. Replace or rod.
the shaft with a new one if runout exceeds 50 mic TIR. It will not scratch or corrode the moving shaft or rod.
Polish the new shaft to remove burrs or scratches that It requires frequent adjustment to compensate for
might damage static seals. packing wear.

Molded Squeeze Packing
Squeeze packing is molded from synthetic rubber,

polyurethane or PTFE. Common shapes are the O-ring,
T-ring and X-ring.
Characteristics
Distortion of the squeeze packing from an interference

fit on assembly generates an internal sealing force
within the packing to contain low pressure.
High pressure puts an additional squeeze on the
packing, raising the internal sealing force to counter the
pressure force. This action tends to extrude the packing
through any clearance gap. Anti-extrusion rings are
shown with the T-ring in. figure 32.
Squeeze packings have less friction than either
compression or lip type packing and also seal in both
directions.
On assembly the O-ring should be squeezed about 10
percent, the T-ring about 5 percent and the X-ring as
low as 1 percent.
PACKING FEATURES
Probable Source of Suggested Remedy

Failure
1. Shaft or rod worn: Replace shaft. For
contaminated fluid, change
filter. For dirty atmosphere,
install protective shield or
boot. Check shaft
Molded Lip Type Packing hardness: Rockwell C 30
Lip type packing is molded from rubberized fabric, min.
nitrile, polyurethane or PTFE. Two common shapes are 2. Sealing surface are Use proper assembly and
U-ring and V-ring. scratched, seals disassembly tools on
damaged: overhaul. Replace
Characteristics damaged parts.
Distortion of the packing lips from an interference fit on 3. Dynamic runout of Inspect bearings, replace if
assembly creates a counter sealing force adequate for shaft or eccentric too loose. Check side loads
low pressure. motion is on shaft or rod. Seals are
excessive: not to be used as bearings.
With packing lips facing fluid pressure, any rise in 4. Rapid wear out of Seal compressed too much.
pressure flattens the lips against wall surface and seal: Loosen if adjustment is
raises the sealing force. available. Otherwise check
to be certain of correct seal
Lip type packing has lower leakages, less friction, and size.
longer life than compressed packing. 5. Glazed or Check for high oil
hardened seal: temperature. Correct if seal
The U-ring is an effective seal when used singly. A ring lubrication is inadequate.
support or pedestal with cross drilled holes assures 6. Seal edges are Check parts for too much
equal pressure loading in both seal lips. extruded: clearance. Replace faulty
parts. Use anti-extrusion
The V-ring needs a stack of three rings along with male rings on low pressure side
and female adapters to contain low pressure fluid. Five of seal.
or more rings are needed in the stack for high pressure.
TROUBLE SHOOTING HINTS
4. NOISY PUMP 1. LOW OR ERRATIC 5. SLOW OR ERATIC

PRESSURE OPERATION
Cavitation (pump starving) a) Contaminants in fluid. a) Air in fluid.
a) Clean inlet strainer b) Worn or sticking relief valve. b) Low fluid level.
b) Check inlet piping for c) Dirt or chip holding valve c) Visosity of fluid too high.
obstruction. partially open. d) Internal leakage through
c) Fluid viscosity too high. d) Pressure control setting too actulators or volving.
d) Operating temperature too low. e) Pump drive too slow.
low.
e) Excessive drive speed. 2. NO PRESSURE 6. ERRATIC FEED RATES.
f) Breather choked. a) Low oil level. a) Sticking, warped or binding
g) Low oil level. b) Pump drive reversed or not ways.
Pump picking up air (Aeration) running. b) Air in fluid
a) Low oil level. c) Pump shaft broken. c) Faulty or dirty flow control
b) Loose or damaged intake d) Relief valve stuck open. valve.
pipe. e) Full pump volume
c) Worn or damaged shaft bypassing through faulty 7. OVERHEATING OF
seal. valve or actuator. SYSTEM.
d) Aeration of fluid in reservoir a) Water shut off or heat
(return lines above fluid level). 3. ACTUATOR FAILS TO exchange clogged.
MOVE b) Continuous operation at
Others a) Faulty pump operation (see relief setting.
a) Worn or sticking vanes. noisy pump). I. Stalling under load etc
b) Worn ring. b) Directional control not II. Fluid viscosity too high.
c) Worn or damaged gears shifting: c) Excessive slippage or internet
and housings. i. Electrical failure, leakage
d) Shaft misalignment. solenoid, limit switches, I. Check stall leakage post
e) Worn or faulty bearings. etc. motors and cylinders.
ii. Insufficient pilot II. Fluid viscosity too low.
pressure.
iii. Interlock device not
actuated.
c) Mechanical bind.
d) Operating pressure too low.
e) Worn or damaged cylinder
or hydraulic motor.
THREE SIMPLE METHODS OF HYDRAULIC-MAINTENANCE
a) Maintain correct oil-level in the tank.
b) Keep the oil clean
c) Keep the joints & fittings tight to avoid leakages

Troubleshooting.
In troubleshooting the major problem is making a quick diagnosis of the fault.
There are three ways in which the fault can be analysed:
1. By working from the start of the machine cycle upto the point of failure.
2. By working from the end of the machine cycle and back to fault.
3. By starting at the fault and working from this point through the cycle.
Vickers, in an attempt to speed up diagnosis, have a series of chart called

algorithms available for the range of products.
The algorithm is chart that helps the troubleshooter to develop a logical approach
to fault finding by arranging in logical sequence, or/ tree, all of the possible cause
of failure in a unit. By answering a series of questions, the route take to the
failure is determined. The chart is written in a binary form, that is , when
questions are asked, there are only two possible answers: “Yes” or “No”. Rational
thinking, in logical form, is therefore present when a failure occurs.
After using algorithms, the user will eventually learn to trouble-shoot without a
chart, as the subconscious will remember by continual exposure to the charts.
Where the chart provides the logical thinking, they do depend upon the use of
measuring devices to improve the effect.
The essential measuring devices are;

1. Pressure Gauges (more than one)
2. Vacuum Gauge.
3. Flow monitor.
With all the aids, it is possible to use the algorithm to its fullest effect and reduce
break down time. Figures stated, give 80% of breakdown time to finding the fault
and 20% rectifying the failure. With the logic charts, this situation will be
reversed, hopefully reducing lost production time.

Lack of Pressure


FAULTS- LIKELY AND UNLIKELY

1. Simply check valves almost never stick closed, and seldom stick open.
Pilot operated check values can fail to open if:
• Pilot passengers are blocked
• The pilot position is stuck.
• Pilot pressure is inadequate.
• Drain blocked.
2. Small, low pressure, low flow pilot passages and orifices inside of pilot
operated valves are easily blocked by contamination in the system.
3. Flow control valves, especially non-compensated needle valves, rarel

become blocked by contaminants. However the spools in pressure
compensated valves do occasionally stick because of varnish deposits.
4. Suction side problems are common. There is often a lot of vibration near
the pump, which loosens fittings. Pump and motor mounts may also
loosen, causing shaft misalignment.
5. Chattering components wear out fast, and subject other components to

damaging pressures:
• Relief valves may chatter if they are internally worn, undersized,
overloaded, or if the drain is restricted.
• Relief valves and other pressures valves in a circuit may chatter if
their settings are too close to each other.
• When actuators chatter or oscillate, suspect flow and check valves
in the line.
6. Pump and hydraulic motor failure is common. Unlike other hydraulic

components, these are normally expected to wear out after so many hours
of operation. Sometimes bearings go first. Sometimes pressure rings
Misaligned shafts and hot or contaminated fluid speed up wear.
7. Probably the most common faults in hydraulics machines are not

mechanical. Human error is responsible for a lot of down time.
• Unauthorized adjustments are made.

• Operators sometimes mistreat their machines.
• Too often, maintenance on equipment is inadequate.
When listing probable causes, always consider human error

READING PRESSURE GAUGES
The system pressure gauge can tell you a lot. Watch it while you shift a directional control valve.
Example: This circuit includes a three- position, closed-center DCV
A closed center valve blocks all flow in center position.

PROBLEM: Suppose that the actuator will not move, and with the DCV in center position, the
pressure gauge reads near the relif valve setting. Try to shift the valve:
A) If there is no change in the gauge reading, it probably means the valve spool is not
shifting. Check for:
• Sticking pilot spool.
• Defective solenoids or electric controls.
• Plugged pilot orifices.
B) If pressure drops, and quickly builds back up to where it was, it probably means that
pressure and flow are going through the DCV to the actuator. The pressure drop
occurred as flow breifly went through the DCV to build pressure in the lines and
actuator. Check for:
• Excessive load, sideloading, binding actuator or load.
• A defective flow or pressure control valve anywhere downstream of the DCV.
• Other downstream blockage (unlikely)
C) If pressure drops and stays down, it probably means that fluid is bypassing to tank
downstreams of DCV. If fluid was bypassing to tank anywhere on the pump side of the
DCV, pressure would be low no matter how the DCV was shifted. Check for:
• Leaks, external or internal.
• A defective bypass flow control valve, unloading valve, or any other valve which can
bypass fluid to tank.

THUMB RULES TO GUIDE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM DESIGN.
1. The tank capacity of a hydraulic system is generally 3 to 4 times the pump

flow rate in industrial circuits.
2. The suction strainer is sized to handle 3 to 4 times the pump flow.
3. Maximum Recommended fluid velocity in hydraulic lines.

- Suction line - 1.2 mts./sec
- Pr. Lines - 0-35 BAR - 4.5 mts./sec
- 35-210 BAR - 6.0 mts./sec
- Over 210 BAR - 7.5 mts./sec
4. Maximum recommended oil temperature in hydraulic systems.

- Industrial - 65deg C
- Mobile - 90deg C
5. Heat exchanges are normally sized to dissipate 30% of the connected

load of the system.
6. Each watt of heat will raise the temperature of 6.8 lts. Oil through 1deg C
per hour.
7. The compressibility of hydraulic oil is approx. ½% for every 70 Bar of

pressure.
8. 25 micron filtration is adequate for most industrial and mobile systems.
9. Pressure line filters are sized to handle 2 to 3 times the pump flow.
10. Charge pumps in closed loop systems are generally at 15% of the main
pump flow.
11. Industry standards specify a maximum noise level of 80dba for

equipments.

Pipe Sizing Chart
Nomogram for determining pipe sizes in relation to flow rates and recommended velocity ranges.
Based on the formula:
Velocity of fluid in pipe (m/s) = Flow Rate (1/mim)* 21.22

2
D
Where D= bore of pipe (mm)
0
Recommended velocity ranges based on oils having a maximum viscosity grade of 70 cSt at 40
0 0
C and operating between 18 & 70 C.

SAFEMATIC SYSTEM OPERATION
Case 1: S running, S leak
S1 – Alarm
S2 – Port pp started, #1 pilot energised & #3 vv piloted – Thus, S system isolated
but leaking and P system held in bypass condition.
S3 – S pp stopped, #1 pilot deenergised and #2 pilot energised so #4 piloted
– Thus P system isolated and functional and S system held in bypass
condition.
– No further leak.
Case 2: S running, P leak
S1 – Alarm
S2 – Port pp started, #1 pilot energised & #3 vv piloted – Thus, S system
isolated and functional (No further leak ) and P system held in bypass
condition and leaking – so…
P1, P2, and P3 at which P pp stops.
-No further leak.
Case 3: P running, P leak
P1 – Alarm
P2 – Stbd. pp started, #1 (design preference) pilot energised & #3 piloted – Thus,
S system isolated and functional and P system held in bypass condition and
leaking – so..
P3 – P pp stopped
-No further leak.
Case 4: P running, S leak
P1 – Alarm
P2 – Stbd. pp started, #1 pilot energised & #3 piloted – Thus, S system
isolated but leaking and P system held in bypass condition.
S1 – Alarm
S2 – No action since P pp already running and #1 pilot already energised
S3 – S pp stopped, #1 pilot deenergised and #2 pilot energised so #4 piloted
– Thus P system isolated and functional.
No further leak.

Safematic Steering System
Rudder
St ock
B
Combined Iscl at ing Cum
Bypass v/v’s
3 4
HELE SHAW HELE SHAW

PUMP PUMP
S1 P1
S2 P2
S3 P3
SERVO POWER SERVO POWER

UNIT ‘S’ Side (#1 v/v) Get s UNIT
Design Pr ef er ance

Bibliography
1. Industrial Hydraulics Manual - By Vickers Systems International Limited.
2. Principles of Proportional Valves – By Vickers
3. Vickers Practical Hydraulics – By Vickers.
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MARINE HYDRAULICS WORKSHOP Rev1.

1. Advantages of hydraulic systems…………1

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 0

AIM OF THE COURSE:

2. TO READ HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS WITH THE

3. KNOW THE CONSTRUCTION & FUNCTION OF IMPORTANT

4. OPERATE, MAINTAIN AND TROUBLESHOOT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

2. HIGH POWER / WEIGHT RATIO – small component can handle large

3. SIMPLE DESIGN, FEW PARTS & LESS COMPLICATED CONSTRUCTION.

4. FLEXIBILITY – same component can do different jobs

5. EASE OF CONTROL – only a lever required to start/stop/reverse the

6. PRECISE MOTION CONTROL – jobs exactly as required, less waste &

7. FORCE MULTIPLICATION ACHIEVED WITHOUT LEVERS, PULLEYS,

9. INSTANT STOPPING / REVERSIBILITY.

10. CONSTANT TORQUE WITH VARIABLE SPEED SINCE TORQUE α

12. AUTOMATIC BRAKING – by blocking flow, no brakes, linings etc. required.

13. CAN BE USED IN HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS.

INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAINING CENTRE 2

1. PASCAL’S LAW: Pressure exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted

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Movement depends on Flow

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Hydraulic Principle II:

What are the possible causes of

In this case, actuator speed would be affected in both directions.

Notice that in this case speed

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Hydraulic Principle III:

If the load does not move, it is because either:

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4. A drain line returns leakage

2. Return lines are

Three Classifications of lines

This is done in two ways:

Piloting is done in two ways :

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:

PRESSURE CONTROL: Control of Force

DIRECTION CONTROL: Control of direction

FLOW CONTROL: Control of speed

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Circuit – Representation Using Graphical Symbols

Flow Control Valve

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ACTUATORS & PUMPS

SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER WITH

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4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (OPEN CENTER)

4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (CLOSED CENTER)

4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (TANDEM CENTER)

4 PORT, 3 POSITION D.C. v/v (FLOAT CENTER)

4 PORT SERVO v/v

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M ELECTRICAL MOTOR TEMP CONTROLLER

ACCUMULATOR FILTER, STRAINER

HEATER PR. SWITCH

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Name Pilot Drain