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Biological Control - Natural Control and 2. Density dependent factors:
Balance of Nature
Natural control is defined as the
‘maintenance of the population dynamics
equilibrium within particular upper and lower
limits over a period of time by a complex
combination of all the environment factors
affecting upon the population’. The rebounding
of the population in returning to the
characteristic mean density after periods of
positive or negative excess is most important.
Consequence of this result to a particular species
continued to increase or decrease in number.
This is called “Balance of Nature”.
The ‘Balance of nature’ is the result of
natural regulative processes in the environment
of every living thing and it assures that a species
will neither decline in numbers to extinction not
increase to infinite density. Regardless of
whether a species is abundant or scarce, the
average characteristic density of its population in
a given habitat is constant. The importance of
this ecological principle should be self evident
for without it the living natural world would
cease to exist.
It is customary in biological control work
to describe the species of animals and plants
which live at the expense of other animals and
plants as natural enemies of the latter. Any given
species in a community with few exceptions is
attacked and fed on by one or more such natural
enemies, and indication of the tremendous
potential for biological control.
The natural control generally limits the
number of insects. Such checks to numerical
growth include limited resources (Food, Space,
and Shelter) periodically occurring inclement
(severe) weather or other hazards (Heat, Cold,
Wind, Rain, and Draught), competition from
themselves or from other kind of animals and
natural enemies (Predator, parasites and
pathogens)
The major component of natural control of
population numbers:
Natural Control: 1. Density independent factors,
2. Density dependent factors
1. Density independent factors:
a. Physical: E.g Temperature, Humidity,
Air movement, Exposure.
b. Biological: E.g Host Suitability, Food
Quality.
a. Non reciprocal: E.g Some Foods,
Space territoriality.
b. Reciprocal: Parasites, predators,
pathogen, herbivorous, some food
sources.
In nature probable every insect
population is attacked to some degree by one or
more natural enemies, referred to
entomophagous insects. Clausen (1940) stated
that every phytophagous insect species is
attacked by such one or more parasitic or
predatory insects. Other predatory animals e.g.
some birds, certain mammals, toads, frogs,
Lizards etc. can also act as natural control
agents.
The results of natural control are the
regulation of numbers, preventing the population
from becoming too high or relaxing certain
suppressive influence when the population
becomes low. The occurrence of this situation the
long term maintenance of the population at a
characteristic level of abundance relative to other
organisms in the community is the demonstration
of the “Balance of Nature”.
The natural control is governed through
influences of mortality factors and reproductive
factors includes climatic factors such as
excessive heat, or cold or disappearance or
deterioration of food resources, the action of
competing species and natural enemies. The
environmental factors which act as mortality
agents at intensities unaffected by the size of the
population e.g. weather this limiting factor is
called a ‘Density Independent mortality
factor’. Whereas those limiting factor whose
intensities of action vary with the abundance of
the species in question e.g. predator which
consumes proportionally more prey when they
later are more abundant then when they are
scares is called ‘Density Independent mortality
factor’. Natural enemies have the capability of
acting as density dependent mortality factor
though they may not act this way depending their
own environmental limitations. All natural
enemies used in contributing to successful
biological control programmes act in this way.
Density depended factors may be classified
according to whether they vary in number (or
magnitude) as the host numbers change
(reciprocal action) or whether their numbers (or
magnitude) remain fixed (non reciprocal action).
The parasitoids and predators are reciprocal in
action, since they commonly increase in numbers
when their host or prey become numerous as
decrease as the hosts or prey become suppressed.

Thus the enemies control their hosts and the host
controls the enemies. Space is an example of a
non reciprocal factor since it does not mold
(wax) or wane (decrease in area) as the user
population rises or fall “space” can control the
numbers of the users, but the users do not alter
the amount of space present e.g. some
herbivorous insects can be limited by the amount
of “food” (host plant) available to them but often
do not influence the numbers of plants present
for insect populations to remain in relative
numerical balance within their normal
communities for substantial periods of time, it
appears to us necessary that there be one or more
density dependent mortality agents involved in
the natural control of such populations. Such
mortality agent being responsive to increase in
the density of the population serve as regulators
to check this increase as the population density
declines the regulative action of these agents’
moderates allowing the population to rise again.
When an insect population is maintained
at a characteristic level of abundance by the
effects of natural control agents (including all
mortality agents, both density dependent and
density independent in action) usually there is a
substantial contribution from natural enemies to
the total mortality occurring in any generation.
There are about 10,000 to 30,000 insects’ species
out of 1 million or more species of to be
recognized as economically important. When
insect species invade new geographic regions
either commercial activities of man or
accidentally they may increase to extra ordinarily
high numbers mainly because they have escaped
the controlling influences of their customary
natural enemies. Overall generation mortality is
greatly diminished while reproductive capacity
of the space is remain high. The population of
such high invades increases in numbers at an
exponential rate, causing population outbreak.
When such an invading insect is injurious, pest
outbreaks occurs and the control efforts must be
needed. These efforts directs to search for and
colonization of any adopted natural enemies that
remain behind in the native home of the invading
species. Virtually all successful classical
biological control programs to date have resulted
from the re-association of invading pests of
foreign origin with their adopted natural enemies
(De Bach, 1964). However, not all insects’
species are of foreign origin, some may include
native also e.g. Cotton bollworm.
The biological control of native pest species is
more complicated than foreign species because it
is presumed that the native species have already
associated with their natural enemies. There are
some other factors that favors unduly increase in
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number of native pest species. The agricultural
practices of the growers may often interfere with
the efficiency of natural enemies on exerting
their share of natural control.
Biological Control of Such Native Pest can
then Assume Several Routes:
1) The introduction of natural enemies of
the foreign origin which are associated with
related pest species.
2) The modification of agricultural and
other practices with the intention of enhancing
native natural enemy action.
3) The employment of other pest control
techniques, chemical control in particular, to
bring about the integrated control of such pests.
Dynamics of Natural Population as a Basis for
Biological Control
Some species of insects consistently
occur in large number, an important
characteristics of insect population phenomenon,
while others comparatively rare, e.g. Butterflies
and Bollworms most abundant, Army population
densities are maintained year after year, The
absolute number of one or all of the species may
vary from time to time. The particular observed
population densities are governed by the effect of
some intrinsic (biotic) or extrinsic (abiotic)
factors.
1) The Ground Rules:
The study of the dynamics of natural
population has a long history. Thomas Malthus
(1798) was the first to inquire into the means by
which population levels are maintained. He put
theory of human population dynamics as
“Population when unchecked increases in a
geometrical ratio”. Human population is
regulated by flood, famine etc.
Charles Darwin (1859) put forward the theory
the struggle for existence, ‘stronger will survive’.
He was the first biologist to deal with the relative
importance of competition, predation and
climatic factors in this regard. As early as 1700,
Linnaeus considered the importance of certain
factors in the gross mortality of pests. Kollar
Fitch and Walsh during 1800 have notably
emphasized particular mortality factors. Howard
and Fiske (1911) reported the various factors in
population regulation of gypsy moths.

2) Natural Control as the Ecological Basis for
Biological Control:
Insect population density never remains
static but it is always fluid and changing. The
individuals which make up the population are
dying of starvation, predation, exposure or
accidents and new individuals come into the
population immigration also take place
throughout the year. Thus, it seems that
population can be both stable and changing in
numbers at the same time. The population
density of an organism may be constantly
changing, the value tends to oscillate about a
mean which is comparatively stable, but may
change under certain control.
Definition of Biological Control
Biological control, when considered from
the ecological view point as a phase of natural
control, can be defined as “The action of
parasites, predators or pathogens in maintaining
another organism’s population density at a lower
average than would occur in their absence”.
(Paul DeBach, 1964).
This definition is more demographic and
ecological in context, but it does not explain the
mechanism of control or regulation. It is a factual
type of definition in that Biological control can
be measured experimentally but man’s activity or
manipulation of natural enemies not implicit /
exhibited. Hence, in more precise way as an
applied control, Biological control can be
defined as “The destruction or suppression of
undesirable insects, other animals or plants by
the introduction, encouragement or artificial
increase of their natural enemies”.
Types of Biological Control
Biological control involves regulation of
organism’s population density at any given level
by natural enemies. If Biological control factors
are responsible for population regulation of an
organism below density which would be adverse
to man’s interest, then it is a case of successful
biological control in economic sense.
1. Partial Biological Control:
If control is achieved at somewhat higher
average population densities than it is
economically satisfactory, this is sometimes
alluded to as partial Biological control.
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2. Substantial Biological Control:
If Biological control can be substantially
successful economically for a period of time, the
partial so far becomes a subsequent period.
3. Complete Biological Control:
Outstanding economic feature of
successful biological control is that once
achieved, it is essentially permanent. Also, it
does agree with man’s purposeful activity. For
example, Rodolia cardinalis on cottony cushion
scale in citrus Epiricania melanoleuca on pyrilla
in sugarcane.
Method/Techniques in Biological Control
Biological control practices involve three major
techniques,
1. Introduction
2. Conservation
3. Augmentation
1) Introduction:
It is advisable to introduce an exotic
species of a natural enemy either when there is
an unoccupied niche and is required to be
displaced by a more efficient exotic species. The
former is a common situation in newly
introduced pest in a country. Foreign
explorations for parasites and predators have
been made primarily to introduce parasites from
the place of origin of the pest and sometimes to
introduce exotic natural enemies of the
indigenous pest species.
Recently, many international organization
have been established to facilitate the movement
of beneficial species from one country to another
and the largest of the organization is the
‘International Institute of Biological Control’
which has laboratories in Switzerland, Trinidad,
Malaysia and Pakistan. About 40% of the
introduced natural enemies have established in
the introduced countries and provided partial to
complete control of important insect pests at the
global level.
2) Conservation:
Conservation means the avoidance of
measures that destroy natural enemies and the
use of measure that increase their longevity and
reproduction of the attractiveness of an area to

natural enemies. If the natural enemies are
properly conserved the need for other control
measures is greatly reduced.
i) Preservation of Inactive Stages:
This is most critical when there is small
reservoir of natural enemies outside the cropped
area e.g. Pupae of Epipyrops are found in large
numbers on the trashes of sugarcane leaves at the
time of harvesting. These are left around
harvested fields to augment the supply of natural
enemies in the pre-monsoon season against
pyrilla.
ii) Avoidance of Harmful Cultural Practices:
Cultural practices like burning can be
harmful to natural enemies e.g. burning of
sugarcane trash destroy the resting stages of
Epipyrops. Such practices can be modified to
avoid harmful effects.
iii) Maintenance of Diversity:
The concept on more diversity is stability
holds true because diverse system may provide
alternate hosts as source of food, ever wintering
sites, refuges etc. e.g. mixed cropping,
intercropping etc.
iv) Natural Food, Artificial Food Supplements
and Shelters:
Many parasitoids and predators require
food frequently not available in monoculture.
The availability of predatory mites was related to
the availability of pollen. Artificial honey dew
and pollen in the form of food sprays induced
early ovipositor of Chrysopera spp.
v)Protection from Pesticides:
All pesticides have adverse effects on
natural enemies. The solution lies in the use of
relatively resistant strains of natural enemies and
selective use of pesticides.
3) Augmentation:
Augmentation includes all activities
designed to increase numbers or effect of
existing natural enemies. These objectives may
be achieved by releasing additional numbers of a
natural enemy into a system or modifying the
environment in such a way as to promote greater
number or effectiveness. These releases differ
from introduction of imported natural enemies in
that these have to be repeated periodically. The
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periodic releases may be either Inoculative of
Inundative.
i) Inoculative Release:
Inoculative release may be made as
infrequently as once a year to re-establish a
species of natural which is periodically killed out
in an area by unfavorable conditions part of a
year.
ii) Inundative Release:
Inundative release involves mass culture
and release of natural enemies to suppress the
pest population directly. These are most
economical against pests that have only one or
few discrete generations every year e.g. massive
release of Trichogramma spp.
Scope of Biological Control
In the years ahead, workers in Biological
control of insects, mites and seed pest
suppression must continue to deepen and
broaden their efforts, as this field has received
great enthusiastic acclaim during past century.
These research workers showed successful
practical results in more than 60 countries of the
world. The partially exploited field has several
dimension of future scope.
1. Promoting Basic Research:
There is lot of scope to intensify the
studies which can improve and synergize the
biological control. Basic research areas in the
field of biology, ecology, biosystematics,
behavior, biochemistry, population dynamics etc.
have great contributing value to biological
suppression which needs to be studied.
2. Scope to Exploit the Bioagent on Crop Pest:
About 98 % of the insects pests are
regulated naturally through natural enemies.
However, it is reported that only 5% of the world
insect pest species have ever been the subject of
entomophage introduction (DeBack, 1974). It is
estimated that 70% of parasitic hymenoptera are
still undescribed species.
3. Help to Reduce Pollution Hazards:
Utilization of bioagent can help in
establishment of population regulation process of
serious pests by reducing the load of toxic
insecticides and their side effects.

4. Necessity to Intensify of New Horizons of
Biological Control:
Importation and use of parasitoids and
predators is popular concept of biological
control, which gave good success in several
cases. Similarly new trends such as use of
biotypes, strains, hybrids of parasites, use of
novel biopesticides like entomogenous fungi,
viruses are to be search properly and its
harmonious use in pest suppression needs to be
exploited.
5. Adoption of Biological Control Methods in
Agro Industries:
Although use of bioagent has many
benefits but there is need to adjust with other
methods like chemical control of pest. The
pesticides should be less toxic to natural enemies
and needs to be identified and employed in pest
control suppression. For example, Endosulfan
safe to many predators and social insects.
Biological control helps in maintaining ‘Balance
of Nature’ as it is the phase of natural control.
Practical significance of Biocontrol
(Advantages)
1. It is exercised in a wide area.
2. The application of biotic agent is easy and
possible in inaccessible areas like dense
forest.
3. It is safe for humans and animal health.
4. The biotic agents survive in nature till the pest
is prevalent.
5. It is a cheaper method if successfully deployed
and persuaded.
6. It is a self perpetuating in nature.
7. It has no risk of environment pollution.
8. It does not require special equipment to apply
and can be mass multiplied at farmer’s
level.
9. It may provide/generate employment revenues
to rural people.
10. No problem of pest resistance and
resurgence.
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Constrains in the adoption of Biocontrol
(Limitations)
Biocontrol is slow process and takes little
more time to achieve control of crop pests. The
possible constrains are:
A) At farmer’s Level:
1. Non availability of biotic agents for field
application timely.
2. Illiteracy among farmer as they have no access
to new technologies to read.
3. Small holdings may cause migration of
bioagent.
4. Inclination towards use of chemical pesticides.
5. Non availability of popular literature.
6. Population lacking.
B) At Government Level:
1 Relatively less attention to Biocontrol projects
than chemical industries.
2. Importation of biotic agents.
3. Mass production of biotic agents limited
techniques for indigenous and exotic use.
4. Field Utilization of biotic agents.
5. Integration of bioagent with pesticides.
6. Laboratory evaluation of biotic agents and
their field efficiency.
7. Transfer of technology requires more attention.
Historical Developments in Biological Control
The purposeful control of insect pests and
weeds by biotic agents is a comparatively
modern development having become effective
techniques in pest control only since 1890.
However, there are antecedent historical events
which trace the evolution of some of the
fundamental concepts in the development of
Biological control.
The overall population of Rachel
Carlson’s “Silent Spring” in 1962 had gained
increasing acceptance in very recent years
through various practices of biological control
method. Historically, the growth of discipline
was much slow and painful.
The historical events could be identified with
following developmental periods:
A) Early History to 1888 (Ancient period)
B) Middle History to 1940
C) Middle History to 1962

D) Recent Advances 1962 Onwards
Historical Developments in Biological Control
- Early history to 1888 (Ancient period)
The idea that the insects could be use
intentionally to suppress the population of other
insect is an ancient one. Charles Darwin
recognized appearance of first insect primitive
humans probably utilized insects as a part of
their own field diet. It assumed that man himself
recognized perdition at an early date by man
himself. The discovery of agriculture and
development during Neolithic time (about 1000
BC) put human kind into very direct competition
with insect for food. Just as early as man
observed birds eating insects, snake eating
rodent, mice and rats eradicated by house cat by
Egyptian.
“Historia Animalium” described the
ravages the wax moth to honey comb. Later on
Pliny (23-79 AD), a Roman author recognized
several disease conditions in bees. Silkworm also
suffers from various diseases and recognized as
early as 1000 AD. The true biological
suppression of insect pest in modern sense was
practiced by Chinese citrus growers by
introducing predaceous ants in to orchards to
control citrus peat. In the old Chinese book
‘Wonder from Southern China’ (900 AD) refers
that large yellow ants with long legs used to
protect oranges from worms and ant’s nest was
available for sale in village markets ‘Anton’ until
1939.
Ulysses Aldrovandis in his book “De
Animalibus Insects” (1802) summarized all
published literature on insects and included first
published literature on insect parasitism. An
attack of Gregarian parasitoid, Apanteles
glomeratus of the cabbage butterfly was known.
Francisco Redi (1860) described phenomenon of
parasitism of aphid by an ichneumonids.
Vallisnleri (1730) first noted unique association
between parasitic wasps, A.glomerctus of
cabbage butterfly. Rene Reanmur (1734)
advanced the idea of biological insect
suppression and suggested introducing the eggs
of aphidivorous flies (lace wing) into green
houses. A lady bird beetle, green lace using and
wasp were also recommended for suppression of
aphids. The first International Movement of
predator was accompanied in 1762. The Indian
‘Mynali’ bird was introduced from India to
Maurtius with a purpose of red locust control in
sugarcane. Mitchill (1823) discussed various
parasitic animals including hymenoptera form
insects. Herrick (1840) discussed an egg and
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pupal parasitoid of hesion fly Asalitch (1845)
proposed importation of parasitoids from
England to America to control wheat midge.
Agostina Bassi (1835), a pioneer insect
pathologist first demonstrated the fungal nature
of mustarding disease of the silk worm. Kirby
and Spence (1867) recommended and used lady
bird beetle for aphid control. They were also
aware of usefulness of mantids, coccinlids,
dragonflies, spiders etc.
Historical Developments in Biological Control
- Middle History to 1940
The knowledge about parasitoids,
predators and diseases were accumulating and
the struggle for existence was taking place an
early Ecologist George Russel Wallace and
Charles Darwin put forth general idea called
‘Balance of Nature’.
John Curtis in his book on ‘Farm Insect’
(1860) includes ecology of various agricultural
pests and emphasized functions of parasitoids
and predators in crop protection. Riley (1873)
arranged first international shipment of natural
enemies in the transfer of predatory mite
Tyroglyphus phyllaxerae to France from North
America for possible control of grapevine
phylloxera. Riley (1883) directed import of
internal parasite of cabbage butterfly from
England to America and A. glomeratus
eventually, become successful and well
distributed in Eastern and mid western state as
larval parasitoid. This successful importation of
A. glomeratus by Riley was the first international
transfer of parasitoid for biological control.
The Italian Microbiologist Agastina Bassi
is the first worker to suggest use of microbes for
insect pest suppression in 1836. Lewis pasture
from France was more confident for his
suggestion of use of protozoa causing pebrine
disease in bees. Russian Zoologist Metchnikiff
recorded large fluctuation in pest population of
wheat cock chafer beetle and one of the causes
was green muscardine fungus, Meterrhizium
anisopliae.
The successful introduction of coccinellid
beetle Radalia cardinalis from Australia to
California in 1888, was the first spectacular
success controlling cottony cushion scale (Icerya
puchasi) a serious pest of citrus and become a
first classical example of biological insect pest
suppression and it was later acclaimed as miracle
Cryptolaemns montrouzieri. Mulsent, a mealy
bug predator approached usefulness as like that
of R. cardinalis (vedalia beetle). However Smith

H. S. (1912) put quarantine measures to stop
importation of beneficial organisms into
California. In 1919, he was first to propose the
term ‘Biological Control’ and wrote
voluminously in 1935-1939 on theoretical
aspects of biological control.
In Europe, Metchnikoff tried Beauveria
sp against nunmoth caterpillar, Gypsy moth and
Melolontha beetles. In mid western U. S. the
fungus, B. basiana was used for control Chinch
bug, Blesses leucopterus. In 1920, Albert koebele
used successful biological programs against leaf
hoppers by introduction of egg parasitoids from
Australia and a predacious mired bug.
First modest biological control laboratory
in Canada was established in the University of
New Brunswick and by 1960 when importation
was stopped. Three important parasitoids had
been established as a footing stone for future
development. Parker and Thompson set
laboratory in France and during 1927-40
imported several parasitoids for biological
control of European corn borer, Ostrilia nubilalis.
Baird (1923-56) carried out corn borer
suppression program in Canada for alfa weevil.
Japanese beetle and European Ear wig with the
help of USDA, Bureau of Entomology. In 1929,
Canadian Entomologist established Dominion
parasite Laboratory at Belleville and then new
era of biological control was dawned by 1933. In
1940, because of World War II, the Fernharn
laboratory (U. S.) was closed and Thompson
service later recognized as CIBC i.e. Common
wealth Institute of Biological Control.
Historical Developments in Biological Control
- Middle History to 1962
In 1874, a German Chemist Othman
Zeidler synthesized DDT and later in 1939 Paul
Muller in Swiss discovered its remarkable
insecticide properties. Thus during 1940-1960
insect control was totally dependent upon use of
chemicals. In 1950 use of BT resume interest in
Europe and America and significance of Bt
resulted its commercial production in 1960.
There, was increasing emphasis on use of
microbes and other methods of pest control like
chemical, physical, and cultural for greater
effectiveness.
In 1952, another significant development
was the establishment of International
Commission of Biological Control (ICBC) under
the auspices of International Union of biological
Scientists. ICBC was later recognized as IOBC
(International Organization for Biological
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Control) comparing of 22 members from 16
Countries. The group was designed to promote
and co-ordinate the national efforts in biological
pest suppression by international cooperation
within its jurisdiction. This organization began a
publication of a Journal “Entomophaga”.
In Canada, F. T. Bird carried out studies
and accidentally introduced polyhedral viral
species and it was the beginning of a period of
applied Insect Pathology By 1950, a well
equipped insect pathology laboratory was
established in Sault SteMarie concerning with
disease of forest pest and another group in
Dominion Research Laboratory at Belleville was
concern with agricultural pest.
During 1940-50 work on biological
control was mostly restricted in USDA,
California and Hawaii. Largest effort was made
for biological control of oriental fruit fly, Dacus
dorsalisand obtained substantial control. In 1955,
Dominion laboratory Belleville had become one
of the largest centers for research on application
of principles of genetics for mass production of
parasitoids in the world with the name
Entomological Research Institute of Biological
Control. The CIBC has headquartered at
Belleville during 1940-46 at Ottawa during
1946-61. From 1961 onwards the headquarter of
CIBC was moved to Trinidad, West Indies and is
continued until now. In 1959, a growing interest
in Insect disease gave impetuous to the
publication of Journal of ‘Insect Pathology’ in
New York which has been changed to Journal of
‘Invertebrate Pathology’.
Historical Developments in Biological Control
- Recent Advances 1962 Onwards
Impact of Book Silent Spring (1962) on
the practice of pest management resulted in wide
discussion concerning about developing
problems of synthetic insecticides. This
discussion has led to search for alternative
methods of pest control. Thus again
strengthening of research on parasitoids,
predators and pathogens was initiated for
ecofriendly approach in pest suppression.
Two multinational co-operative groups
i.e. CIBC and IOBC organized to promote cause
of biological control become stronger than ever
more than half dozen field stations were
maintained around the world to provide
collection and rearing services of natural
enemies. In India, (CIBC) center was located at
1. There are 5 regional stations:

2. West Peleactic regional action.
3. Western Hemisphere regional section.
4. SPE Asian regional section.
5. Tropical Africa regional sections.
6. Pacific Regional section.
IOBC remained the important channel for
the exchange of ideas and information regarding
biological control on a worldwide basis. In 1962,
the predaceous snail, Euglaelina roses F. was
introduced from Bermuda and it was released in
Orissa to control a new pest i.e. Giant African
snail, Achatina fulica F. So far 120 pests in 65
countries of the world have been controlled by
using biological control.
In 1962, prickly pear, Opuntia dillenil
was controlled by cochineal insect Doctylopis
tomentosus covering area of about one lakh acre.
Successful introduction of lepidopterous nymph
and adult parasitoid, Epiricania melanoleuca
against sugarcane pyrilla, predator C.
monstrouceiri against mealy bugs. Zygogramma
bicolorata beetles feeding on parthenium weeds,
Apentelus sp. Beacon sp. the research was in
progress.
Use of insect pathogen like Bt formulated
product baculoviruses viz. NPV against H.
armigera, S. liura etc Granulosis virus against
sugarcane stem borer, fungi, Beauveria bassiana
against various insect pests in different parts of
the country are under progressive use for last few
decades. Thus, historical development of
biological control is in great progress and within
reach. Most diverse research efforts are
expanded than ever before in this field.
Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests - I
Accretive Release:
A method of periodic introduction of
biotic agents in which annual early season
liberations against fairly abundant pest
populations allow the beneficial organism
population to increase naturally in response to
rising pest densities as the season progresses.
Agroecosystem:
The modified and simplified system of
plants, animals and habitat used for human
agricultural purposes.
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Antibiosis:
According to Painter (1951), it refers
preventative, injurious or destructive effects on
the insect life history which result from the
insect’s use of a resistant host variety or species
for food.
Antifeedant:
A natural synthetic chemical substance
which acts either to inhibit the stimulation of
gustatory receptors which normally recognize
suitable food, or to stimulate receptors which
elicit a negative response to deterrent chemicals.
Arrhenotoky:
A facultative type of parthogenetic
reproductive in which only male progeny are
produced.
Augmentation:
It is the process which involves to
improve the effectiveness of natural enemies by
manipulating either mass production, periodic
colonization or by genetic improvement.
Autodial Control:
The use of an insect species against itself,
usually through, some means of genetic
modification, to suppress or eradicate its natural
population.
Autoparasitism:
A special type of hyper parasitism in
which the female develops as primary parasitoid,
but the male is a secondary parasitoid through
females of its own species.
Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests – II
Balance of Nature:
The natural tendency of plant and animal
populations, resulting from natural regulative
processes in an undisturbed environment, to
neither decline in numbers to extinction, nor
increase to infinite density.
Biological Control:

Biological pest suppression in its narrow,
classical sense, usually restricted to the
introduction by man, of parasitoids, predators,
and/or pathogenic micro organisms to suppress
population of plant or animal pests.
Biological Insect Pest Suppression:
The use or encouragement by man, of
living organism or their products for the
population reduction of pest insects.
Biotype:
A biological strain of an organism,
morphologically indistinguishable from other
member of its species, but exhibiting distinctive
physiological characteristics; particularly in
regard to its ability to successfully utilize pest-
resistant host organisms or to act as an effective
beneficial species.
Cleptoparasitism:
A type of parasitism in which the adult
parasitoid preferentially appropriates for its own
progeny the previously paralyzed and parasitized
host of another parasitoid.
Colonization:
The controlled release of a quality of
biological control agents in a favorable
environment for the purpose of permanent or
temporary establishment.
Conservation:
It is the process involved in manipulation
of environment to favour natural enemies either
by removing or modifying the adverse effects or
by providing the lacking pre-requisities.
Density dependent factor:
Refers to mortality factors or processes in
the environment which destroys an increasing
percentage of the subject population as the
numerical population density increase and vice
versa.
Density Independent Factor:
Refers to mortality factors or processes in
the environment which destroys a relatively
constant percentage of the subject population
regardless of changes in its density.
Denterotoky:
9
A type of parthenogenetic reproduction in
which the progeny of unmated females may
consist of both males and females.
Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests – III
Ecological Niche:
The place an organism occupies in its
biotic relationships and physical environment as
determined by its particular structural
adaptations, physiological adjustments, and
developed behavioral patterns.
Economic Threshold:
A population density concept which
allows the determination of the point at which
pest numbers are sufficient to cause economic
injury unless suppressive action is taken.
Ectoparasitoid:
An insect parasite which develops
externally on its arthropod host.
Endoparasitoid:
An insect parasite which develops within
the arthropods host.
Endotoxin:
An toxin substance formed by certain
bacteria and retained within their vegetative cells
(e.g. in Bacillus thuringiensis, the endotoxin
occurs as a part of the crystal shaped parasporal
body).
Entomogenous:
Refers to organisms (usually micro
organisms) growing in or on the bodies of
insects.
Entomopathogenic:
Capable of causing disease in insects.
Entomophagous:
Refers to the consumption of insects or
their parts, insectivorous.
Entomophilic:

Insect-loving.
Enzootic:
Refers to a disease condition (or
sometimes a pest) which is constantly present in
an area, but at a low rate of incidence.
Epizootic:
An outbreak of a disease (or sometime a
pest) in which is an unusually high number of
cases (or density of the pest).
Exotic:
A soluble toxic substance produced by
certain bacteria and found in their surrounding
growth medium.
Factitious Host:
An unnatural but acceptable host used in
laboratory propagation of beneficial organisms.
Facultative Parasitism:
Here in reference to nematodes which
may either parasitize healthy insect, or develop
in some other way in the environment (e.g.
mycetophagy) if no insect host is encountered.
Facultative Pathogen:
A micro organism which is capable of
growth and reproduction in either a non living
medium or living host; in the latter instance, a
disease condition of the host may arise.
Fortuitous Biological Insect Pest Suppression:
The desirable but accidental movement of
exotic beneficial organisms to new areas and/or
new pests, where pest population suppression
eventually results; or the successful population
regulation of exotic pests by indigenous natural
enemies.
Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests – IV
Granulosis:
An insect viral disease characterized by
the presence of minute granular inclusions
(capsules) in the infected cells.
Gregarious Parasitoid:
10
An insect parasite which normally
develops successfully at a rate of two or more
individuals per arthropod host.
Heteroxenous:
Describes a species which require the use
of more than one host species to successfully
complete its annual life cycle.
Inclusion Body:
The proteinaceous or crystal like
structure produced in insect cells infected with
certain viral pathogens. (It occurs in various
shapes and sizes and usually encloses a number
of replicated virons).
Indigenous:
Native to a particular region or country.
Inundative Release:
A method of periodic introduction of
biotic agents which is analogous to insecticide
treatment in that a greater amount of the
liberated material is used than is actually
effective repetition m may be necessary and the
effect is more less immediate.
International Unit (IU):
An arbitrarily set basis for comparing the
efficacy of insect pathogenic Bacillus
thuringiensis preparations. It is one thousand of
the amounts of insecticidal activity contained in
one million of a preparation of the primary
standard E-61 strain B-t., as measured by
bioassay against certain caterpillars e.g. A
standard B-t. strain (HD-1-S-1971) has assigned
a potency of 18000 IU/mg against the cabbage
looper.
IOBC:
(International Organization for Biological
Control of noxious animals and plants an affiliate
for the International Union of Biological
Sciences): A global organization of government
units and individual interested in biological pest
suppression headquartered in Zurich,
Switzerland. Major objective include
dissemination of information, coordination and
promotion of research and application of
biological pest suppression. Publisher of the
journal, Entomophaga.

Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests – V
Life Table:
A device for expressing in an orderly
fashion, observations on the changing density of
an insect population in time and space and the
processes which direct those changes, especially
in relation to the age-specific distribution of
mortality and its causes.
Microbial Insecticide:
A pathogenic microorganism or its
products (e.g. toxins) when used by man to
suppress an insect population.
Microbial Pathogen:
A microorganism which causes disease in
its host; more specifically, a term used in
preference to microbial “insecticide” to denote a
microorganism used by man to suppress insect
pest population.
Monoculture:
The cultivation of a single crop species
over large areas without provision for diversity
or use of the land in any other way.
Monophagous:
The term restricted to the use of only one
plant or animal species as host or prey.
Monoxenous:
Describes a species which requires only a
single host species on which it successfully
complete its annual life cycle.
Multiparasitism:
A condition resulting from the
simultaneous use of a single host individual by
two or more species of primary parasitoids.
Multivoltine:
Having two or more complete
generations annually.
Natural Control:
The process of dynamic equilibrium
which maintains the characteristic mean density
of a wild population within particular upper and
11
lower limits, over a period of time, by a complex
combination of all the additive conditioning, and
subtractive processes striking that wild
population.
Natural Enemies:
Strictly, the parasitoids, predators, and
pathogenic microorganisms associated naturally
with a specific wild population of plants or
animals, and causing mortality or debility to the
individual thereof; often used in a general sense
for all parasitoids, predators, and pathogens.
Obligate Parasitism:
Here in reference to nematodes which
must develop parasitically and cannot reproduce
and complete growth away from.
Obligate Pathogen:
A disease causing microorganism which
requires a living host to grow and reproduce.
Important Terms used in Biological Control of
Crop Pests – VI
Parasite:
An animal species which level on or in a
larger animal, the host, feeding upon it, and
frequently destroying it. A parasite needs only
one or part of one host to reach maturity.
Parasitism:
A qualitative term referring to a kind of
symbiosis in which one party (the parasite) lives
at the expense of the other (the host),
contributing nothing to the relationships and
frequently destroying the host in the process.
Parasitization:
A quantitative term referring to the
proportion of a host population attacked by
parasites.
Parasitoid:
An insect parasite of an arthropod
parasitic only in its immature stages, destroying
its host in the process of development and free
living as an adult.

Periodic release:
A method of beneficial organism
introduction which involves repeated liberations
to artificially maintain high population levels of
indigenous biotic agents in situations which such
levels are unattainable naturally.
Polyhedrosis:
An insect viral disease characterized by
formation of polyhedron shaped inclusions in the
infected cells. The disease is known as a nuclear
Polyhedrosis or nucleopolyhedrosis.
Polyphagous:
Adapted to the use of wide variety of
plant or animal species as hosts or prey.
Population Dynamics:
The study of numerical changes in
populations of living organisms in time and
space and of the processes which cause such
variations.
Predator:
An animal which feeds upon other
animals (prey) that are usually smaller and
weaker than itself, frequently devouring them
completely and rapidly. A predator most often is
required to seek out and attack more than one
prey to reach maturity.
Primary Parasitoid:
An insect parasite of any arthropod which
is not itself parasitic.
Protelean Parasite:
An insect species in which only the
immature stages are parasitic.
Secondary Parasitoid:
An insect species of a primary parasitoid.
Septicemia:
A morbid condition caused by invasion
and multiplication of microorganisms in the
blood.
12
Solitary Parasitism:
All insect parasite which normally
develops at a rate of one individual per arthropod
host.
Superparasitism:
A condition resulting from the use of a
single host individual by more individual
parasitoids of the same species than it can
successfully sustain to maturity because of
nutritional limitations.
Symbiosis:
The living together in close association of
two or more species of organisms.
Thelyotoky:
A type of parthenogenetic reproduction in
which only female progeny are produced.
Tolerance:
According to Painter (1951), it is the
basis for resistance in which a host shows an
ability to grow and reproduce itself, or to repair
injury, despite supporting a pest population equal
to that damaging a more susceptible host.
Trap Crop:
A small planting of a susceptible and
highly attractive host, planted early in the season,
or removed in space from the main crop, in order
to divert attack and infestation by pests and
allow for their easy destruction.
Virulence:
The disease producing power of a
microorganism, i.e. the relative capacity of a
microorganism to invade and injury the tissues of
its host.

Important Natural Enemies and Their Hosts
Biological insect suppression in its
original or classical sense involves the directed
use of beneficial organisms. These beneficial
organisms fail into several categories or groups.
The broad-based categories of biological control
agents/natural enemies are (according to function
involved).
1. Parasites and Parasitoids
2. Predators
3. Micro-organisms
On the other hand, the categorization may also be
done as:
1) Vertebrates: These include predatory animals
like:
A) Fishes (Pisces)
B) Amphibians (Amphibia):- Tadpoes,
frogs, toads etc.
C) Birds (Aves):- King crows, Starling,
Quail partridges, Mynah, House crow,
Indian roller.
D) Mammals (Mammalia):- Bats, mice,
Snakes, Lizards, Squirrels, Mongoose
2) Invertebrates: (Arthropods)
A) Predators: Spiders, Mites, Hydra,
Planaria.
B) Parasites: Arthropod parasites, Insects.
3) Namathelmithes: Nematodes
4) Protozoan: - Protozoa.
5) Pathogenic microorganism: Bacteria, Viruses,
Fungi.
All or most of these categories have
yielded successful examples of insect pest
suppression, either single or in concert. Among
these natural enemies, from the point of view of
biological control three groups of arthropods are
important i.e.
1. Spiders
2. Mites and
3. Insects.
1. Spiders:
The spiders universally live a predatory
life and are constantly look out for insect as their
13
food. They catch them directly or with the help
of various types of snares made out of webs. The
important species found actively feeding on
sugarcane pyrilla in India are Clubiona atwali
and Clubiona drassodes be to the family
Clubionidae.
2. Mites:
Many mite species have acquired a
parasitic life on insect pest, Allothrombium spp.
lives as an ectopara site on many small insects
and Entrombidium spp. on egg of locust and
grass hoppers.
3. Insects:
Insects form the single largest and the
most important group of predators and parasites.
They suppress population of known or potential
pests. They belong to 15 orders and more those
240 families. Spraying mantids devour a large
number of insects of all sorts. The green lace
wing, Chysoperia spp. feed voraciously on
aphids and other soft bodied insects @ 160
individuals per day. Tiger beetle, Cicindela spp.
is very common in Northern and Western India.
The lady bird beetles form a group of predators
of aphids in the larval stage as well as in adult
stages. The vast majority of the parasites belong
to Hymenoptera, Diptera and Strepsiptera orders.
Trichogramme spp. which are more or less
universal parasites of eggs of Lepidotera.
Parasite, Protelean Parasite and Parasitoid
Parasite:
An animal species which lives in or on a
large animal, the host, feeding upon it and
frequently destroying. A parasite needs only one
or part of one host to reach maturity.
Protelean parasite:
An insect species in which only their
immature stages are parasite.
Parasitoid:
An insect parasite an arthropod, parasitic
only in its immature stages, destroying its host in
the process of its development and free living as
an adult.
A parasitoid as a particular kind of
Protelean parasite that attacks invertebrate hosts
which are nearly always destroyed in the process
of development.

1. A parasitoid restricted to attack and
destroys only arthropods, rather than
invertebrate in general.
2. Parasitoids have been used more
frequently than insect predators in
classical biological insect pest
suppression programme and probably in
ratio from 2:1 to 4:1.
3. The parasitoids differ from true
parasites in many ways.
4. The development of individual
destroys its host.
5. The host is usually of the same
taxonomic class.
a. In comparison with the hosts
they are of relatively large size.
b. They are parasitic as larvae
only, the adults being free living forms.
c. They do not exhibit heteroecism.
d. As a parameter in population dynamic
their action resembles that of predators
more than that of true parasites.
Insect Parasites and Ideal Characteristics of
Parasites
Insect Parasite:
Parasitic insect are those which live in
close association with other living organism
called the ‘host’, from whom it derives the
material essential for the existence without
conferring any benefit to it (host).
Ideal Characteristics of Parasites:
1. The parasite should have high
searching capacity of host and utilize the host.
2. It should be fairly host specific in
feeding rather than polyphagous i.e. restriction
in feeding habit to a relatively few species. This
implies high degree of adaptation.
3. It should be primarily to its high
potential reproductive capacity, ultimately high
fecundity i.e. potential for rate of increase.
4. Ability to occupy all the host inhabited
niches and to survive well.
14
5. Adaptation to broad range of climatic
conditions.
6. The parasite species should be
amenable to culture in the insectory.
7. It must be efficient to bring about the
death of the host.
8. It should not become a plant feeder
under any conditions.
9. It should not be hyperparasites or
harmful to the beneficial species.
10. Good parasite must complete with
other species of natural enemies successfully for
occupying food, space and shelter and must
destroy the pest population within short time
even at high host density.
11. There should be synchronization of
life cycles of the parasite and the host.
Taxonomic Relationships of Parasitoid
Sweet man (1936) recorded different groups of
parasitoid belonging to 5 orders containing 86
families with insect hosts. Orders in which
parasitoids recorded are Coleoptera, Diptera,
Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Strepsiptera.
However, in order of importance order
Hymenoptera (wasps) and Diptera (flies) are
mostly used in biological insect pest suppression.
Order Hymenoptera contains roughly 2 to 5 lakh
species of parasites. Townes (1972) estimated
that only about 5% of the parasitic species had
been described and of these numbers, the
biological information was available on approx
for only 3% species. In classical biological insect
pest suppression programmes, the parasites
predominantly used belong to super families
Ichneumonidae, Braconidae and Chalcidoidea.
The Ichneumonidae usually include the
largest of the beneficial wasps associated with
host larvae and pupae. The Braconids on the
average are usually much smaller than the
Ichneumouids. The Diptera ranked next in
importance to Hymenoptera in biological insect
pest suppression programmes. The families of
Diptera exclusively parasitic are cytidae,
Nemestrinidae, Pipunculidae, Conopldae,
Pyrgotidae and Tachinidae, as well as
Bombylidae.
Classification of Parasitoids on the Basis of
Biological Relationships – on the Basis of
Stage of Host Attacked
a) Egg Parasitoid:
The true egg parasitoids are those
individuals that deposit their eggs in and whose

progeny emerge from the host eggs. Designed as
‘E’ e.g. Trichogramma chilonus, T preteosum,
Ooencyrtus sp. a true egg parasitoids of various
lepidopterouspests.
b) Egg Larval Parasitoid:
Another category of egg parasitoids,
which deposits eggs in the host eggs but
development and emergence are not completed
until the host larval stage is reached. Designated
as ‘EI’ e.g. Braconid, Chelonus annulipes on
European corn bore, Chelonus blackburni on
PTM and bollworm, Capidosoma koehleri on
PTM.
c) Egg Pupal Parasitoids:
If egg parasitoids deposits egg in the host
eggs and emerges from a host pupa it would be
designated ‘Ep’.
d) Larval Parasitoids:
True larval parasitoids are those
parasitoids which deposit egg on the larvae and
their progeny complete development and emerge
from the host larvae. Designated as ‘L’ e.g.
Apanteles spp. On pink bollworm, Bracon
brecicornis on spotted boll worms.
e) Larval Pupal Parasitoids:
The parasitoids those deposit their eggs
on or nearhost larvae and emerge from host
pupae. Designated as ‘LP’ e.g. Pleurotropis
epilachnae on Epilachna spp.
f) Pupal Parasitoid:
Parasitoids that deposit their eggs in the
host pupae and emerge from the host pupae.
Designated as ‘P’ e.g. Brachymeria nephontidis
on Earias spp. All chalidae (Hymenoptera) are
pupal parasitoids.
g) Adult Parasitoids:
Parasitoids of adults hosts. The
parasitoids deposit a larva on its host while in
flight and the mature maggot emerges from the
dead adults host. Designated as ‘A’ e.g.
Blaesoziphae kellyi a parasitoid of locust.
h) Nymphal Parasitoids:
The parasitoids deposit eggs on nymphs
and their progeny complete development and
emerge from the host numphs. Designated as ‘N’
15
e.g. Epipyrops fuliginosa on nymphs of
Idioscopus clyealis.
i) Nymphal Adult Parasitoids:
The parasitoids deposit their eggs on/in
host nymph and emerge from the dead adult host.
Designated as ‘NA’ e.g. Epiricania melanoleuca
parasitic on Pyrilla perpusilla.
Classification of Parasitoids on the Basis of
Parasitoid - Host and Parasitoid – Parasitoid
Relationships
I) Number of Individuals/hosts:
a) Solitary Parasitoids:
One progeny alone is capable of
competing the development in or its host
e.g. Chelonus blackdurni on PTM.
b) Gregarious Parasitoid:
Several progeny are capable of
completing their development in or on a
single host e.g. Copidosoma koehleri on
PTM. This may includes the parasitoid that
deposits one or very few eggs in their host from
which develops hundreads or thousands of
progeny. These are polymbryonic species e.g.
Braconid, Macrocentrus gifuensis on
European corn borer.
II) Site of Attacks on Host Body:
a) Ectoparasitoids:
An insect parasite which feed
externally on the host body and complete their
development externally on its host e.g. Bracon
brevicorni.
b) Endoparasitoid:
Parasitoids which complete their
development within or inside their host body e.g.
Chelonus blackburni. Endoparasitoid of aphids
frequently emerge through a flap cut in the
host abdomen.
III) Food Web Relationships:
a. Primary Parasitoids:
The form of parasitism in which
the attacking organism that develop itself in
or upon the host which is non-parasitic e.g. on
introduced pine saw fly 24 parasitoids of a

primary nature from hypmenoptrous and
Dipterous species.
b. Secondary Parasitoids:
The parasitoids develop itself in
or on the host that are primary parasitoid.
c. Tertiary Parasitoids:
The parasitoid develops itself in
or on the host which is already secondary
parasitoid. e.g. The parasitoid Tetrastichus
coerulescens parasitic on secondary parasitoid
Hybrocytus spp. and the primary saw fly
parasitoid Itoplectis conquisitor.
d. Quaternary Parasitoids:
Form of hyperprasitism in which
the parasitic establish itself in/or the tertiary
parasitoid.
IV) No. of Hosts Attacked:
a) Monophagous:
The parasitoids which are specific
to one particular host e.g. The icheumonid
parasitoid, Mesolicus tenthredinis is a specific
for saw fly.
b) Oligophagous or Stenophagous:
Those parasitoids that restrict
themselves to vary few and often closely related
hosts, e.g. Exerterus amictoriius is an
ichneumonid parasitoid of saw fly in the genera
Diprion and Neodiprion.
c) Polyphagous:
Those parasitoids that maintain
themselves on a multiple of hosts, e.g.
Compsilura concinnata a tachinid introduced
against gypsy moth has been recorded from
close to 20 hosts.
V) No. of Host individuals Essential for
Attack:
a) Heteroxenous:
Many of oligo and polyphagous
parasitoid species requiring alternating of hosts
to complete several generations each year, e.g.
The tachinid, Ceromasla auricaudata which over
winters in a host pupa of fall webworm normally
attacks univoltine spruce budworm in the spring
16
b) Monoxenous:
The parasitoids those require only
one host species for development, e.g. Exenterus
amictorius a parasitoid on the introduced pine
saw fly and the Drino bohemica, a lachinid
parasitoid of European spruce sawfly.
Hyperparasitism
The phenomenon of Hyparasitism occurs
when parasite attacks and develops on another
parasite. There are several degrees of
hyperparasitism which depend on the food chain
as host primary, secondary, tertiary and so on.
A hyperarasitoid is parasitoids which develop on
another parasitoid i.e. a parasite of a parasite.
E.g. pea aphid Acyrthosiohan pisum
------------Primary consumer
Polyphagous pest
Primary parasite Aphidius sinithi
------------Secondary consumer
Secondary parasite Allaxysta vitix
-----------Tertiary consumer
Tertiary parasite Asaphes califonical
-----------Quaternary parasite
It is the policy in biological control to prevent
the introduction of secondary parasites. The
hyperparasites can be eliminated or retarded by
use of differential insecticides. There is belief
that hyperparasites are usually less
discriminating than primary parasites I their
selection of hosts. As introduced hyperparasites
is likely to find all suitable niches occupied than
native through competition. Hyperparasites
already present in a region may have in some
cases prevented or at least delayed the
establishment of introduced parasites.
The hyperparasites play an important part in the
maintenance of the balance between insect
species in nature that is the aspect of population
dynamics.
Superparasitism
The condition resulting from the use of a single
host individual by more number of individual
parasitoids of the same species than it can
successfully switch to maturity because of
nutritional limitation. This occurs with solitary
endoparasites, physiological suppression of the
super numeracy larvae or eggs results in the

survival of a dominant individual. In some cases,
however, host itself succumbs prematurely
before the super numeracy parasites are
eliminated and all perish.
The many parasitoids usually are the progeny of
multiple attacks by different individual adult
females, e.g. the larva of the introduced pine saw
fly, each of which may carry several macrotype
eggs of a tachinid, Diplostichus lophyri. Though
all eggs may hatch and the larvae penetrate the
hosts integument only one will survive to the
adult stage. When an individual host is
parasitized by more than one larva of a single
species, but all survive, this is either gregarious
or polyembronic parasitism. In some cases, when
hosts are few or when the parasite fails to find
unparasitized hosts, super parasitism does occur.
Multiple Parasitism and Advantages of
Multiple Parasitism
Multiple Parasitisms:
It refers to that condition in which
individuals of two or more species of parasitoids
occur simultaneously or on the same single host
at the same time. In most cases, only one of these
species survives to maturity. In rare cases, (e.g.
Trichogramma species) more than one species
may complete their development.
The condition of multiparasitism generally
results in the death of one of the individuals
through one or other mortality factor, but not
through hyperparasitism. Many of primary
tachinid parasitoids of the spruce budworm
compete with ichneumonid parasites. The
multiparasitism results in direct competition for
food between the parasite larvae so that usually
one fails to mature.
Advantages of Multiple Parasitisms:
1. A series of parasites which live in the same
habitat but attack a sequence of host stages is
advantageous because environmental variations
which adversely affect one species may favor
another and total host mortality should be
greater.
2. When several parasite species are established
on a common host, these will usually be broader
habitat coverage.
3. Past records indicated that multiple species
introduction improved the results of parasitizing
and pest population regulation and rarely occur
detrimental effects.
17
4. Multiple introductions increase the chances of
obtaining a gives species which will attack more
than one host in the new environment. This
enables the natural enemy to overcome
difficulties of host scarcity which might occur if
only one host were involved. Multiple
introductions of new natural enemies is accepted
as a policy and undertaken the effect of
competition between the established and the
newly imported natural enemy again assumes
importance. This does not cause detrimental
effect but the host population balance.
Types or Forms of Multiple Parasitism
1) Cleptoparasitism:
The phenomenon in which a parasitoid
prefentially attacks on a host that are already
parasitized by and other species of parasitoid is
called Cleptoparasitism e.g. The cleptoparasitic
habitat of Eurtoma pini on European pine shoot
moth. E pini females ovipositor only on shoot
moth larvae that had been immobilized
previously by primary parasitoids.
Cleptoparasitism is not hyperparasites for it does
not parasites the previously occurring parasite
species. Instead multiple parasitisms are
involved and relationship between the species is
competitive with cleptoparasite usually
dominating.
2) Autoparasitism or Adelphoparasitism:
The phenomenon in which a species of
parasitoid is parasite upon itself is termed
adelphoparasitism. In this case parasitoids use
their own species as a host to develop some of
their progeny. Aphelinid species with this habitat
occur in genera Coccophogus e.g. Coccophagus
scutellaris (the male of which is an obligate
parasite of the female).
Few other Bases of Classifying the Parasitism
Besides the above bases of classification
of parasitoids few other bases of classifying the
parasitism are as given below:
1) Phytoparasitism:
The plant parasitizing/developing on
other plant e.g. striga on jowar.
a) Zoo parasitism:
The insect as an animal
parasitizing on other animal species e.g.
mosquito on human beings.

2) Position of feeding:
a) Ectoparasitism:
The parasitic species feeding
externally on its host.
b) Endoparasitism:
The parasite punctures the host
cuticle and enters and feed inside the host
body.
3) Sequence of attacks:
a) Primary parasitism:
Form of parasitism in which the
attacking organism established itself
in/on the host which is not parasite.
b) Hyperparasitism:
Form of a parasitism in which
parasites attack on other parasites.
c) Secondary parasitism:
Form of a parasitism in which
parasites are attacking on the host which
is already a primary parasite.
d) Tertiary parasitism:
Form of hyper parasitism in
which the parasite established itself in/on
the secondary parasite.
e) Quaternary parasitism:
Form of hyperparasites in which
the parasites establish itself in/on the
tertiary parasite.
4) Adoption and necessity:
a) Obligate parasitism:
Parasite is limited to parasitic
existence only. Here in reference to
nematodes which must develop
parasitically and cannot reproduce and
complete growth away from the host.
b) Facultative parasitism:
Parasite occasionally adopts itself
either to parasitic nature of free life.
Here in also reference to nematodes
which may either parasites healthy
insects or develop in some other way
in the environment.
c) Incidental parasitism:
Form of parasitism in which
parasite establish itself on host in which
it is not ordinarily associated with host.
18
5) Based on intensity of attack:
a) Simple parasitism:
Form of parasitism resulting from
a single attack on hosts.
b) Superparasitism:
Parasitism of a individual host by
more larvae of single parasitic species
that can nature in the host e.g. Bracon
kirkpatiriki.
c) Multiple parasitisms:
It is a parasitism in which a single
host is attacked by two or more types of
parasites.
6) No. of host species attacked:
a) Monophagous:
Only one host is attacked by a
parasite.
b) Oligophagous:
Only two or few more type of
host, those are closely related are
attacked by parasite.
c) Polyphagous:
Parasite has more than two hosts
to be attacked.
7) No. of host individuals essential for attack:
a) Monoxennous:
The form of parasitism in which
only one host is necessary to complete
the development of parasite.
b)Heteroxenous:
Form of parasitism in which
different type of hosts is required for
complete development of parasite.
8) Based on number of parasites in/on host:
a) Solitary parasitism:
Form of parasitism parasites in
which on single parasite feeds and
develop in/on the host.
b) Gregarious parasitism:
The form of parasitism in which
number of individuals of one species
develop in/on the host.
9) Permanency of attack:
a) Permanent parasitism:
Form of parasitism in which the
parasites complete entire active life cycle
as a parasite.
b) Periodical parasitism:
Only one stage of a parasite is
completed as parasite.

Insect Predators
Definition of Insect Predators:
The predator is defined as “an animal which
feeds upon other animals (prey) that are usually
smaller and weaker than itself, frequently
devouring them completely and rapidly” (Copple
and Martins, 1977). A predator most often is
required to suck but an attack more than one prey
to reach maturity.
Distinguishing Characteristic of an Insect
Predator:
1. Generally it consumes more than one host
individual.
2. Most insect predators move around freely in
both their immature and adult stages while
searching for and feeding on their prey.
3. Though many of the predators are larger than
their prey, in some instances adult parasitoids
may act like insect predators by feeding on and
killing the host.
4. Predatory insects feed on all host stages, egg,
larval or nymphal, pupal and adult.
Taxonomical Relationship of Insect Predators
Sweetman (1936) recorded about 14 Orders with
167 Families for predatory insect representatives.
He further added in 1950, 2 more orders and
some 42 families. The orders Coleoptera,
Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and
Hemiptera contain families that so far have been
of major importance in biological insect pest
suppression. Greatest numbers of predatory
species occur in order Coleoptera. The order
Odonata is exclusively predaceous.
Taxonomic Characteristics of Important
Predatory Insects:
1) Predaceous Coccinellids:
The lady bird beetles (Coleoptera; Coccinelidae).
a) The adult beetles have bright body in
various shades of red, brown, tan or even
black.
b) Usually they are spotted.
c) They range from 2-6 mm in length and
are hemispherical in shape.
d) The head is small with chewing type
of mouth parts.
e) The antennae are short and elevate.
f) Tarsi 3 segmented.
19
g) Larvae usually elongate with gradually
tapering bodies. The body regions are
distinct and colored with blue,
black or orange. They appear warty of
spiny dorsally.
2) Carabids:
The ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae)
a) The beetles through predominantly
black have some brilliantly colored in
metallic greens, blues or purple.
b) Most species have broad elytra, narrow
pronotum and a still narrower head.
c) They range from 2-25 mm in length.
d) The legs are long allowing for rapid
movement.
e) The antennae are attacked between
eyes and mandibles on each side of head.
f) The larvae are slightly flattened and
slender tapering towards the posterior end
which bears two spine like
processes. They have chewing type of mouth
parts.
3) Crysopids:
The green lace wings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)
a) These are slender bodied insects.
Colored in a delicate green with golden eyes.
b) Antennae are long and slender.
c) Forewings are almost equal in size
with green veins which fork profusely near wing
margins.
d) The adults of some species and all of
the larvae are predacious.
e) The spindle shaped larvae
called”aphid-lions” have powerful sickle shaped
mandibles. The legs are
slender and hairy and body is provided with a
row of spine bearing tubercles along
each side Aphid-lions are usually mottled
with grey, yellow, green red or
black.
4) Formicids:
The ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
a) These are social insects. Many
displaying polymorphism.
b) They have chewing type of mouth
parts.
c) The antennae are strongly elbowed
with a very long first segment.
d) Body segments are distinct and thorax
is slenderest region. The gaster or
swollen part of the abdomen is attached
to the thorax with a short slender
petiole bearing one or two projectious.

5) Syrphids:
The entomophagous syrphid flies (Diptera,
Syrphidae)
a) They are predators only in their larval
stages.
b) Adults are diverse in form, some
slender and some broad and their bodies are
polished black or metallic blue or
green with prominent yellow bands,
spots or hairs.
c) They are 3 to 25 mm long and are
separable from others Dipters by the
presence of spurious wing vein
between radius 4+5 and media 1+2.
d) The green or tan larvae are elongate,
legless maggots with pointed sucking
mandibles.
6) Mirids:
The plants bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae)
a) The plant bugs contain many
predaceous species.
b) Adults are 2.5 to 6 mm long, velvety in
appearance and often highly colored.
They have cureus and 1-2 large
cells in the membrane of fore wings, both
rostrum and antennae 4
segmented and no ocelli.
c) The body is elongate oval and often
clothed with fine hairs. The hemelytra are
longer than abdomen and
prevailing colors are combinations of green,
black or red with spots or stripes
of black, yellow, white or red.
d) Mirids have sucking type of mouth
parts.
e) Metamorphosis is incomplete and
nymph is predaceous.
Biological relationships Insect Predators
Host-predator Relationships:
1) On the Basis of Type of Feeding (type of
mouth parts):
a) Chewing Mouth Part:
The prey is consumed with use of
chewing type of mouth parts, e.g. preying
mantids, ants, coccinelids, ground beetle, lady
bird beeltles, carabids. They simply chew
up and bolt down there victims – legs, bristles,
antennae and all.
b) Sucking Mouth Parts:
20
The predator feeds on their prey
by sucking the juice from body, e.g. Assassin
bug, Reduviidae, lacewing larvae. Chrysopidae,
Syrphidae, Prentatomids. These insect often
injects a powerful toxin which quickly
immobilizes the prey so that the feeding
process is placid affair with little thrashing
about by the victim. For example once a
lacewing larvae clamps its sickle mandibles
into a caterpillar several time its size, the
caterpillar is doomed and its period of struggle
lasts but a few seconds.
2) On the Basis of the Specificity of Host
Relations:
Thompson (1951) referred to the fact that
predators have a full complement of sense organs
and can perceive their prey at a distance. There
was a high degree of host specificity. The
importance of olfactory response and visual
stimuli prey location is also elaborated.
a) Monophagous:
The predator which is highly host
specific and consume exclusive on a single
species of prey, e.g. Rodolia cardinalis is a
specific predator of cottony cushion scale
(Icerya purchasl).
b) Oligophagous:
The predators with restricted host
range feeding on more than one host preys of the
closely related species, e.g. Syrphid larvae feed
only on aphid species.
c) Polyphagous:
The predator’s species feed on a
wide a range of prey, e.g. preying mantids,
Prentatomids, ants, ground beetles etc.
3) On the Basis of Morphological
Adaptations:-
Many species have special morphological
or biological adaptations to make them effective.
a) Preying Mantids: They have grasping
and holding forelegs as well as large eyes and on
extremely mobile head to assist in location and
capture their prey.
b) Dragon Flies: Larval dragon flies
have specialized mouth parts to capture
aquatic prey and adult dragon flies are

excellent fliers and able to catch their prey on
the wing.
c) Adult Carabid Beetles: They have
long legs, move rapidly to run down their
prey.
d) Ant Lion: Larvae settle in their
specially constructed pits awaiting on
unsuspecting prey.
e) Ants: They utilizing their social habits
assist each other in capturing and moving
prey to their nests.
f) Wasps: They often paralyze their prey
with a venomous sting and provides food for
their developing brood.
g) Syrphid Flies: Adults may deposit
their eggs directly among aphids so that
food is immediately available to newly
maggots.
h) Coccinellid Beetle: The hemispherical
shape and slow movement in a colony of
their prey do not disturb the feeding ants and
allow the predators to continue feeding.
e.g. lady bird beetle.
i) Stink Bugs: With their powerful
sucking mouth parts they are able to withdraw
body fluids from their prey while it is
suspended in the air.
On the Basis of Competition within and
Between Predator Groups:
Cannibalism:
It occurs when on species feeds on others of its
own kind. This rarely occurs in nature, but it
would have an advantage for species survival in
the absence of alternate food. Under laboratory
condition of crowding and limited food supply
cannibalism can occur readily. Some coccinellids
just after emerging from their eggs may feed on
unhatched eggs in the same cluster. Lacewings
utilize stacked eggs to prevent such cannibalism
or perdition by other species.
Some Important Insect Predators
The first known use of the tactic of
biological insect pest suppression was in china
around 300 A.D. where in ants were used to
protect orange groves from developing wormy
fruit. The red wood ants are considered
important in maintaining forest insect pest
21
population in balanced condition in 12th century.
Their food consists of stages of Lepidopterous
caterpillars. This is an example to be quoted for
efficient facultative predator. The mired
Cyrtorhinus modulus has been proved as an
effective predator on the eggs of the sugarcane
leaf hopper. Its first release was made in 1920
from Australian stock and late from Fiji and by
1923 the sugarcane leaf hopper was suppressed.
1) Vedalia beetle, Rodolia Cardinalis Mulsant
(Coleoptera: Coccinelidae) This is probably the
most frequent mentioned predator in classical
biological control literature. It has been
thoroughly reviewed by Debauch(1974). The
successful story of the Vedalia beetle against
cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasein
California on citrus has already been outlined in
C. V. Riley campaign. Like success in California,
it has been repeated in 30-50 countries around
the world where this beetle has been released.
Adults of Vedalia beetle male and have a pre-
oviposition period of 3-4 weeks in the summer
and 1-3 weeks in the winter. The eggs are laid
singly or in small cluster. Oviposition lasts on as
average of 75 days (11-170 days) and the
average number of eggs laid by a female is 341
eggs. The females deposit eggs on the egg sacs
of their prey. The predatory eggs hatch in 6 days.
Larval stage lasts for 22 days, during which it
moults 4 times. Pupal stage lasts for 8 days. The
total life cycle from egg to adult is completed on
an average of 35 days. The adult female live for
an average of 70 days and adults males 81 days
and it completes 6-7 generations per year. The
larva and adult eat cottony cushion scales. The
mated egg producing female eats more prey than
virgin females or males.
2) Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant
(Coleoptera: coccinellidae) The mass production
and periodic release of C. montrouzieri against
various mealy bugs pests of citrus has been
going on for several years. The major pest
against which it is employed is the citrus mealy
bugs Planococcus citri and grape vine mealy
bugs Maconellicoccus hersutus. The life cycle of
C. montrouzieri takes about 30-35 days at
temperature between 23 and 26.7 ̊C. Colonies of
30-40 adult coccinellids may be placed in each
tray when mealy bugs are 8 days old. They
deposit their eggs on the sprouts and trays. After
12 days, their adults are removed for liberation.
As predator larvae feed and mature, seek

pupation site 18 days after the parent stock is
removed their adult progeny first appear. The
emerging beetles are collected for about 21 days.
Adults can be hold in the vials for 12-18 hours
prior to release if cooled to 15.6 ̊C. The adult
predator beetles are released at approximately 20
adults/citrus tree.
3) Green lacewing:
Chrysoperla carnea
(Neuroptera : Chrysopidae) This is one of the
most important chrysopid in biological insect
pest suppression programmes. The eggs are
characteristically stalked and take an average of
9.5 days (7-15 days) to hatch. The newly
emerged larvae carry no reserve of foods and
thus must crawl down the stalk and began to
search for pray immediately. The larvae develop
through 3 instars in 12-28 days. The pe-pupal
and pupal stages lasts for average of 19.2 days
(11-21 days) and 6-48 days, respectively. The
total period from egg to adult is 37-70 days. The
pupa emerges from the cocoon and shortly casts
its skin to become an adult. Mating takes place
shortly after adult mergence and repeated
copulation is necessary for continuous
reproduction. The females capable of laying 500-
700 eggs. The number of annual generations
range from 2-7. Winter is usually passed in
protected situations by the adult stage. The adult
feeds on aphids and other small insect. The
larvae feed nearly all gardens certain ignite, and
eggs of thrips, moths, leaf hoppars etc.
Species:
(i) Chrysoperla carnea and
(ii) Mallada beninensis
Sr.No. Stage Duration
1 Egg period 3 days in rainy season and
summer season
5 days in winter season
2 Larval stage 7 days to 10 days in rainy
and summer season
10 to 17 days in winter
season
22
3 Pupal stage 7 days in rainy season
7 to 10 days in summer
10 to 15 days in winter
season
4 Adult stage 30 to 35 days in rainy
35 to 50 days in winter for
both males and females.
5 Fecundity 200 eggs to 700 eggs.
Desirable Attributes of Bio-agents
The classical practice of introduction exotic
beneficial organisms or pest suppression is the
only useful method under restricted conditions.
While introducing beneficial organisms, the
concern of the desirable attributes of a natural
enemies and a consideration of some basic
ecological principal have bearing as success or
failure of biological pest-suppression
programmes.
Desirable Attributes of Natural Enemies:
In order to search for efficient beneficial
organisms for use in biological insect pest
suppression it requires some idea beforehand that
what we are seeking. Before introducing new
natural enemies from exotic locations or
analyzing those species which are already
present for same way of augmenting their
usefulness we must know their characteristics of
species to display it an efficient regulatory
relationship with the pest. Thus proper selection
of natural enemies of insect is an important part
of success of Biocontrol.
The Organisms should Possess Following
Attributes:
1) Ecological Compatibility:
It is usually important to seek species whose
ecological requirements are similar to those of
the intended target insect. Parasitoids are
frequently limited in effectiveness and have
greater sensitivity to cold; desiccation, heat etc.
and hence it is of great consideration for parasite
species to withstand such condition suitable for
the host. Disparity in ecological responses may
be an important limiting factor in the
effectiveness of native beneficial organisms and

an environment manipulation of same sort may
make them successful regulative agents e.g. high
humidity by irrigation for development of
pathogenic fungi against alfalfa aphids.
2) Temporal Synchronization:
The pest and its natural enemies should be in the
same place at the same time and also their life
cycles must be synchronized for adequate
regulation to be possible. Thus the reproductive
stage of a successful egg parasitoid must be
active at the time of the hosts egg in every
generation of the host. The efficacy of poorly
synchronized organism may sometimes be
improved. The practice of periodic inundative
release of beneficial insects is another way of
artificially synchronizing the occurrence of
parasitoid and host e.g. release of Trichogramma
spp.
3) Density Responsiveness:
The most desirable biological control agents
should exhibit positive rapid density
responsiveness. Proportion of natural enemy of
pest should be maintained. Generally natural
enemies have short life cycle, whereas pest has
long life cycles. A strong functional response
refers to within generation behavioral activity of
the individual parasitoid or predator in increasing
its attacks against increasingly numerous hosts or
prey, on the other hand, numerical response
refers largely to a multigenerational reproductive
increase by the organism in response to
increasing host density. A rapid and strong
numerical response characteristic is the most
important attributes of a successful agent of pest
mortality.
4) Reproductive Potential:
One important factor in the display of density
responsiveness is high reproductive capacity
through either short generation time, high
fecundity or both. In most cases, the parasitoid or
predator is searched with an innate potential for
increase greater than that of the host/prey.
5) Searching Capacity:
The ability to find host/prey at low density has
significant bearing on the long term success of
organism in the more stable situations. A
beneficial organism which can successfully
utilize low density population and reduce its
number through efficient searching behavior is a
desirable key regulative agent to be sought. A
true ideal beneficial insect would possess both
23
high reproductive potential and good searching
capacity, but it case of successful biological
control full utilization of former factor rarely
comes into play because of low pest densities
and efficient searching ability becomes the
primary characteristic because it maintains those
low densities.
6) Dispersal Capacity:
The ability of an introduced beneficial species to
easily and rapidly expand its sphere of influence
in space to coincide with that of the host is
closely tied to its searching capacity and ecology
adaptability. Most good biological control agents
shop high dispersal capability, season ends the
pest migrates and natural enemy should also
ingrate.
7) Host Specificity and Compatibility:
A parasitoid or predator which is monophagous
or silently Oligophagous indicates a high degree
of biological adaptation to the host and probably
a greater degree of direct degree of direct and
rapid responsiveness to density changes in the
population of the target host. Host specificity is
closely ties with compatibility that is the degree
of biological adaptation. Monophagous
entomophagous have usually evolved a high
degree of adaptation to the defensive
mechanisms of their host/prey. Predator with
polyphagous nature will do the purpose.
Compatibility refers to combination of unnatural
enemies. Likewise lady bird beetles should not
eat Trichogramma spp.
8) Food Requirements and Habitats:
This attributes is another consideration in
choosing a potentially useful beneficial
organisms. For sustenance of natural enemy
some sort of food should be available to natural
enemy like pollen, Honey etc. and also shattering
places. Nutritional requirement of natural
enemies should get fulfilled. Habitat refers to
sheltering places and they should be available for
natural enemies.
9) Hyperparasitism:
This is a negative attribute to be avoided in
selecting Biocontrol agents. To eliminate
secondary parasitoids under certain situations
Hyperparasitism is most important one.
10) Culturability:
 24

This is an important attribute indicating ability of
organism which can be mass reared under
artificial condition for large scale release
programmes. Hence the introduced species must
be an enable to laboratory culture.
This includes the pathogenic fungi enter
their hosts through the outer integument of the
insect body. They are more subject to regulation
physical factors in the environment since their
penetrative stage generally are not very resistant
to adverse effects of external condition.
Possibilities of using pathogens in bio-control:

Sr.No.
Particulars Pathogens Host

1 Bacteria a) Bacillus Japanese beetle

popilliae causing
Role of Bacteria, Fungi, Baculoviruses and milky disease
Nematodes in Biocontrol of Crop Pest
b) Baculoviruses Lepidopterous
The term ‘Microbial control’ was first thuringiensis pest
used by E. A. Steinhaus (1949) to express the
pest population management through disease 2 Viruses a)Baculoviruses Lepidopterous
causing micro-organisms. Microbial control (br) pest
includes all aspects of utilization of micro-
organisms or their by-products in the control of b) Granulosis Mosquitoes,
pest species. In nature, micro-organisms like viruses (Gr.) mites etc.
viruses, bacteria and fungi, protozoa and
rickettsiae may perform important roles in the c) Nuclear Lepidopterous
dynamics and natural regulation of insect and Polyhedrosis pest
mite population. Virus (NPV)

Definition: 3 Fungi a) Polymycetes Lepidopterous

pest, beetles,
“Microbial control is a phase of aphids, scales,
biological control concerned with the mites etc.
employment of micro-organisms for the control
and reduction of number of animals/plants in a 4 Protozoa Nosema locustae Grasshopper,
particular area/given population”. orthoptera

The study of such organisms has been Neogregarires Flies

included under ‘Insect Pathology’ which is a
broad-based discipline concerned with the study
5 Rickettsiae Rickettsiella Wood wasps,
of all aspects of insect diseases as reflected in popilliae Mosquitoes
any abnormal physiological process or condition
in any insect. Insect pathogens may be divided
6 Nematodes a) Steinernema White grubs
into two groups according to the means by which
spp.
they enter and infect their hosts:

1) Through Ingestion:
It includes bacteria, viruses and protozoa
which must be ingested along with food for
causing infection and mortality and can be
considered similar to chemical insecticides act as
stomach poison. The viruses are queue specific
in their site of development and they multiply
only in certain tissues within the body of the
host. Others, including bacteria may fill their
hosts purely by the activity of toxins which they
produce during growth.
2) Through Integument:
b)
Heterorahbditus
spp.
The successful use of disease for insect
control depends upon the biology and
characteristics of the host insects and the
pathogenic micro-organisms as well as the
environment. Host insect must occupy the
habitats suitable for introduction of a pathogen
and they must have habits that enhance the
possibilities of infection. Since disease is
generally considered as density dependent factor
of mortality the insect that live in aggregation or

which form large populations are more
susceptible to epizootics as compared to the
species which maintains low population
densities.
The major emphasis in the application of
microbes has been to field collect or artificially
mass culture a specific insect pathogen and
disseminate it when the host is most susceptible
to its effect. One approach to introduce and
colonize pathogens as permanent mortality factor
in the host population. This approach is called
the ‘Microbial Introduction’.
Another microbial technique is to make
the repeated applications of a pathogens as
microbial insecticide for the temporary
suppression of insect pests e.g. development of
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterium
is produced by fermentation and is formulated as
a dust, wettable powder of emulsion. The
material is applied like a chemical insecticide. Its
effect is short lived and many applications are
needed.
Advantages of Microbial Control
1) Host specificity: The relatively high degree of
specificity of most pathogens tends to protect the
beneficial insects.
2) Ability of Multiply in their Target Hosts:
When microbial pathogens applied through
artificial dissemination for short term control of
the pest the disease will persist and spread in the
host population and initiate epizootics. They
persist in the residual population and prevent
pest resurgence. The microbial agents the target
pest at low levels for several years.
3) No problem of Toxic Residues: Microbial
agents are usually harmless and non-toxic to
other forms of life because they do not possess
any toxic residues. The spray deposits on plant
surfaces are quickly inactivated by UV radiation
of sunlight.
4) No Evidence of Resistance: Microbial do not
create resistance problems either in target or non
target species. The absence of resistance to a
microbial pathogen, make the insect pathogens
as idea pesticidal agents for their use in pest
management programmes.
5) No Problem of Cross Resistance: The
pathogens do not show cross resistance with
chemical compounds. They can provide relief in
25
situation where insecticides have become
ineffective due to pest resistance.
6) Conventional Techniques/Methods for
Application: The microbial pathogens are
highly versatile in so far as the method of their
application is concerned. The method of
application through spraying or dusting could be
done with usual application equipments.
7) Permanent Control of Pest: On introduction
of pathogen in target pest population and them
its colonization brought about the permanent
measure of pest control through their self
dissemination within pest population.
8) Ideally Suited for Integration with most
other Plant Protection Measures used in IPM
Programmes: Many pathogens are compactable
with chemical insecticides, fungicides, biological
agents and other methods of pest control like
plant resistance pheromones, chemosterilants etc.
9) Production Technology: Mass multiplication
of the pathogen could be done with simple
techniques which can be ideally suited for a
cottage type industry.
10) No fear of environmental pollution and
hence eco-friendly/environmental friendly
measure as far as recent approach of man’s
safety is concerned.
Limitations or Disadvantages of Microbial
Control
1) High Selectivity/Host Specificity: Since the
microbial agent is effective against only single
pest species there is a very limited market
potential.
2) Requirement of Additional Control
Measures: An additional control measures are
needed for non-target insect pest species. It
present and not kept below ETL by natural
control factor.
3) The Correct Time of Application: In this
respect, the incubation period of disease, which
is a critical factor and difficult to judge because
of age specificity and stage specificity. The
pathogens attack on certain stage (larval) and do
not produce effect on eggs or adults.
Susceptibility of larvae also decreases with
increase in age.
4) Delayed Effect/Mortality: The pathogens
require some time to produce response in their

target host owing to its long disease incubation
period.
5) The pathogens like viruses, bacteria must be
ingested as early as possible to produce effects,
while the fungi required entry through body
integument for which good coverage of spray
deposits is important.
6) Storage Problem: It is necessary to maintain
the pathogen in viable condition. Even average
temperature and sunlight degrade the microbial
preparations. Exposure to sunlight causes UV
radiation and losses its virulent immediately. The
pathogens have very short self life.
7) Difficulty of Culturing in Large Quantities:
Rearing host insect on artificial diet is more
cumbersome and laborious works which requires
constant supervision. The whole organisms
techniques for in vivo prorogation of virus are
fairly labourious and expensive.
8) Short Residual Effectiveness: This is the
major limitation absent the effectiveness of
pathogen under field conditions as sunlight
causes UV radiation.
9) Not legally protected and data needed for
registration is highly expensive.
Bacterial Pathogens in Bio-controls of Crop
Pest
1. These bacteria are present in the digestive tract
of insects but seldom cause pathogenic infection
because they lack the invasive power to penetrate
through midgut wall.
2. They are relatively harmless when remain in
midgut but pathogenic when introduced into
blood.
3. Their pathogenicity when introduced in blood
is due to temperature extremes, other pathogens
and due to poor food quality.
4. Little efforts have been to use them as
microbial control agents for example, Serrstia
entomophile against grass grubs.
Spore Forming Bacteria:
1. These bacteria are rod shaped, gram positive,
motile with many flagella.
2. They form endospores in insect and promising
organisms for microbial control.
26
3. More than 100 species have been identified as
insect pathogens of the genus Bacillus are
identified as insect pathogens and they are of
commercial importance.
4. Bacillus species having bi-pesticidal
potentially are classified under three groups as
under:
i) Obligate pathogens: Bacillus papillae
– milky disease causing organisms.
ii) Crystalliferous spore
former: Bacillus thuringiensis
iii) Non crystalliferous facultative
pathogen: Bacillus cereus and B. sphaencus.
1) Milky diseases Bacillus papillae and
B. lentimorbus. Milky disease organisms are
able to infect only certain closely related beetles
of the family Scarabacidae. About 62 species of
insects have been found to pick up infection by
injection or soil inoculation. These bacteria
multiply and speculated readily in the
haemolymph of the grubs. The turbidity due to
accumulating spores lead to milkiness of their
haemolymph and hence the “milky disease”.
The discovery and practical application
of the milky disease bacteria for control of grubs
of Japanese beetle in USA provided the first real
encouragement for use of bacteria for insect
control. Preparations of B. popillae are resisted
and commercially marketed as ‘Doom’. The
spores are produced in vivo by inoculation of
grubs. B. popillae cause true septicemia in
susceptible hosts. In nature, spores are ingested
and germinated in the insect get followed by
penetration these. Upon death of insect, the
disintegrating cadavers form a continuing
inoculation in the soil. The necessity of
producing by the time consuming and
uneconomical method of inoculating grubs limits
the usefulness of these organisms at the present
time.
2) Bacillus Thuringiensis (BT):-
1. It is crystalline spore former: It
produces endospores and proteinaceous
parasporal crystal in sporulation time.
2. The cells produce crystal which
contains an endotoxin capable of pralysing the
gut of larvae. The toxic is known as “Delta
endotoxin”.

3. BT is widely distributed in nature and
it can be isolated from various sources, viz., dead
insects, litters of sericulture farm, soils, water,
dusts etc.
4 BT infests 525 species of insects from
stress from crowding etc. make the insect more
susceptible to the pathogen.
5. The UV light is harmful to spores and
crystals of BT
6. Generally susceptible insects are killed
by toxic crystals or a lethal septisemia.
7. Recently genetic engineering has
helped to incorporating genes coding for Bt delta
endotoxin into transgenic cowpea, cotton,
tobacco and tomato plants so that internal
production of toxic crystals by such plants can
ward-off the attack of pests when visit for
feeding.
8. Local strain Bacillus thuringiensis ver.
Kenyae was isolated from meal moth, Ephastie
cautella by BARC. Bombay which is effective
against potato tuber moth.
9. Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis
was isolated from south India and marketed
under trade names as ’Doom’ Japidemic etc.
10. Bt is reported to be safe to honey bees
and non-toxic to man. The reason for lack
of toxicity is mammals; the primary digestion of
protein is at low PH. The stomach enzyme
pepsin, which has optimum pH value of 2,
degrades the endotoxin into a non toxic
compound. But exotoxin produced by some of
strains of Bt has been found to be toxic to mice.
11. The product manufactured from
Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki is marketed
trade names viz. Delfin, Dipel, Halt, Thuricide
etc.
12. Twenty seven Bt biotypes/strains are
known according to structure/sequence of several
genes and gene products.
13. When ingested crystalline inclusion
initially dissolve in the midgut releasing one
or more proteins. These crystal proteins are
activated by digestive gut enzymes with
correct pH into toxic polypeptides. Smaller
activated toxins bind to cell membrane liming
the gut generating pores that disturb osmatic
27
balance and lead to cellular swelling and lyses.
Intoxicated insect larvae quickly stop feeding
and eventually die. BT also produce other toxic
metabolites such as beta exotoxin, alpha
exotoxin and gamma exotoxin. These exotoxins
are more persistent and inhibit
reproduction in Spodoptera but have high
mammalian toxicity and banned in USA by
EPA.
Viruses in Bio-controls of Crop Pest
Viruses are a non cellular sub microscopic / ultra
microscopic infective entily, less than 200 mu in
diameter and that multiples only as obligate
pathogen. Intra cellularly in host tissues and
consist of a protein coat surrounding a core of
self replicating nucleic acid either DNA/RNA.
Viruses are the most exciting and promising
group of pathogenic micro-organisms under
consideration for use in biological insect pest
suppression. So far more than 1200 virus-host
relations have been described. Majority of them
are found in order Lepidoptera, (83%),
Hymenoptera (10%), Diptera (4%) and few
examples from Coleoptera, Neuroptera, and
Orthoptera etc.
The viruses are currently named and classified
on the basis of virus particle characteristics such
as shape, outline and symmetry, molecular
weight of the nucleic acid as well as
symptomology of the diseases, site of viral
replication and sensitivity to chemicals. There
are six groups of viruses according to the criteria
and classification approved by the International
Committee on Taxonomy of viruses.
a) Baculoviruses (BV): Main
characteristics of Baculoviruses are:
1. Properties virus particle: Nucleic acid is a
single molecule of circular super coiled DNA,
protein virus particle (virion) structurally
complex and contain 10-25 polypeptides of
which 4-11 are associated with necleocapsides,
and carbohydrate present.
2. Replication is in host cell nuclei.
3. Transmission naturally through food
contamination and experimentally by injection,
infection or translocation cell cultures.
1) Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPVs): These
are the best known and account for 41% of the

described arthropod viruses. They show great
promises for practical use in pest suppression.
These viruses develop in the host cell nuclei and
their virions are occluded singly or in groups in
polyhedral inclusion bodies. The rod shaped
virion contains double stranded DNA and are
230-420 nm long. The POBs are 0.2-15 um in
diameter. Virulent obligate pathogen requires
living cells for development and multiplicate.
The NPV infect all insects cells regardless of
their derivation and cause death. Polyhedral
protein protects virion from action of chemical,
drying, sunlight, enzymes and high temperature.
Free virus particle is less stable. It is highly host
specific with no effect on beneficial fauna. It is
safe to plant birds and higher animals and man. It
enters through injection of plant material into
insect gut through mouth and cuticle. Infected
insect appear dull in colour and inceptive.
Feeding rate of insect is reduced. In advanced
stage integument fragile and rapture on slight
disturbance emitting liquefied content (whitish
fluid). Incubation period is 4-5 in 20 days.
Earlier instars are more susceptible than 5th of
6th instar. Infected larvae hang invertedly from
twigs.
2) Granulosis viruses (GVs): It has also show
considerable promise as agents for insect pest
suppression. They develop in either the nucleus
or cytoplasm of host fat, tracheal matrix or
epithelial cells. The virions are occluded singly
in small inclusion bodies called capsules. The
rod shaped virion contains DNA and are similar
to NPV viruses. They usually oval occlusion
bodies about 200×400 nm size. They enter
through ingestion. The diseased larvae are less
active, flaccid and fragile and period from
infection to death is 6 to 20 days.
b) Cytoplasm polyhedrosis Virus
(CPV): It is also a promising group for
practical use. They develop only in the
cytoplasm of host midgut epithelial cells. The
spherical virions are occluded singly in
polyhedral inclusion bodies and contain
double stranded RNA. Their average diameter is
60 nm. The POBs ranges from 0.5-15 um in
diameter. Infection by CPVs is not always lethal
but shows larval growth reduces.
c) Entomopox viruses (EPV): This is a
recently discovered group. On the basis of
particle size and structure, there are apparently 3
EPV sub groups, each affecting different
insect orders. EPV replicate in the cytoplasm of
host fat body cells and possible in heamocytes.
Virions are ovoid cuboids, 200×300×200 nm
and contain double stranded DNA. Two
28
types of IBs may be produced along ovoid to
irregular shaped IB, 2-8 um long and smaller
spindle shaped bodies, deveoid of
occluded virus particles. Because of their close
relationship to vertebrate pox viruses
conformity for safety of EPV before use.
d) No Occluded indescent Viruses (IV):
There are intensively studied by Smith
(1967). The initial site of virus
multiplication is in cytoplasm of host fat body’s
cells. The viruses crystalise
spontaneously within the living insect o give it a
characteristic Iridescence by Bragg
reflection. The Tipula iridensect virus (TIV) is
130 nm in diameter and has icosahera shape. It
contains double stranded DNA and has
been artificially transmitted successfully across
ordinal lines to non- dipteous hosts in the
Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.
General considerations for field application of
BVs:
1. Method of application: Foliar spray.
2. Stage of pest: Early in stars are highly susceptible.
3. Dose of virus preparations : HNPV-250LE/ha
(1LE=6× PIB),2 to 3 sprays in early stages of
pest.
4. Preparation of spray fluid: NPV in required
strength is mixed with good quality soft water
+0.1% teepol or Trition-x-100.
5. Time of application: Preferably in evening hours.
6. Frequency of application: 2-4 application in
case of NPV/weekly.
7. Application equipment: High volume
applications are more effective than low volume.
8. Integration of chemicals: NPV is compatible
with most of pesticides.
9. Use of adjuvants: Skimmed milk, juggary,
Teepol, sandovit.
Fungi in Bio-controls of Crop Pest
Entomopathogenic fungi played an
important role in the early development of Insect
Pathology and subsequently they were
considered as beneficial organisms with potential
as pest suppressive agents.

Pathogenic fungal infections are referred
to as mycoses. Insect mycoses are cause by fungi
in the following classes:
i) Phycomycetes: Entomophthora
ii) Ascomycetes: Cordycepes, Nectria
iii) Basidomycetes: Septobasidium
iv) Fungi imperfecti : Cephelosporium,
Metarahizium, Penicillium, Verticlillum.
The Phycomycetes and Deuteromycetes
contain the orders, families and genera which are
most commonly considered for species of
entomogenous fungi in some 35 genera, very few
have been studied in details. The members of the
genera Beauverina (white muscardine) against
Lepidoptera, Metarahizium (green muscardine)
against cockchafer beetle, and Entomophthora
against aphids, jassids, housefly etc. and
Coelomomyces and Aspergillus have received
most of the infection. The taxonomy of
entomogenous fungi is not static.
The infective unit in most fungi is a
spore-usually a conidium. Invasion through the
respiratory or alimentary tract has been reported.
Conidia usually germinate on the cuticle and
then penetrate. Enzymes and mechanical forces
are involved. In most cases yeast like filaments
of mycelium called hyphal bodies are produced
which usually float free and apparently multiply
in the haemocoel. Some strains produce
sufficient toxins in this stage to cause death.
After death or even before in those strains which
are weak toxin producers, normal thread like
mycelium remifies throughout the internal
organs. This continues until insect is virtually
filled with fungus. Condidiophores are then
produced which erupt through the cuticle and
produce spores on the outside of the insect.
In Deuteromycetes the conidiophores and
conidia are not produced unless the dead insect is
in a moist environment.
Spore Germination: There is a great influence
of environment condition on germination of
spores. The epicuticle is of special significance
in disease induction since it is bere the fungal
spore must geminate before it can reach the
underlying haemocoel and vital organs. At
germination one or more germ tubes (short
hypae) are produced from each spore.
Penetration of Cuticle: Germ tubes may grow
on the surface of the insect for short distances or
may begin to penetrate the cuticle immediately.
29
Appressoria have been found in some fungi.
There are the swelling produced at the end of
short germ tubes which attach to the cuticle and
send infection pegs into the host. They are
considered to provide firm attachment that the
fungus needs to physically force its way into the
host.
Toxins: The former may have potential as
insecticides white the later are useful in
elucidating the modes of action pathogens. The
normal site for toxin production is the
haemolymph. Materials to do on injection are
produced in vitro by several insect pathogens.
Two such materials of known chemical
composition from entomogenous fungi are:
(1) Destrusins A and B from
Metarrhizium anisopliae and
(2) Beanvericin from Beauveria basslana.
Under field condition the disease development is
mainly influenced by various aspects of three
main agents pathogen, host and environment
which interact and change at same time. Besides
temperature and humidity as major factors are
microclimate, light, air currents, host population
density, stress, host activity antagonisms or
synergism of other pathogens and genetic
makeup of disease. The pathogen is mainly
influenced by its
a) Dispersal
b) Viability
c) Inoculums size and
d) Virulence. Spores are widely
disseminated by wind and splashing of rain.
Sunlight and humidity may kill spores. As far as
host insect is concerned, the host population
density and susceptibility to fungi govern the
disease development.
The most successful examples are with
Beavaria bassiana, Metarrhiziur anisopliae and
few species of Entomophthora. The
entomogenous fungi can be used 3 different
ways for insect control.
1) Colonization: The fungus is
introduced into as insect population where it
becomes permanently established. Pest insects
are killed year after year from one or few
introduction.
2) Microbial Insecticides: Applications
are made repeatedly as required to control pest
population like insecticides.

3) Integrated Control: Control
techniques are selected which have minimum
adverse effects on natural mortality factors like
parasites, predators and pathogens.
Protozoa in Bio-controls of Crop Pest
The protozoa subphrla Sporozoa and
onidospora contains numerous entomophilic
protozoans and most promising examples in
biological insect pest suppression programmes.
The effects of protozoan infections are chronic
rather than acute and they may affect their hosts
over a fairly long time period. Because of this,
disease is often manifested in the host insect only
by a reduction vitality, fecundity and life span.
The naturally occurring epizootics of
protozoan disease in insect pest like European
corn borer, some Lepidoptera, several species of
flies, aquatic Diptera including mosquitoes and
grasshoppers. The Neogregarires occurs
primarily in the fat body and intestinal tract of
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera.
Mettasia grandis is an important pathogen of the
cotton boll weevil and showed considerable
promise.
The infective spores are totally empty.
The emerging sporozoites and motile in the gut
tract and soon penetrate the gut to the haemocoel
and infect cells of susceptible tissues within 2
days. The diseased larvae die early within a week
and shrivel so badly that they are used for spore
production, Nosema locustae also attacks
grasshopper or locust species and spores and
applied in bran bait.
Rickettsiae in Bio-controls of Crop Pest
Rickettsiae have comparable size of 0.2×0.3 to
3.0 um and obligate intracellular development
and their susceptibility to antibiotics indicates
similarity to bacterial cell walls and contains
both RNA and DNA in ratio of 3:1. The
Rickettsiae develop and multiply on the cell
cytoplasm where they fill the vacuolar areas. In
ticks, they develop in cell nuclei, the two genera
of this group are important.
1) Enterella: The Enterella spp. grows
only intra-cellularly in the gut epithelium
of the host and destroys it.
2) Rickettsiella: These species primarily
attack the fat body and blood cells but
may also cause generalized
infection. Rickettsiella popillae cause infection
by a greenish blue discolouration of fat
30
Nematodes in Bio-controls of Crop Pest
Nematodes are generally fusiform and
vermiform shape with a terminal mouth situation
on a rounded head and a tail tapered to pointed
tip. They are invertebrates. Un-segmented and
multi cellular organisms which exhibit bilateral
symmetry and bisexuality.
It is the common fact that insect
associated nematodes were included as microbial
pathogens for pest population suppression. The
nematodes species in the Mermithidae,
Neotylenchidae and Sterinerema are important.
Poinar (1975) recorded 27 families of
entomogenous nematodes associated with 19
insect orders. Most of the nematodes that cause
injury to their insect hosts are endo-parasitic,
occurring in the haemocoel, gut lumen,
malpighian tubules, ovaries or other organs.
Infection may be either passive such as when
eggs of infective juveniles are accidentally eaten
by susceptible hosts or active when the infective
juveniles penetrate their host somatic cuticles.
Nematode activity, in the host may result in sub-
lethal injury cause by nutritional depletion or
organ disturbance. It may be expressed as
retarded growth, reduced activity, lower
fecundity, eventually sterility and even the
production of inter sexes. On the other hand
death generally from the mechanical destruction
of host tissue.
Poinar (1971) used a DD-136 strain of
Neoaplectana carpoceapsae Weise against 12
insect pests which included from the orders of
Lepidoptera Coleoptera and Diptera. The
bacterium associated with these nematode names
as Achromobacter nematophilus Poinar and
Thoma. The infective juveniles of DD-136 are
normally ingested by their insect host and once
in the gut lumen they pass through the
alimentary wall into the haemocoel. There the
bacteria are released through the anus which
causes a septicemic death to the host in 24-48
hrs. The nematodes feed on the multiplying
bacteria and the dead host tissues passing
through several generations in which their
numbers increase tremendously.
The ensheathed juveniles eventually
produced along with their associated specific
bacteria, leave the dead depleted host and if they
encounter a suitable new host the process is
repeated. The complete life cycle takes 5-8 days
and in a single were moth larvae (Gelleria
mellonella) more than 1,00,000 juveniles may be
produced. House et. al. (1965) devised new
rearing technique using dog food providing large
 31

number of nematodes at low cost. The field test Some Important Insect Parasitoids
with DD-136 provided variable results against
forest and agricultural pest. More than 60% 1. Trichogramma: Trichogramma spp. Are true
mortality against codling moth, tobacco egg parasitoids widely distributed in insect. The
budworm, Heliothis spp. was recorded. Moisture taxonomy of the various species is difficult, but
requirement in the microhabital of this it is now been classified that over 200 insects
nematodes is important factor to avoid species belonging to 70 families and 8 orders in
desiccation. They can be applied with wetting diverse habits are parasitized by species,
agents and the pathogens B. thuringiensis. subspecies and various strains of Trichogramma.
Out of 26 Trichogramma species recorded in
Mermithid nematodes parasites of India T. japonicum and T. achea are widely
mosquito ate worldwide in distribution. Because distributed and are key factors for many crops
of their obligate nature, most are difficult to mass pest in India. These parasitoids are mostly used
rear economically and hence have been seriously against pests like sugarcane borer (Chilo spp),
considered as agents for biological insect pest paddy stem borer, tomato fruit borer, cutworms,
until recent years. They have great potential as cotton bollworms etc.
they are generally well adopted to their host,
fairly host specific and kill their hosts upon A female lays about 1 to 20 eggs in one
emergence. They do not require addition food host egg depending on size of eggs but in the
once they have left their host to mature, mate and eggs of sugarcane bores only 1-2 eggs of
deposit their eggs. They have successfully used Trichogramma are posited per egg. Its fecuandity
in field tests. Current work on nematode is on varies from 20 to 200 eggs according to species
Steinernema spp. and Heterohabditis spp. reared and longevity of adults. Incubation period of
on Gelletia mellonella and used for control of eggs lasts for a day (16 to 24 hours). Larval
white grubs, cut worms and other soil inhabits period is 2-3 days, prepupal and pupal periods
insect pests. varies 2-3 days, and total life cycle is completed
in 8 – 10 days during summer and 9 – 12 days
Difference Between or Characteristics of during winter. Host eggs become dark in 3 -4
Parasite, Parasitoid and Predator days after the parasitilization because of
accumulation of urate granules unorganized eggs
remain 1:1 ( M: F ). Host searching capacity is
Sr. Properties Parasite Parasitoid Predator up to 3-5 meters in filed. Rice moth, coryra
No.
cephalonica is used as facitituous host for
multiplication of Trichogramma.
1 Size Smaller than host Same size as Large than host
host
2. Bracon brevicornis: It is a potent larval
2 Host Both larva and host Only larva Both larva and host parasitoids of coconut black headed caterpillar.
and adults The parasitoid is an external gregarious, larval
parasitoid and lays about 6 to 2 eggs pr host
3 No. of host One One More than one
larvae. Its egg stage lasts for 24 to 48 hrs larval
stage 5 – 6 day and pupal stage 4 to 6 days. A life
4 Injury to hostFeed without killing Paralyze to Kill to devour
oviposition cycle of the parasitoids is completed within 15
days. The pupae of the parasitoids are silvery
5 Activity Function at low host Function at Function at higher cocoons can be stored for 10 – 15 days in
density so efficient low host host density so refrigeration. In laboratory, the parasitoids are
density so efficient.
efficient reared on larvae of rice moth, Corcyra
cephalonica, and the adult parasitoids of Bracan
6 Diurnal or Diurnal/Nocturnal Diurnal Diurnal/Nocturnal brevicornis are used for releasing them in
Nocturnal
coconut plantation against target pests. Release
of 40,000 to 50,000 and per r hectares week and
7 Host Great Great Not so great
Specificity follow such 4- 6 releases are recommended in
fields.
8 Suitability Not suited Best suited Suited
for Some Important Insect Predators
biological
control
The first known use of the tactic of
9 Examples Mosquitoes, lice bed Parasitic Mantids, lady bird biological insect pest suppression was in China
bugs wasps tachinidbeetles
flies
around 300 A.D. wherein ants were used to
protect orange groves from developing wormy

fruit. The red wood ants are considered
important in maintaining forest insect pest
population in balanced condition in 12th century.
Their food consists of stages of Lepidopterous
caterpillar. This is an example to be quoted for
efficient facultative predator mired, Cyrtorhinus
modulus have been proved as an effective
predator the eggs of the sugarcane leaf hopper.
Its first release was made in 1923 from
Australian stock and late from Fiji and by 1923
the sugarcane hopper was suppressed.
1) Vedalia Beetle, Rodolia Cardinalis
Mulsant: This is probably the most frequent
mentioned predator in classical biological control
literature. It has been thoroughly received by
DeBack (1974). The successful story of the
Vedalia beetle against cottony cushion scale,
Icerya purchasi in California on citrus has
already been outlined C.V. Riley campaign. Like
success in California, in has been a repeated 30-
50 country around the world where this beetle
has been released. Adults of Vedalia beetle male
and have a preoviposition period of 4 weeks in
the summer and 1-3 weeks in the winter. The
eggs are laid singly or in small cluster.
Biological Control of Weeds
Weed is a plant in the wrong place. On
the other hand, weeds may be valuable plants in
other situations. This fact is fundamental to a
consideration of biological control. In fact the
method of biological control of weed has been
used when other methods found inadequate. To
reduce the densities to non economic levels by
either direct or indirect action of natural enemies
being used.
Fundamental of Biological Control of Weed:
1. Concept of Natural Control as Related to
Weed: The competitive weed should be fast
growing e.g. Stylo.
2. Kind of Natural Enemies: Species insect
feeding made preferred roots, stems, seeds and
flowers.
3. Nature of Controlling Action: Every weed
cannot be controlled biological with insect.
a. Injury: Direct feeding on vital parts
like flowers, seeds or killing the plants. Indirect
feeding injury increase susceptibility to diseases
or secondary parasites.
b. Plant Parts Attacked: Vital plant part
should be attacked before seed formation.
32
4. Inter Relation of the Insect Agent and
Food: Struggle for existence, Insect attacked
weed become weak and other species may
become dominant. Disturbance to plant feeders
by natural calamities.
5. Risk of Introduction and Host Specificity:
Great fear of become weed feeder as feeder of
economic plants.
6. Specificity Tests, Starvation: Leaf beetle,
allied to host or even more on cabbage but found
not multiplied in field.
7. Nature of Infection and Prospectus of
Success: Successful weed killer should have no
pest of economic plants, should attack vital plant
parts, should have least natural enemies and
should have fast multiplication rate.
Examples of Biological Weed Control:
1. Weed Lantana camara controlled by
introduction of Telonemia scrupulosa in India
(1944).
2. Prickly pear, Opuntia spp. controlled by
introduction of cochineal insects, Dactylopius
spp.
3. Water hyacinth controlled by weevils,
Neochetina bruchi and Neochetina eichhorniae
and hydrophilic mite, Orthogalumna terebrantis.
Steps in Establishing Biological Control
Programs
Following program may be followed for
introduction for beneficial organism:
1) Exact Identification of Pest: For
identification of pest first recognize the
occurrence of damage. Then determine the
specific cause of damage and undertake precise
taxonomic identification. The species names give
access for availability of literature and explore
the possibilities of utilizing the natural enemy of
related species.
2) Origin, Geographic Distribution and
Ecological Requirements: Examine the degree
of damage of the pest in homeland indicating
existence of natural enemy and their importation.
Determine pests’ potential important

information. If the species has been the subject
of successful programme earlier elsewhere,
employ similar procedure e.g. Vedalia beetle
used against cottony cushion scale in California.
If no work has been done on the target pest, then
the techniques of other related natural enemy
available from similar work may be followed.
3) Host Parasitoid Lists and Other Faunal
Surveys:
a. If target species is not an important pest in its
place of origin it may be a god reason that
density dependent natural enemy is present these
to regulate population size.
b. If the species is pest its potentially useful
natural enemy may have moved to new
environment free from hyperparasites.
c. Search literature for previous specific studies
and its natural enemies. Refer
lists/catalogues/area-wise faunistic surveys for
diseases, parasitoids and predators present.
4) Field Study of both Target Insect and
Beneficial Organisms:
a. From literature survey, find
information on location/native habitat, pest
status, ecology and its natural enemies.
b. Undertake field studies in native
habitat for collecting sufficient natural
enemies for shipment and locate most
suitable area for collection of natural enemies in
large quantity.
5) Prediction of Success and Efficacy:
a. Collection preliminary information on
ecology compatibility and effect of natural
enemy on pest density, its behavior
synchronization biotypes etc.
b. Predict certainty in the outcome of
Biological insect pest suppression before. It is
carries out. Success in introducing natural enemy
which has proven itself before against the
same target pest in a similar environment
elsewhere.
6) Collection of Beneficial Organisms:
a. Collection of natural enemies for
importation in short possible time. Employ
33
minimum possible techniques to the
specific pest and its natural enemy.
b. Hand collection of natural enemies of
host is feasible method. But artificially dense
population of host is encouraged or created in
controlled area subject to exposure to the
desired parasitoid.
c. Collection site need not to be at
remote, exotic or inaccessible.
7) Shipment of beneficial organisms:
a. Most critical step in introduction of
natural enemy programme is transportation from
origin to place of introduction.
b. Necessity of providing food and water
to sustain life during journey sometimes need
living host/prey insects on potted plants.
c. Permit for the agencies for importation
of organisms.
d. Shipment of material in a series of
small shipment rather than in a single large one.
e. Containers should be strong enough to
survive rough handling and prevent escape
during shipment route.
f. There are wooden containers or
cardboard mailing tubes, aerated plastic
containers, Vacuum flasks or foam insulated
containers with suitable labels for cautions of
temperature extremes or adverse condition.
g. Shipment during development stages
becomes easier.
h. As a part of each shipment, attack
information sheet indicating, identity source,
number of natural enemies and dates of
collection of shipment.
8) Quarantine:
a. The purpose of quarantine is twofold.
The procedure prevents the premature escape of
the imported insects, and it prevents the
contamination of entomophage culture by native
species.
b. Adequate screening of the shipment
before release to eliminate hyper parasitoids.
It may be done by rearing the imported species
for one or more generations under controlled
conditions.

c. Admittance is usually restricted
authorized personnel only.
9) Propagation:
a. Introduce large number of natural
enemies.
b. Synchronies entomophage and pest life
cycles with carefully timed propagative output,
rearing of natural enemy all year round and
storing the progeny until release.
c. Complete knowledge of life cycle,
biology and behaviors, proper rearing condition
and a suitable laboratory host may be factitious
(unnatural) host or artificial diet.
10) Release and colonization:
a. A current trend toward the earliest
possible attempt is field release.
b. Extensive laboratory propagation
minimal colonization efforts.
c. Incomplete understanding of the host-
parasitoid or prey-predator relationship may lead
to poor adaptation of natural enemy.
d. Alternate host, required food supplies
of nectar or polled for the adults may be missing
for the introduced natural enemy which eater
establishment of entomophage.
e. Proper time of introduction of natural
enemy against target pest of univoltine type.
f. Predators should be released with
greatest assurance of mate
g. Select promising site for introduction
based on preceding information for easy and
natural spread.
h. Colonization by installation of field
cages i.e. for predators to minimize initial spread
/ dispersal and protect against native competitor
species.
i. Predict weather conditions like frosts,
heat waves, heavy rains / winds, bright sunshine
which causes high mortality of colonized natural
enemy.
j. Release are best made in early
mornings or late evening when light levels are
subdued, temperatures are lower and humidity is
high.
34
k. Release larger colonies at few point,
multiple induction quickly regulate pest
spectrum.
11) Follow-up Recoveries:
a. Determination of establishment of
introduced natural enemy and its rate of
dispersal.
b. Carry out making field observation and
collection in and near the sites of release or
by visual determination in the field after the sites
or release or by visual determination in the field
after one generation or dissect parasitized host or
by rearing of adults from field collected host
material.
c. Recoveries:The first instance of
recovery indicate temporary or initial
establishment of natural enemy. The second or
third instance indicate permanent establishment
only if it is recovered in three successive year
after its release.
12) Evaluation:
Assessment of effectiveness of natural enemy by
careful and continuous monitoring of increase
and spread of introduced entomophages.
It involves 3 ways.
a. Qualitative analysis: By frequent
extensive sampling observation of the progress
and spread of introduced species and apparent
cause effect relationship to decline pest
populations.
b. Experimental exclusion procedure:
By comparing the population density of the pest
in the absence of newly introduced natural
enemy with that in presence of the introduced
natural enemy with that in the presence of the
introduced species
c. Quantitative mathematical analysis:
It is best proof of success or failure. it involves
development of extensive life tables of pest both
before and after the introduction of natural
enemy.
Future Needs of Biological Pest Suppression
In future, Non Government Organizations
(NGOs) should to expedite the pilot projects on
mass production of same biotic agents like
Trichogramma which have great potential to
 35

control pest like sugarcane borers, maize, increase the effectiveness against the less
sorghum, paddy cotton bollworms moths etc. susceptible species.
predators such as Chrysopid and Coccinellids for
aphids, mealy bugs on cotton, tobacco, grape
guava and citrus guava and citrus similarly
pathogens like NPV and saprophytic fungi and
produce toxins (Gliotoxin and Varadin) which
will the rute root disease of pulses and oilseeds.

Government may also consider the

following suggestions for future works which
may helps farmers in adopting bio control
technology:

1. Popularization of literature through local

languages.

2. Increasing finance to other bio control projects

beside AICRPBC sanctioned by ICAR, New
Delhi, and Department of Science and
Technology and DBT, Government of India.

3. Judicious as well as restricted import of biotic

agents from other countries.

4. Emphasis on exploration of indigenous biotic

agents.

5. Preparation of ‘Field guide for biotic agents’

along with their visible stages and natural hosts.

6. Establishment of commercial factories to

ensure supply of potential biotic agents.

7. Establishment of National Institute on

Conservation of Biotic Agents along with
network at district level.

8. Studies on biotic agents in relation to

intercropping, cultural practices and other forms
of organic farming.

Current problems with the use of chemical

insecticides and emphasis on low impact
sustainable agricultural have pushed the
microbial agents to the fore front for use in pest
management. However, microbial pesticide has
not been economically competitive with
chemical insecticides, primarily due to their host
specificity. The relatively slow speed with which
microorganism kill their hosts has hampered
their effectiveness as well as acceptance by
potential users. A wide range of environmental
factors affects the efficacy of microbial
pesticides. Development of resistance to viruses
and Bt is a matter of serious concern. However,
the use of both naturally occurring and
genetically engineered microorganisms may