Module Three: Life at a Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Level

Life Sciences
Matric Syllabus
Mind Action Series: Life Sciences
Textbook and Workbook
• They are called ‘the molecules of life’ as they are able to
store the information that controls cellular activity and the
development of an organism.
• They control the synthesis of proteins, which is the first
step in making an entire organism.
• Proteins are NB. Enzymes, which control chemical
processes inside cells, are proteins. Thus, they control the
structure and functions of all living organisms.
• The two nucleic acids found inside cells are:
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• Located mainly in the nucleus of a cell. It forms an important
part of all the chromosomes that make up the chromatin
network.
• The chromatin network is made up of long, thin, intertwined
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of a thread of
DNA wound around a core of proteins, known as histones.
• The DNA molecule is coiled so that these long structures can
fit inside the nucleus. There are nearly 2 metres of DNA in
each human cell.
• DNA is also found in mitochondria and in chloroplasts.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• DNA looks like a long, twisted ladder. Two strands, connected by
nitrogenous bases, twist to form a stable double helix.
• The DNA molecule is a long chain (polymer) made up of small
units (monomers) i.e. building blocks called nucleotides. Each
nucleotide is made up of the following:
– A sugar molecule called deoxyribose (S)
– A phosphate molecule (P)
– Nitrogenous base which may be
• Adenine (A)
• Thyamine (T)
• Guanine (G)
• Cytosine (C)
• These four bases are the foundation of the genetic code. They
instruct cells on how to synthesise proteins and other enzymes.
3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
• As there are four different nitrogenous bases, there are four
different nucleotides.

Sugar - Deoxyribose
Nitrogenous base (thyamine)

S T
One Thyamine
nucleotide
P
Phosphate

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The outer two strands of the ladder are formed by a chain of
alternating sugar/phosphate links. The bonds between the
sugar and phosphate links are strong.
• The rungs are formed by pairs of bases which are linked by
weak hydrogen bonds.
• The base pairs are attached to the sugar molecule.
• There are two groups of nitrogenous bases – purines and
pyramidines.
– Purines are made up of two fused rings of nitrogen, carbon and
hydrogen atoms. They are larger. E.g. guanine and adenine.
– Pyridmidines are made up of one fused ring of nitrogen, carbon and
hydrogen atoms. They are smaller than purines. E.g. thyamine,
cytosine and uracil (in RNA).
3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
• The four base pairs have different shapes and sizes.
Therefore, they link up in the following way:
– Adenine will only bond with thyamine or uracil by means of two
hydrogen bonds e.g. A=T, A=U
– Cytosine will only bond with guanine by means of three hydrogen
bonds, e.g. G≡C
– A base pair will always be made up of one purine and one pyramidine.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The four nucleotides are the same in all plants and animals.
For example, an adenine nucleotide of a human is the same
as the adenine nucleotide of a frog.
• The difference is determined by the sequence in which the
nucleotides are strung together. Different sequences have
different ‘messages’, so to speak. Every human being will
have a different sequence in certain sections of DNA (except
for identical twins).
• Thus, the SEQUENCE of nucleotides will determine the
genetic code of an organism.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

DNA controls all activities of the cell.
•It carries coded genetic information in each cell.
•It can replicate, i.e. it makes a copy of itself.
•It indirectly initiates the manufacture of proteins.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• Replication is the process of using an existing DNA molecule
to make an identical DNA molecule.
• It takes place during the interphase (in between cell divisions)
in the life cycle of a cell.
• It is necessary because the DNA needs to produce another
molecule, exactly the same as itself, to ensure that the
genetic code is passed on to each new daughter cell formed
during cell division.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The process is catalysed by the enzyme DNA polymerase.
• The double helix unwinds.
• The weak hydrogen bonds holding the base pairs together
break, allowing two strands to part. Each single chain of
bases is exposed.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• Free nucleotides in the cytoplasm become attached to their
matching, exposed base partners.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The fact that only A will bond with T and C only with G,
ensures that the sequence in the daughter cell will be
EXACTLY the same as in the parent DNA.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• RNA is made in the nucleus by DNA. It is involved in protein
synthesis.
• The RNA is structured as such:
– Like DNA, it is a polymer made up of nucleotides.
– Unlike DNA, it consists of a single strand.
– It is shorter than DNA.
– The sugar is ribose, not deoxyribose.
• The function of RNA is to carry instructions from DNA in the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of a cell where it
controls the synthesis of proteins from amino acids.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

 RNA DNA
Single - stranded 2 strands

Much shorter than DNA Long molecule

Not double helix Double Helix

Contains uracil Contains Thyamine

Contains ribose Contains deoxyribose

Function: Transcription Functions: Contains genetic information

Replication

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• Proteins are responsible for a number of reactions which
occur around the body: they are enzymes, hormones,
antibodies, collagen, haemoglobin, fibrin, actin and myosin,
as well as hoof, nails and hair.
• Proteins are created via protein synthesis, a process which
will be explained in two main stages: 1) Transcription and 2)
Translation. Translation is the actual process of protein
synthesis.
transcription translation
DN mR p ro te i
in nucleus in ribosomes
A NA n

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• There are three different types of RNA:
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)
– Transfer RNA (tRNA)
– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• mRNA is formed in the nucleus, in a similar way to the
replication of DNA. The coded message in DNA is carried
across – transcribed – into the new mRNA molecule, which
carries it to the ribosomes.
• Transcription takes place in the following way:
– A small piece of DNA, a gene, unwinds and the two strands separate.
– New nucleotides pair up with the complementary bases on one of the
DNA strands. This strand is the template as it carries the code.
– The nucleotides join and form a strand of mRNA.
– A completed strand of mRNA breaks away from the DNA. The DNA
then rezips.
– mRNA moves through the pores of the nuclear membrane and carries
the genetic code to the ribosomes which are the sites of protein
synthesis.

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The mRNA, with its codons, moves through the pores of the
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm where it binds with a
ribosome.
• The tRNA with it’s anti-codons links up with a specific amino acid
in the cytoplasm.
• tRNA brings its amino acid to the ribosome where the anti-codon
links up with the complimentary codon.
• The amino acid is released an links up with the adjacent amino
acid by means of a peptide bond. The tRNA molecule is also
released. The rRNA moves along the mRNA stand, reading the
code.
• When the end is reached, a completed polypeptide chain is
formed, built according to the code which was originally copied
from the DNA code in the nucleus.
3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
• Just as each person’s fingerprint is unique, the DNA coding for
every individual is unique – except for identical twins.
• Most of the 3 billion nucleotides we inherit, are identical
among all humans.
• Certain parts of the non-coding DNA vary among individuals.
These parts differ due to changes taking place in the structure
or position of the nucleotides (gene mutations) and they are
used in making a genetic fingerprint.
• Each of our cells carries an identical set of unique DNA. If two
genetic fingerprints show identical banding patterns, it is
virtually certain that they come from the same person.
• Relatives will have some consistency in certain parts of their
DNA.
3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
Genetic fingerprinting can be used to:
•Solve crimes
•Diagnose inherited disorders in unborn and newborn babies
•Establish paternity
•Identify casualties

3.1) Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis