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PIPING ELEMENTS
T. N. GOPINATH
One of the major tasks in any depends on each Designer, and the logic
Process Industry is the transportation of he/she adopts.
materials often in fluid form from one place
to another. The most commonly adopted MATERIAL SELECTION OF PIPING
method for the same is to force the fluid COMPONENTS
through the piping system. The piping The first thing to be considered is the
system is an assembly of inter-connected selection of suitable material for the service.
piping or a system of pipes subjected to the The selection of piping material requires
same set of design conditions. The piping knowledge of corrosion properties, strength
system involves not only pipes but also the and engineering characteristics, relative cost
fittings, valves and other specialties. These and availability.
items are known as piping components. The main process considerations in
Code specifies the piping components as the material selection are the corrosion
mechanical elements suitable for joining or properties of the fluid, the pressure
assembly into pressure-tight fluid-containing temperature conditions of the service and the
piping systems. Piping System Components nature of the service.
include: The Piping Designer selects/designs
1.0 Pipes the piping components based on the
2.0 Fittings mechanical properties such as the following.
3.0 Flanges
4.0 Gaskets a. Yield strength
5.0 Bolting b. Ultimate strength
6.0 Valves c. Percentage elongation
7.0 Specialties d. Impact strength
e. Creep-rupture strength
A Piping Element is defined as any f. Fatigue endurance strength
material or work that is required to plan and
install a piping system. Elements of piping Based on the material of construction,
include design specifications, materials, piping elements could be classified as shown
components, supports, fabrication, in Fig.1. 1
inspection and testing. The basic material or the generic
Piping elements should, so far as material of construction is specified by the
practicable, conform to the specification and Process Licenser for the process fluids. The
standards listed in the code referred for Piping Engineer is expected to detail out the
design. Unapproved elements may also be same based on the Codes and Standards.
used provided they are qualified for use as The material of construction for the utilities
set forth in applicable chapters of the code. will be selected by the Piping Engineer
Piping specification is a document based on the service conditions.
specifying each of the components. The Piping Design Criteria originates
Different material specifications are from the Line List, which specifies design
segregated in different “Piping Class”. conditions with respect to pressure and
Identification of the “Piping Classes” temperature.
Piping Elements 1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
Piping Elements 2
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The design should meet the period, would have an internal diameter
requirements of the relevant Code. approximately equal to the nominal size.
The material used shall be in In American standards, dimension of pipes
accordance with latest revision of are covered under
standards. If ASTM materials are used, a) ASME B 36.10 - Welded and
then the materials adapted by ASME are Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
normally preferred. b) ASME B 36.19 - Austenitic Stainless
The selection of materials in Steel Pipe
general shall follow the norms below: The nominal bore and the
(The basis in the design code governs – corresponding outside diameters specified
ref. ASME B 31.3/B 31.1.) therein are as given in the accompanying
table. American standards have not
a) Carbon steel shall be used from metricated (i.e. not converted to metric
0
- 20 F (- 290 C) to 8000F (4250C). system of units) the pipe sizes and the
b) Low temperature Carbon/Alloy steel nominally equivalent metric sizes of
0
shall be used below - 20 F (- 290 C) widely followed pipes with nominal sizes
c) Alloy steel shall be used above in inches are also noted along with.
8000F (4250C). However, the latest revisions of these
d) For corrosive fluids, recommendations standards include the SI metric dimensions
from the Process Licensor to be followed. for Outside Diameter, thickness and unit
weight.
1.0 PIPES As regards the non-metallic and lined
1.1 General piping systems, the thickness of pipe
Pipe can be defined as a pressure tight and/or lining are not covered under any of
cylinder made of applicable material of the above standards. These are as per the
construction. used to convey a fluid or relevant ASTM standards. For certain
transmit fluid under pressure. Pipe can be plastic pipes, Indian Standards are also
made from any applicable engineering available.
material that can be rolled and welded,
cast or drawn through dies to form tubular Pipes are designated by its Nominal Bore
section. (NB). For example: 2" NB or 50 mm NB.
The word “pipe” is used as distinguished Further, pipe can also be designated as:-
from “tube” to apply to tubular products of
dimensions commonly used for piping Pipe can also be designated by Nominal
systems. The pipe dimensions of sizes Pipe Size (NPS) which is a dimensionless
12 inch (300 mm) and smaller have designator in USCS. It indicates standard
outside diameter numerically larger than pipe size when followed by specific size
corresponding sizes. designation number without inch symbol.
1.2 Size. For example: NPS2, NPS12 etc.
The size of the pipe is identified by the
NOMINAL BORE or the NOMINAL It can be designated also by Nominal
PIPE SIZE. The manufacture of pipe is Diameter (DN), again a dimensionless
based on outside diameter, which is designator in metric system. It indicates
standardized. The OD was originally standard size designation number without
selected so that pipe with standard wall
thickness, which was typical of that
Piping Elements 3
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Note: The Nominal Bore (NB) and the outside diameter are the same for pipe sizes 14” NB & above.
Piping Elements 4
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sizes of STD pipes have 3/8-inch (9.53 mm) 1.4.3 Screwed ends
wall thickness. Extra strong and Schedule 80 1.4.4 Flanged ends
are identical for nominal pipe sizes up and 1.4.5 Spigot/Socket ends
inclusive of 8 inch (200mm). All larger sizes 1.4.6 Buttress ends.
of Extra Strong (XS) have ½ inch (12.7 mm) Beveled ends are specified when pipe to
wall thickness. The thickness Double Extra pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by
Strong (XXS) is more than Schedule 160 in butt welding.
pipe sizes up to 6 inch (150 mm) NB. This Plain ends are specified when pipe to
thickness is specified for pipes up to 12 inch pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by
(300 mm) NB. For 12 inch (300 mm) NB, the fillet welding.
thickness matches to that of Schedule120 and Screwed joints are specified when pipe to
for 10 inch (250 mm) NB, it is Schedule 140. pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by
The figures indicated in these standards are threaded connections.
the nominal thickness and mill tolerance of Flanged ends are specified to
± 12.5% is applicable to those values, except provide bolted connections between pipes
for the plate fabricated pipes where tolerance and between pipes and/or fittings.
for plates govern. Spigot/Socket ends are specified when
lead caulked/cemented joints are provided
Generally the thickness specified by between pipes and between pipes and
schedule numbers of B36.10 and B36.19 fittings.
match except in the following: Buttress ends are used in glass piping and
10" SCH80/SCH80S are joined by bolting with the use of backing
12" SCH40/SCH40S flanges.
12" SCH80/SCH80S 1.4.1 BUTT WELD PIPE JOINTS
14" SCH10/SCH10S
16" SCH10/SCH10S
18" SCH10/SCH10S
20" SCH10/SCH10S
22" SCH10/SCH10S
Piping Elements 5
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Advantages
a) Easier Alignment than in butt welding
b) No weld metal intrusion into bore
Disadvantages Advantages
a) The 1/16"(1.5 mm) recess pockets a) Can be easily made at site
liquid b) Can be used where welding is not
b) Use not permitted by code if Severe permitted due to material properties or
Erosion or Crevice Corrosion is fire hazard.
anticipated. c) Dismantling is very easy
Advantages
a) Easily made at site
b) Can be used where welding is not Advantages
permitted due to fire hazard a) Can be easily made at site.
b) Can accept misalignment up to 100 at
Disadvantages
pipe joints.
a) Joint may leak when not properly
sealed
b) Use not permitted by code if severe Disadvantages
erosion, crevice corrosion, shock or a) Suitable for low pressure application.
vibration are anticipated. b) Special configuration at pipe ends
c) Strength of pipe is reduced as threads
reduce wall thickness required.
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Piping Elements 7
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Piping Elements 8
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21. ASTM A671 Electric fusion welded 38. IS 14333 HDPE pipe for
steel pipe for Sewerage service
atmospheric and low 39. IS 15155 Bar-wire wrapped steel
temperature service cylinder pipes with
(Sizes ≥ 16” NB) mortar lining & coating
22. ASTM A672 Electric fusion welded 1.7 Pressure Design
steel pipe for high Codes specify the formula to arrive at
pressure service at the required thickness for the pipes to
moderate temperatures withstand internal/external pressure to
(Sizes ≥ 16" NB) which the system is subjected to. Unlike
23. ASTM A691 Carbon and alloy steel pressure vessels, the pipes and fittings are
pipe, electric fusion manufactured to certain standard dimensions.
welded for high pressure Hence, it is necessary for the Piping
service at high Engineer to select the best suited thickness of
temperatures the element.
(Sizes ≥ 16" NB) Corrosion allowance, depending on the
24. ASTM A731 Seamless and welded service to which the system is subjected to
ferritic stainless steel and the material of construction, is to be
pipe added to the calculated minimum thickness.
25. ASTM A790 Seamless and welded The thickness arrived thus is to be
ferritic / austenitic compared with the available standard
stainless steel pipe thickness after allowing for the mill tolerance
26. ASTM A813 Single or double welded of ±12.5% on the nominal thickness or as per
austenitic stainless steel the standard.
pipe 1.7.1. THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE
27. ASTM A814 Cold worked welded UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
austenitic stainless steel ASME B 31.3, the Process Piping Code,
pipe in clause 304.1.1 gives minimum thickness as
28. ASTM F1545 Plastic Lined Ferrous follows:
Pipe Tm = T + C
29. API 5L / Line pipe
ISO 3183 PD
30. IS 1239 Steel pipes for general T=
purposes 2 (SEW + PY)
(Sizes ≤ 6" NB) Where.
31. IS 1536 Centrifugally cast iron P = Internal Design gauge pressure
pipe D = Outside Diameter of pipe
32. IS 1537 Vertically cast iron pipe S = Allowable Stress from
33. IS 1978 Line pipe Appendix A 1
34. IS 1979 High test line pipe E = Joint Quality factor from
35. IS 3589 Steel pipe for general Table A – 1B
services Y = Coefficient from table 304.1.1
36. IS 4984 HDPE pipe for water C = C1 + C2
service C1 = Corrosion Allowance
37. IS 4985 PVC pipe = 1.6 mm in general for carbon steel
= 0 for stainless steel
Piping Elements 9
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Piping Elements 10
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From Graph (Fig. HA-3) in ASME Section II The minimum thickness tm of a bend
Part D, Factor B = 2750 for the above factor
A and for 7500F PD
tm =
⎛ SEW ⎞
2⎜ + PY ⎟
Allowable pressure ⎝ I ⎠
Piping Elements 11
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⎛R ⎞ 2. ASME B 16.3
4⎜ 1 ⎟ − 1 - Malleable-Iron Threaded Fittings
I= ⎝ ⎠
D
3. ASME B 16.4
⎛R ⎞
4⎜ 1 ⎟ − 2 - Grey Iron Threaded fittings
⎝ D⎠ 4. ASME B 16.5
- Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
And at extrados (outside bend radius) 5. ASME B 16.9
- Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt
⎛R ⎞ welding Fittings
4⎜ 1 ⎟ + 1 6. ASME B 16.11
⎝ D ⎠
I = - Forged Fittings, Socket welding and
⎛R ⎞
4⎜ 1 ⎟ + 2 Threaded Fittings
⎝ D ⎠ 7. ASME B16.24
- Cast Copper Alloy Pipe flanges and
and at the side wall, the bend centre line Flanged Fittings
radius, I = 1. The thickness applies at mid 8. ASME B 16.28
span γ/2 as shown in the accompanying - Wrought Steel Butt welding Short
figure. Radius Elbows and Returns
9. ASME B 16.42
W = Weld Joint strength reduction factor as - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and
used earlier. Flanged Fittings
10. ASME B 16.47 -
- Large Diameter Steel Flanges
γ Intrados NPS 26 to 60
R1 11. ASME B.16.48 - Line Blanks.
12. ASME B 16.49
- Butt welding Induction Bends for
Transportation and Distribution
System
13 BS 3799 - Socket weld and Screwed
Extrados end fittings
14. BSEN 1595 Glass Pipelines and
2.0 PIPE FITTINGS Fittings
The branching tree shown (refer Fig.2.1)
indicates the various types of fittings. 15. IS 1239 Part-II - M.S. Fittings
These fittings can have various types of end
connections or can have combination of end 16. IS 1538 - Cast Iron Fittings
connections. The dimensional standards
commonly referred for the fittings are as 17. MSS-SP-43 - Stainless Steel Fittings
follows:
18. MSS-SP-75 – Highest Test wrought
DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS butt welding fittings
1. ASME B 16.1 – (NPS 16 to NPS 60)
Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings
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Piping Elements 13
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Piping Elements 14
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Piping Elements 15
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Piping Elements 16
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2.2.2 RETURNS
Returns change the direction through
180 deg. This is mainly used in heating
coils, heat exchangers, etc. Returns with
1.5D radius and 1D radius are available.
2.2.4 CROSS
This is a fitting very rarely used in
Fig. 2.8: Long Radius Return industrial piping system. There are two
types of crosses, the straight and reducing.
2.2.3 TEES To reduce the inventory, it is preferred to
Tees are used for branching off. For use tees except where space is restricted as
low pressure services, branching off is done in marine piping or other special
by direct welding of branch pipe to run pipe applications.
instead of using a standard Tee. This is
called a stub connection. In certain cases,
reinforcing pads are used for structural
stability of such connections. Design code
gives the calculation by which the
requirement of reinforcement pad can be
established and provided for branch
connection (Refer Appendix H of ASME B
31.3). The branching schedule specified Fig. 2.11: Cross
along with piping specification explains
what sort of a branch connection is to 2.2.5 REDUCERS
be used for that particular piping class. There are two types of reducers
The manufacturing restrictions do not available, the concentric reducers and the
allow reducing tees of all size combinations. Eccentric reducers.
To arrive at available sizes of reducing tees
in the standard, use the thumb rule of
dividing the major diameter by 2 and
consider the next lower size.
For example, the minimum size of
reducing tee available for 4” NB size is 4" x
1½” (next lower size of 4/2 = 2"). Fig. 2.12: Concentric Reducer
Piping Elements 17
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Piping Elements 18
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Piping Elements 19
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3.0 FLANGES
Piping Elements 20
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Fig. 3.4: Lap Joint Flange with Stub End 3.1 Based On Pipe Attachment
Flanges can be classified based on the
attachment to the piping as below;
3.1.1 Slip-on
3.1.2 Socket Weld
3.1.3 Screwed
3.1.4 Lap Joint
3.1.5 Welding Neck
3.1.6 Blind
3.1.7 Reducing
3.1.8 Integral
Fig.3.5: Welding Neck Raised Face The Slip-on type flanges are attached
Flange by fillet welding inside as well as outside
and vented with a 3 mm predrilled hole
through the hub. The use of this flange is
usually limited to moderate services where
pressure/temperature fluctuations, vibrations
and shocks are not expected. These are also
not used in corrosive services. The use of
this type is limited to class 300 and design
temperature not exceeding 250°C. The
strength of this flange as calculated from
internal pressure is approximately two-thirds
Fig.3.6: Blind Flange of that of Welding Neck flange. Normally,
these flanges are of forged construction and
are with hub. Sometimes, these flanges are
fabricated from plates and are not provided
with the hub. This is to reduce the cost of
installation.
The Socket weld flanges are welded
only on one side and are not recommended
where crevice corrosion is expected. These
are used for small-bore lines only. The
thickness of connecting pipe should be
specified for this type of flanges to ensure
Fig.3.7a: Reducing Slip-on Flange proper bore dimension.
Piping Elements 21
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The Screwed-on flanges are used on The Reducing flanges are used to
pipe lines where welding cannot be carried connect between larger and smaller sizes
out. Socket welding and threaded flanges are without using a reducer. In case of
o
not recommended for service above 250 C reducing flanges, the thickness of the flange
o
and below -45 C. All the disadvantages of should be that of the higher diameter. ASME
threaded joints are applicable here as well. B 16.5 accepts plate as material of
These are mainly used in Cast Iron & construction for both blind and reducing
Galvanized piping. flanges.
The Lap joint flanges are used with Integral flanges are those, which are
stub ends when piping is of a costly cast along with the piping component or
material. The stub ends will be butt-welded equipment. Thickness of integrally cast
to the piping and the flanges are kept loose flanges and welded-on flanges differ in
over the same. The inside radius of these certain sizes. There are some types of
flanges is chamfered to clear the stub end flanges developed by manufacturers. They
radius. With Type B & C stub ends, slip-on are mainly modification on the welding neck
flanges can be used for the same duty. The such as:
material selected for this type of flange
could be inferior to the parent material. This a) Long Welding Neck flange: It is a flange
combination is used to reduce cost. This where the length through the welding neck
type is not selected for severe service is made as required. The latest revision of
involving high pressure, high temperature, ASME B16.5 has included this as a standard
thermal shock or cyclic operation. This type item.
avoids the necessity of accurate alignment
since the flange is capable of rotation. These b) Expander/Reducer flange: It is not
flanges also have the disadvantage of 10% covered in ASME B16.5 and is made as per
fatigue life of Welding Neck flange. Manufacturers standard.
The Welding Neck flanges are attached Bolt holes on all flanges are in multiples
by butt-welding to the pipes. These are used of four and shall straddle the fitting
mainly for critical services which can be centerline.
NDT checked, if required. While specifying
these flanges, the thickness of the welding 3.2 Based on Pressure-temperature
end also should be specified along with Rating
flange specification. Welding neck flanges The flanges are also classified by the
have a tapered hub which provides a gradual pressure temperature rating in ASME B 16.5
transition from flange face to the welded as below:
end, thereby decreasing the discontinuity 3.2.1 Class 150 (PN 20)
stresses and consequently increasing the 3.2.2 Class 300 (PN 50)
strength of flange. Also welding area is 3.2.3 Class 400 (PN 64)
sufficiently away from the face which 3.2.4 Class 600 (PN 100)
avoids undue distortion. 3.2.5 Class 900 (PN 150)
The Blind flanges are used to close the 3.2.6 Class 1500 (PN 250)
ends, which need to be reopened later. These 3.2.7 Class 2500 (PN 420)
flanges absorb high bending stresses but do
not have to absorb stresses caused by Pressure temperature rating charts, in
thermal expansion. the standard ASME B 16.5, specify the
working gauge pressure to which the flange
Piping Elements 22
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Piping Elements 23
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FLANGE MATERIALS
Fig. 3.11: Tongue and Groove Joint 3.5.1 ASTM A105 - Forged Carbon Steel
Piping Elements 24
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3.5.5 ASTM A 694 – Carbon Steel & Alloy material with respect to the compatibility of
Steel Forgings for the same with the fluid being handled.
High Pressure Service The material, which is most commonly used,
is the Compressed Asbestos Fibre in India.
3.5.6 ASTM A707 - Forged Carbon Steel Indian Standard IS 2712 specifies three
and Alloy Steel different materials at three different grades.
flanges for low 4.3.1 IS 2712 Gr W/1, W/2 and W/3
temperature services - for Steam, Alkali and general
(for high strength) applications.
4.3.2 IS 2712 Gr. A/1
3.6 Other Standards - for Acid applications.
Certain British Standards/German 4.3.3 IS 2712 Gr. O/1, O/2
Standards, European Norms, ISO and Indian - for Oil applications.
Standards are also followed in India for Asbestos free gaskets are also available
flange specifications. BS-10 is the most for above applications. For very corrosive
popular among them. PN Rating flanges are applications, PTFE or PTFE enveloped
also popular because they have a wider gaskets are used.
range of pressure temperature classes. The For high temperature and high-pressure
pressure classes available are PN2.5, PN6, applications, spiral wound metallic gaskets
PN10, PN16, PN25, PN40, PN63, PN100, are used. The selection of material of
PN160, PN250, PN320, and PN400. IS has construction for winding depends upon the
developed IS 6392 in line with this corrosive nature and concentration of the
standards and the same is also in use. fluid, the operating temperature and the
ASME B 16.5 Covers Sizes from½” NB relative cost of alternate winding materials.
to 24" NB only and ANSI B16.47 is referred The most commonly used are the Austenitic
for higher sizes (from 26” NB to 60” NB) stainless steel 304, 316 and 321 with
Graphite filler. Alternate winding and filler
4.0 GASKETS materials can be used depending upon the
4.1 Selection services.
Proper selection of gasket depends upon ASME B 16.5 does not recommend
the following factors. the use of Class 150 rating spiral wound
4.1.1 Compatibility of the gasket material gaskets on flanges other than welding
with the fluid. neck and lapped joint type.
4.1.2 Ability to withstand the pressure- Spiral wound gaskets are provided with
temperature of the system. external ring known as centering ring to
4.2 Type position the gasket. When used in vacuum
Based on the type of construction, gaskets services, an internal ring is also provided.
are classified as: The material of inner ring should be
4.2.1 Full Face compatible with the fluid. The spiral wound
4.2.2 Inside Bolt Circle gasket will perform when the flange face is
4.2.3 Spiral wound metallic 125-250 AARH finish.
4.2.4 Ring type 4.4 Dimensional Standards
4.2.5 Metal jacketed Gasket dimensions are covered under
4.3 Material the following standards.
Experience on the job and published 4.4.1 BS 3381
literature shall be used to select the gasket - Metallic Spiral Wound Gaskets
Piping Elements 25
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Piping Elements 27
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************
Piping Elements 28
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BRANCH TABLE.
PIPING CLASS C-61.
HDR Branch Connection DN
DN 15 20 25 40 50 80 100 150 200 250 300
15 1
20 1 1 KEY
25 1 1 1 1- SW TEE
40 1 1 1 1 2- BW TEE
50 3 3 3 2 2 3- SOCKOLET
80 3 3 3 3 2 2 4- WELDOLET
100 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
150 3 3 3 3 4 2 2 2
200 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2
250 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2
300 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
VALVES
SIZE RTG.
SC LC TYPE REG.STD. MOC
LOW HIGH CLASS
SW CS
VG VGXXXX 15 40 800 API 602 A 105 + 13% Cr.
GATE
FLGD CS A216 Gr.WCB + 13%
VG VGXXXX 50 200 600 API 600
GATE Cr.
GO FLGD A216 Gr.WCB + 13%
VG VGXXXX 250 300 600 API 600
GATE Cr.
SW CS
VL VLXXXX 15 40 800 API 602 A 105 + 13% Cr.
GLOBE
FL. CS A216 Gr.WCB + 13%
VL VLXXXX 50 150 600 B 16.34
GLOBE Cr.
SW CS
VC VCXXXX 15 40 800 API 602 A 105 + 13% Cr.
LIFTCHK
FL.CS A216 Gr.WCB + 13%
VC VCXXXX 50 300 600 B 16.34
SWGCHK Cr.
STRAINERS
MANF.
ST STXXXX SW Y- TYPE 15 40 800 A 105 + SS 304.
STD
FLGD T- MANF. A 216 Gg.WCB + SS
ST STXXXX 50 300 600
TYPE STD 304.
Piping Elements 29