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and steam:
Boiling
Boiling is formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid. Boiling is initiated when the absolute pressure in the
fluid reaches the vapor pressure.
Saturated Vapor
Vapor at the temperature of the boiling point which corresponds to its pressure.
A wet saturated vapor carries liquid globules in suspension. A wet saturated vapor is a substance in
the gaseous state which does not follow the general gas law.
A dry saturated vapor is free from liquid particles. All particles are vaporized - any decrease in the
vapor temperature or increase in the vapor pressure, will condensate liquid particles in the vapor. A dry
saturated vapor is a substance in the gaseous state which does not follow the general gas law.
Superheated Vapor
In superheated vapor the temperature is higher than the boiling point temperature corresponding to the
pressure. The vapor can not exist in contact with the fluid, nor contain fluid particles. An increase in
pressure or decrease in temperature will not - within limits - condensate out liquid particles in the
vapor. Highly superheated vapors are gases that approximately follow the general gas law.
Steam of which the pressure is less than, equal to, or not greatly above, that of the atmosphere
The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, temperature, and volume of an ideal or perfect gas. The Ideal
Gas Law can be expressed with the Individual Gas Constant:
p V = m R T (1)
where
p = ρ R T (2)
ρ = m / V (3)
The Individual Gas Constant - R - depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight
of the gas.
The Universal Gas Constant is independent of the particular gas and is the same for all "perfect"
gases. The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with the Universal Gas Constant:
p V = n Ru T (4)
where
A tank with volume of 1 ft3 is filled with air compressed to a gauge pressure of 50 psi. The temperature
in tank is 70 oF.
The air density can be calculated with a transformation of the ideal gas law (2) to:
ρ=p/RT
= 0,0102 slugs/ft3
The weight of the air is the product of specific weight and the air volume. It can be calculated as:
w=ρgV
= 0,32844 lb
The steam table below lists the properties of steam at varying pressures and temperatures:
Specific Enthalpy of
Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume -ρ- of Steam
(oC) Liquid Evaporation Steam
(kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) -s-
- hl - - he - - hs -
(kJ/kgK)
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
At atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge or absolute 101.33 kN/m2 - water boils at 100oC. 419 kJ of
energy is required to heat 1 kg of water from 0oC to the saturation temperature 100�C.
Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) and 100oC - the specific enthalpy of water is 419
kJ/kg.
Another 2,257 kJ of energy is required to evaporate the 1 kg of water at 100 oC to steam at 100oC.
Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) - the specific enthalpy of evaporation is 2,257
kJ/kg.
The total specific enthalpy of the steam at atmospheric pressure and 100 oC can be summarized as:
hs = 419 + 2,257
= 2,676 kJ/kg
Steam at atmospheric pressure is of limited practical use. It cannot be conveyed by its own pressure
along a steam pipe to the points of consumption.
At 7 bar gauge (absolute 800 kN/m2) - the saturation temperature of water is 170oC. More heat energy
is required to raise the temperature to the saturation point at 7 bar gauge than needed for water at
atmospheric pressure. From the table a value of 720.9 kJ is needed to raise 1 kg of water from 0 oC to
the saturation temperature 170oC.
The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed at 7 bar gauge to evaporate the water to steam is
actually less than the heat energy required at atmospheric pressure. The specific enthalpy of
evaporation decrease with steam pressure increase. The evaporation heat is 2,047 kJ/kg according
the table.
Note! Because the specific volume of steam decreases with increasing pressure, the amount of heat
energy transferred in the same volume actually increases with steam pressure. In other words the
same pipe may transfer more energy with high pressure steam than with low pressure steam.
3206.22) 705.40 - - - -
1) 2)
Atmospheric pressureis used for the table except for
2)
Critical Point - At 3206.2 psia and 705.40oF the vapor and liquid are indistinguishable. No change of
state occurs when pressure increases above the critical point or when heat is added. At the critical
point it is no longer referred to water or steam and it is not possible keep the water and steam apart.
NTP - Normal Temperature and Pressure - is defined as air at 20oC (293.15 K, 68oF) and 1 atm
( 101.325 kN/m2, 101.325 kPa, 14.7 psia, 0 psig, 30 in Hg, 760 torr)
Properties of gases
Critical Boiling
Critical pressure
temperature temperature
Substance
(psi)
(oF) (oC) (atm) (oF) (oC)
(lb/sq.in)
Carbon-monoxide
-222 -141 528 35.9 -310 -190
(CO)
Where
In general condensate lines are designed to handle start-up conditions where huge amounts of steam
condensate in cold pipes and heating equipment. As a rule of thumb the maximum condensate load is
often twice the maximum steam load during operation.
Within certain circumstances, especially in high pressure steam systems with heavy load heat
exchangers, the generated flash steam may be the limitation of the condensate lines.
where
wc = ws w% / 100 (2)
where
The flash steam generated depends on the initial and final pressure before and after the condensate
traps for the heat exchangers. In the example - calculating generated flash steam - 0.11 kg flash steam
is generated per kg condensate from a heat exchanger with 5 bar gauge pressure.
In other words 11% of the condensate is lost to the surroundings and must be replaced by feeding new
water to the system.
Feeding more water requires additional heating energy and additional water treatment, increasing the
total operating cost for the system.
To improve the systems efficiency, and reducing the operating cost, its common to limit the energy loss
by using some kind of low pressure flash recovery systems where flash steam condensates in low
temperature consumers - as heat exchangers for feeding water, air heaters and similar.
The amount of flash steam generated depend on the steam pressure - the pressure in the condensate
before it leaves the condensate trap - and the condensate pressure after the trap - the pressure in the
condensate return pipe lines.
The table below indicates the ratio of flash steam generated at different pressures before and after the
condensate trap:
0 0.0
1)
It is common to vent the condensate system to the atmosphere - where the gauge pressure is 0 bar.
1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m2) = 10.197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.9869 atm = 14.50 psi (lbf/in2)
A condensate system is vented to the surroundings and the pressure in the condensate system after
the condensate traps is 0 bar gauge. The absolute steam pressure before the condensate trap is 10
bar gauge.
According the table above 16.1% of the condensate will evaporate as flash steam after the trap.
Note! Without any flash recovery system the energy in the flash steam will be lost to the surroundings.
If the pressure of the condensate - the saturated water at the boiling point at the actual pressure - is
reduced, the heat energy in the water is reduced to a level appropriate to the final pressure. The
connection between the pressure and the boiling temperature can be found in the steam tables.
The energy - or enthalpy - made available when the pressure is reduced, will evaporate a part of the
water, producing the flash steam.
Only a part of the condensate water evaporates as flash steam. How much depends on the enthalpy in
the condensate at the initial and the final pressures.
The amount of flash steam produced during the pressure reduction can be expressed as:
Condensate is produced inside an heat exchanger at a pressure of 5 bar gauge (6 bar absolute). The
condensate containing 670.9 kJ/kg of heat energy at saturation temperature 159�C.
Steam table
The pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge (1 bar absolute) through the steam
trap and the maximum heat energy in water at atmospheric pressure and 100�C is 419.0 kJ/kg.
Boiler Efficiency is in general indicated by either Thermal Efficiency or Fuel to Fluid Efficiency
depending the context.
Boiler Efficiency
Boiler Efficiency related to the boilers energy output to the boilers energy input can be expressed as:
Boiler efficiency (%) = Heat exported by fluid (water, steam ..) / Heat provided by fuel x 100 (1)
For a fluid as water the heat exported by the boiler can be expressed as:
q = ( m / t ) cp dT (2)
where
q = Heat exported (kJ/s, kW)
For a steam boiler the heat supplied by evaporating the water at saturation temperature can be
expressed as:
q = ( m / t ) he (3)
where
he = evaporation energy in the steam at the pressure the boiler is running (kJ/kg)
The energy provided by fuel may be expressed in two ways 'Gross' or 'Net' calorific value.
Gross Calorific Value
This is the theoretical total of the energy in the fuel. The gross calorific value of the fuel includes the
energy used for evaporating the water in the combustion process. The flue gases from boilers are in
general not condensed. The actual amount of heat available to the boiler plant is therefore reduced.
Gross Calorific Values of some common Fuels
An accurate control of the amount of air is essential to the boiler efficiency. To much air will cool the
furnace and carry away useful heat. Too little air and the combustion will be incomplete. Unburned fuel
will be carried over and smoke may be produced.
Net calorific value
This is the calorific value of the fuel, excluding the energy in the water vapor discharged in the
combustion process to the stack. The combustion process can be expressed as:
[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]
where
C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
N = Nitrogen
To understand the basics of efficient boiler operation, the combustion process must be understood.
Stable combustion conditions requires the right amounts of fuels and oxygen. The combustion
products are heat energy, carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, and other gases (excluding oxygen).
In theory there is a specific amount of oxygen needed to completely burn a given amount of fuel. In
practice, burning conditions are never ideal.
Therefore, more air than ideal must be supplied to burn all fuel completely. The amount of air more
than the theoretical requirement is referred to as excess air.
Power plant boilers normally run about 10 to 20 percent excess air. Natural gas-fired boilers may run
as low as 5 percent excess air. Pulverized coal-fired boilers may run with 20 percent excess air. Gas
turbines run very lean with up to 300 percent excess air.
Typical values of excess air for some common fuels are shown in the table below:
Excess of Air
Fuel
(%)
Anthracite 40
Natural Gas 5 - 10
Coal, pulverized 15 - 20
Coal, stoker 20 - 30
To determine the excess air at which the combustion system will operate we have to start with the
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, known as the perfect, correct or ideal fuel ratio, the stoichiometric
combustion. During stoichiometric combustion there are a chemically correct mixing proportion
between the air and the fuel. During the stoichiometric combustion process no fuel or air are left over.
Process heating equipment almost never run stoichiometric. Even so-called "on-ratio" combustion,
used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces, incorporates a modest amount of excess air,
10 to 20% more than needed to burn the fuel completely.
If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unburned fuel, soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide
are exhausted from the boiler. The results is heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion
efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion. To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions,
boilers normally operate at an excess air level. This excess air level also provides protection from
insufficient oxygen conditions caused by variations in fuel composition and "operating slops" in the
fuel-air control system.
Stoichiometric or Theoretical Combustion is the ideal combustion process during which a fuel is
burned completely. A complete combustion is a process which burns all the carbon (C) to (CO 2), all
hydrogen (H) to (H2O) and all sulphur (S) to (SO2). If there are unburned components in the exhaust
gas such as C, H2, CO the combustion process is uncompleted.
[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]
where
C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
N = Nitrogen
To determine the percent excess air or excess fuel at which a combustion system operates, you
have to start with the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Also known as the perfect, correct or ideal fuel ratio,
the stoichiometric ratio is the chemically correct mixing proportion. When burned, it consumes all the
fuel and air without any excess of either left over.
Process heating equipment is rarely run that way, however. Even so-called "on-ratio" combustion,
used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces, usually incorporates a modest amount of
excess air -- about 10 to 20% beyond what is needed to burn the fuel completely.
If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unburned fuel, soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide
exhausts from the boiler. This results in heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion
efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion. To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions,
boilers normally operate at an excess air level. This excess air level also provides protection from
insufficient oxygen conditions caused by variations in fuel composition and "operating slops" in the
fuel-air control system. Typical optimum values of excess air levels are shown here for various fuels.
if the air content is higher than stoichiometric, the mixture is said to be fuel-lean
if the air content is less, the mixture is fuel-rich
The most common oxidizer is air. The chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of methane -
CH4 - with air can be expressed as
The chemical equation for methane burned with 25% excess air can be expressed as
CH4 + 1.25 x 2(O2 + 3.76 N2) -> CO2 + 2H2O + 0.5O2 + 9.4N2
Aproximate values for CO2 and O2 in the flue gas as result of excess air are estimated in the table
below:
0 12 14 15.5 18 20 0
40 9 10 12 13.5 14 5
60 8 9 10 12 12.5 7.5
80 7 8 9 11 11.5 9
100 6 6 8 9.5 10 10
The combustion efficiency can be estimated by measuring the content of carbon dioxide and the
temperature of the excess gas.The efficiency may be calculated by the formula:
where
ηc = combustion efficiency
The optimal content of carbon dioxide - CO2 - is approximately 10% for natural gas fuel and
approximately 13% for light oils.
Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50 percent by weight of carbonaceous
material, formed from compaction and indurations of variously altered plant remains similar to those in
peat.
After a considerable amount of time, heat, and burial pressure, it is metamorphosed from peat to
lignite. Lignite is considered to be "immature" coal at this stage of development because it is still
somewhat light in color and it remains soft.
Lignite increases in maturity by becoming darker and harder and is then classified as sub-bituminous
coal. After a continuous process of burial and alteration, chemical and physical changes occur until the
coal is classified as bituminous - dark and hard coal.
Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns long with a relatively long flame. If improperly fired
bituminous coal is characterized with excess smoke and soot.
Anthracite coal is the last classification, the ultimate maturation. Anthracite coal is very hard and
shiny.
Cooking steams
203 15.1 - 17.0
coals
Low volatile steam
coals
204 17.1 - 19.5
Prime cooking
301 19.6 - 32.0
coals
Medium volatile
305 19.6 - 32.0 coals
Mainly heat altered
coals
306 19.6 - 32.0
701 32.1
Weakly coking
coals
702 > 36.0
1)
Volatile matter - In coal, those products, exclusive of moisture, given off as gas and vapor
determined analytically.
Anthracite coal creates a steady and clean flame and is preferred for domestic heating. Furthermore it
burn longer with more heat than the other types
Combustion
Introduction
The notes below relate to the combustion process. Combustion is a rapid reaction between a fuel and oxygen that
produces heat (the chemical energy content of a fuel is converted to heat energy).
Note: I am using kmols (The molar volume is 22,414 m³/kmol at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa absolute pressure )
The equivalent mass fractions of air are 0,768N2 and 0,232 O2 per unit of air. These values are conveniently represented
as
Combustion Notes
When considering the combustion of fuels with air equations are used to determine the proportions of the various
chemicals involved. The fuels generally are composed of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur with other substances including
oxygen and ash. The carbon, hydrogen and sulphur combine with oxygen in the air and the nitrogen and other gases in
air are assumed to take no part in the combustion process.....
The proportion of air for complete combustion is called the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Normally an excess of air is
available and the mixture is weak or lean. When insufficient air is available for complete combustion the mixture is rich...
It is important to note that the total combustion of a fuel requires ideal conditions. The fuel must be intimately mixed with
the oxygen, the temperature must be appropriate, the ignition cannot start without a source of activation energy ( a spark,
or flame, or local high temperature). Once the ignition has commence the combustion will generally spread
spontaneously. For an car engine it may be desireable to have a rich mixture to allow for maximum power or at start up. A
boiler requires an excess or air to ensure complete combustion of the fuel for efficient operation....
Combustion Equations
The following typical equations are used to determine the combustion process
Carbon ...C + O 2 -> CO 2
Carbon ...2C + O 2 -> 2CO...Incomplete Combustion
Hydrogen ...2H 2C + O 2 -> 2H 2O
Sulphur ...S + O 2 -> SO 2
Reaction equations are generally based on volumes for gases and masses for liquids and solids. An reaction equation
can include the enthalpy change Δ H at the end of the equation eg
C H4 + 2 O 2 -> CO 2 + 2 H2 - Δ H
Theenthalpy term is negative if the reaction is exothermic and positive if the reaction is
endothermic.
There are three carbon atoms on the LHS and therefore y = 3. There are 8 Hydrogen atoms on the left hand
side ( H 8) and therefore z = 4 (4.H2) . The equation resulting is therefore
To determine x it is easily calculated that there are now 10 Oxygen atoms on the RHS (3 O 2 + 4 O) x is
therefore 5. The reaction equation is therefore .
C 3 H 8 +5 O 2 -> 3 C O 2 + 4 H 2 O..
Now considering the equations with respect to Air. For each volume of O2 there are 4,76 volumes of Air.
Therefore the stoichiometric ratio of for combustion of propane is 1 to 5.4,76 = 1:23.8 based on volume..
Table showing various substances involved in combustion with their Molecular Weights
Approx.
Substance Formula molecular
Weight
Benzene C 6H 6 78
Butane C 4H 10 -
Carbon C 12
Carbon
CO 28
Monoxide
Carbon
CO 2 44
Dioxide
Ethane C 2H 6 30
Ethanol C 2H 5OH 46
Ethene C 2H 4 28
Hydrogen H2 2
Methane CH 4 16
Nitrogen N2 28
Octane C 8H 18 114
Oxygen O2 32
Pentane C 5H 12 72
Propane C 3H 8 44
Propene C 3H 6 42
Sulphur S 32
Sulphur
SO 48
Monoxide
Sulphur
SO 2 64
Dioxide
Water H 2O 18