SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS

ON CONCRETE DAMS
STRUCTURES

Selmo Chapira Kuperman

selmo@desek.com.br
UNDERSTANDING THE SIZE OF BRAZIL

SURINAME

UK
Questions to be asked when checking the deterioration of a
concrete dam (apud USBR)
• When was the structure constructed?
• What are the properties of the concrete (to the extent known)?
• What construction equipment and methods were used and what
potential “defects” may have resulted from these methods?
• What are the environmental conditions and loading on the structure?
• What deterioration mechanisms (if any) may be acting on the
structure?
• Is the structure resisting these deterioration mechanisms?
• What is the rate of deterioration?
• What dam failure modes are being affected by this deterioration?

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MAJOR PROBLEMS
• DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE
Deterioration of concrete consists of a progressive reduction in
its properties which can ultimately prevent it from fulfilling its
purpose of use. It can reach the limit state.
• UPLIFT
Water pressure can impart the safety of a concrete dam whether
acting in the foundation or in the construction (lift) jonts

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TOPICS
1. ACCIDENTS
2. CONCRETE DEFICIENCIES
3. MECHANICAL PHYSICAL DETERIORATION
• Erosion / Abrasion / Cavitation
• Cracking
• Thermal cracking
4. CHEMICAL REACTIONS HARMFUL TO CONCRETE
• AAR
• DEF
• Leaching
5. LEAKS / SEEPAGE/ UPLIFT

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 CAUSES OF CONCRETE DETERIORATION
AGENTS: PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
• Accidental loading (eg. Emas) • Erosion
• Chemical reactions: • Abrasion
• Acid attack • Cavitation
• Attack by aggressive waters • Settlements and displacements
(including ettringite-ESA) • Shrinkage (plastic and drying)
• Alkali-silica reaction • Temperature variations
• Alkali-carbonate reaction  Internally generated
• Other types of chemical attacks  Externally generated
• Building mistakes • Fire
• Corrosion of embedded metals • Weathering (includes freezing and
• Design errors thawing)
• Inadequate structural design

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 SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE DAMS
(from TADS)

Location Type of Deficiencies Possible causes Possible corrective actions

CONCRETE DAM
Randon open, crumbly Seal the cracks; seal exposed
concrete along cracks, Alkali-aggregate reaction surfaces; initiate an immediate
silica gel and deeper study of the problem
Crest and faces
Tilting or movement of For extreme conditions: lower
reservoir level; restrict operation;
piers or other portions of Expansion of concrete extensively reconstruct or
structure demolish the dam

Redo the concrete, apply new

Several spalls over Differential movement at joints; concrete on the surface or
Faces
30 cm in diameter stress concentrations eventually shotcrete in case of
extensive damage

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 SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE DAMS
(from TADS)
Location Type of Deficiencies Possible causes Possible corrective actions
CONCRETE DAM (continued)
Exposed, rusted
reinforcing; cracked and Remove damaged concrete, clean
Buttress dam: Weathering; sulfate attack;
swollen concrete; steel, add new reinforcing, patch with
face slab or alkali-aggregate reaction;
excessive pitting or epoxy mortar or new concrete;
arched facing rusted reinforcing
spalling; noticeable partially reconstruct slab or block
leakage
Remove damaged concrete, clean
Exposed, rusted
steel, add new reinforcing, patch with
reinforcing, cracked and Weathering; sulfate attack;
Butresses epoxy mortar or new concrete;
swollen concrete, large alkali-aggregate reaction
partially reconstruct or strengthen and
spalls
brace buttresses
OUTLET WORKS
Chemical attack, erosion,
Generalized cracking; Repair and reconstruct damaged
Inside surface of cavitation, deformation due
spalling; air bubbles or lining, patch with concrete or epoxy
concrete lining to high loads from earth
holes mortar
embankments

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 SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE DAMS
(from TADS)

Location Type of Deficiencies Possible causes Possible corrective actions

SPILLWAYS
Initial construction with
poor concrete; high Repair and reconstruct damaged
Entrance Lining lost; scour lining, patch with epoxy mortar;
erosive forces;
channel floor undermining crest achor slope lining; provide
unbalanced hydraulic drainage; use anti-vortexing
and walls structure
pressure against slope structures to induce laminar flow
lining; vortexing
Initial construction with
Remove and replace damaged
Broken slabs, poor concrete; high
Control concrete, patch cracks and
undermining with erosivE forces; eroded areas with epoxy mortar;
section: floor
foundAtion exposed unbalanced hydraUlic anchor lining; provide drainage
pressure against slab

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 SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE DAMS
(from TADS)

Location Type of Deficiencies Possible causes Possible corrective actions

Control section: Poor concrete; alkali- Chip out or remove poor concrete,
Cracking and spaling,
píer and walls; aggregate reaction; patch with epoxy mortar, add air
exposed reinforcing vents
overflow crest cavitation
Control section:
Cavitation; attack by
píer nose or tail,
Pitting, scour, exposed chemicals in water; ice Clean or chip out concrete surface,
contact with patch with epoxy mortar, add air
aggregate and reinforcing erosion or erosion vents
floor slab or
from debris
overflow crest

Cavitation; due to
Rough patches; loss of irregularities or Chip out damaged concrete, patch
Discharge
concrete; exposed extremely rough with concrete or epoxy mortar, grind
channel smooth to gradually varying surface
reinforcing surface or erosion
from carried debris

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 SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE DAMS
(from TADS)
Location Type of Deficiencies Possible causes Possible corrective actions

Visible scour holes (more Remove the damaged concrete and all
Heavy debris not swept structures located in bucket, rebuild
Flip bucket (non- than 30 cm in diameter),
out of bucket during bucket concrete to specified finish;
submerged) blocks of broken concrete; prevent damaging objects from
operation
exposed reinforcing entering bucket

Adjust gate operation to improve

jump; remove boulders rolling into
Scour holes more than basin or bucket; increase
tailwater; raise floor or lip of basin
15 cm deep on the floor; Inadequate hydraulic
Stilling basin and or bucket; increase tailwater; ser
loss of floors slabs; jump formation; gravel
submerged roller floor or lip of basin or bucket.
exposed and damaged and boulders rolling
bucket Replace, or repair with silicon
reinforcing; boulders in into basin or bucket
fume fibrous cement, steel lining,
basin form linings, or high strength
concrete with abrasion resistant
aggregate

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TYPES OF CONCRETE DAMS (apud TADS)

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HPP LAJEADO – CONSTRUCTION PHASE

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 GRAVITY DAM
Typical section of a gravity block with static acting forces
(cf.Cifu)

Silting

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ARCH DAM – FUNIL HPP
Paraiba do Sul River

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BUTTRESS DAMS – Right Wing ITAIPU

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PROBLEMS ON CONCRETE DAMS (apud TADS)

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PROBLEMS ON CONCRETE DAMS (apud TADS)

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PROBLEMS ON CONCRETE DAMS (Ex: Malpasset)

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 The three major causes of dam failures
(ICOLD - International Commission of Large Dams)
• Overtopping due to floods (earth dams);
• Failures in foundation (mainly in concrete dams);
• “Regressive erosion" or “Piping" (earth dams)

Foundation

Overtopping Piping

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MAIN CAUSES OF FAILURES IN THE USA
(Fonte: National Performance of Dams Program)

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 ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS IN DAMS
SOME DAMS THAT COLLAPSED IN BRAZIL
PAMPULHA (MG) - Earth 1954

ORÓS (JAGUARIBE) - Earth 1960

EUCLIDES DA CUNHA (SP) - Earth 1977

LIMOEIRO (SP) - Earth 1977

POQUIM (NORDESTE) - Earth 1979

BOA ESPERANÇA (R. FURNAS) - Earth 1983

SANTA HELENA (BAHIA B. T.) – Concrete, Foundation 1985

EMAS (NORDESTE Laje V.) – Concrete, Overtoping 1995

MACACOS ( NORDESTE ) - Earth 1997

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 SOME DAMS THAT COLLAPSED IN BRAZIL
FERNANDINHO (MG-Tailings dam) 1985
PICO SÃO LUIZ (MG-Tailings dam) 1985
CATAGUAZES (MG-Tailings dam) 2003
CAMARÁ (PB - RCC) – Concrete, Foundation 2004
MIRAÍ (MG-Tailings dam) 2007
APERTADINHO (RO) - Concrete, Foundation (friable
sandstone) 2008
ESPORA (GO) - 2008
ALGODÕES (PI) – Concrete, Overtoping 2009

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PIPING IN US DAM

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FAILURE OF SANTA HELENA DAM

News from the "A Tarde" newspaper,

Friday, May 10, 1985: Santa Helena
floods the Jacuípe valley.

Before

After

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ALGODÃO DAM I - PI

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 CARLOS HENRIQUE MEDEIROS

ALGODÃO DAM I – PI
(May/2009)

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 (RO)

PCH APERTADINHO – RO
Jan/2008

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 PCH ESPORA / GO
Jan/2008
Isolated cities, flooded farms and caused environmental prejudices and
material damages to the population.

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 CAMARÁ DAM
Originally designed as an
embankment dam, DOWNSTREAM VIEW
switched to 48m high RCC
gravity dam after majority
of explorations were
completed.

Additional explorations for

RCC dam were not adequate

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Reservoir filled to
within 5 m of full pool CAMARÁ - PB
quickly in early 2004 Could the failure have been avoided?
due to heavy rains.
Filling continued
into June 2004.
Reports of material
carried by drain flows,
plugged drains, and
wet spot d/s toe left
abutment during this
time period.
Dam failed June 17,
2004

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CAMARÁ - PB

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 CAMARÁ DAM
(Photo: Hermínio Bernardo, Saulo Porto, Silas Porto)

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 CAMARÁ - PB
Consequences:
• 7 dead, 20 missing and 3300 homeless
• 810 homes destroyed or flooded.
• The cities of Alagoa Grande and Mulungu were without telephone
communication, without water supply and without electricity for 15
days
• In 2017 a Federal Court blamed the government of the State of
Paraiba, Brazil, for the accident .
• The dam was rebuilt

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 Teton Dam, EUA (1976)
Rexburg (80% destroyed in 1976) and situation in 2001

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INTERIOR OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION GALLERY

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INTERIOR OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION GALLERY

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INTERIOR OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION GALLERY

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INTERIOR OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION GALLERY

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INTERIOR OF CONCRETE OUTLET GALLERY

WATER IN THE RESERVOIR WITH > 600 ppm of NaCl

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 Organize and keep good
state of conservation all
information and
documentation of the design,
construction, operation,
maintenance and
deactivation.

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 DEFICIENCIES IN CONCRETE
The predisposition of the structure, or of one of its parts, to present deficiencies
in the concrete can originate during the design phase, construction or be
acquired in the phase of operation.

The deterioration phenomena that provoke the deficiencies in the concrete is

classified in three types:
• Physical-mechanical deterioration - related to the mechanical action of the
medium on the structure, such as differential settlement and erosion;
• Corrosion of concrete - related to physical and chemical action of the
medium on the structure, such as sulfate expansion and acid leaching;
• Corrosion of the reinforcement - related to electrochemical phenomena.

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 PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL DETERIORATION
EROSION
Erosion is the mechanical wear work carried out by the
water flow, or variation of the upstream water level.

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 ABRASION
Action of solid particles (clay, sand, gravel, debris, wood) loaded by
water, especially in regions subjected to high water velocity.

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ABRASION

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 CAVITATION
Rough surface with aggregates in sight, giving the appearance
of “honeycombs"; surface with numerous shallow holes
eventually showing that the aggregate was pulled.
Formation and subsequent collapse of micro vacuum bubbles
that produce shock waves on the surface of the structure and
destroying, initially by points, the continuity of the structure. The
repetition of this phenomenon produces several holes in the
surface of the structure, even in high quality concrete and,
depending on the magnitude, can cause the concrete to spall,
create holes, etc.

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CAVITATION

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CAVITATION (example: Ilha Solteira HPP)

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CAVITATION

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CAVITATION

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PHYSICAL-MECHANICAL DETERIORATION
CRACKING
It is inevitable that the concrete presents cracking.
Cracks can be caused by:
• Shrinkage of concrete;
• Corrosion of reinforcement;
• Excessive loading;
• Thermal variation of concrete;
• Alkali-aggregate reaction;
• Delayed ettringite formation;
• Sulphate attack.

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 TYPES OF CRACKING - HARDENED CONCRETE
CORRECTIVE ACTION
TYPES OF SECONDARY COMMON
PRIMARY CAUSE SYMPTOM (in all cases reduce the
CRACKING CAUSE LOCATION
restraint)
Excessive Parallel cracking Reduce the water content in
Drying
shrinkage; usually thinner if Slabs and thin the concrete and improve
shrinkage over Insufficient joints
unsatisfactory the concrete is walls curing process; decrease
time
curing reinforced joint spacing

Waterproof Form Coating layer

Straightening with Unsatisfactory Crocodile skin Improve curing and
Random spoon or excessive curing cracks Slabs finishing process
use of concrete
planner
Cracking along the Columns and
Insufficient cover; bars, initially thin, beams;
Corrosion of Low quality
excess of calcium grows with time and concrete Eliminate the causes
reinforcement concrete
chloride causes displacement subject to
of concrete chloride action

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 TYPES OF CRACKING - HARDENED CONCRETE
CORRECTIVE ACTION
TYPES OF SECONDARY COMMON
PRIMARY CAUSE SYMPTOM (in all cases reduce the
CRACKING CAUSE LOCATION
restriction)

Alkali-
Reactive aggregates plus high Crocodile skin To eliminate the causes
aggregate Humid places
alkali cement cracks use pozzolanic material
reaction

Loads larger than the structure can Generally small

withstand; extreme loading cracking opening.
Proper design,
Structural conditions; inadequate design; Opening tends to
construction and operation
constructive problems; weakness increase due to
of materials loading and creep

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 TYPES OF CRACKING - HARDENED CONCRETE
CORRECTIVE ACTION
TYPES OF SECONDARY COMMON
PRIMARY CAUSE SYMPTOM (in all cases reduce the
CRACKING CAUSE LOCATION
restraint)

Structures in
Crocodile skin Use suitable concrete;
contact with
Sulphate action Expansion due to ettringite cracks provide structure
water / sulfate
protection
soil

Excessive heat
generation Parallel cracking is
Early thermal usually thinner if Mass concrete
Fast cooling Reduce heat or insolation
shrinkage Excessive the concrete is and thick parts
temperature reinforced
gradient

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CRACKING AND LEAKAGE AT DAM (in São Paulo, Brazil)

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 CONCRETE SHRINKAGE
• Plastic Shrinkage
It occurs by the loss of water from concrete through bleeding in its
fresh state. This process is accelerated by the exposure of its
surface to inclement weather such as wind, low relative humidity
and increased ambient temperature.
The measures necessary to reduce evaporation of water on the
concrete surface are:
• Decrease concrete temperature on hot days;
• Reduce wind speed on concrete surface;
• Keep concrete’s moisture.
This type of crack appears in a distributed form and cuts off each
other.

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 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
It occurs with the concrete already in the hardened state.

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 CONCRETE SHRINKAGE
• Chemical or autogenous shrinkage
It occurs due to the reduction of volume from the moment of
hydration, because the products are generated according to
volume that begins hydration, as they are responsible for the
hydration.
The chemically combined water (22 to 32%) undergoes a
contraction of 25% of its original volume. This type of shrinkage is
proportional to cement consumption per cubic meter of concrete
and to the amount of water stoichiometrically required for cement
hydration.

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 CONCRETE LEACHING
The leaching corrosion consists of progressive dissolution of the
compounds of hardened cement paste by aggressive substances.
Easily soluble compounds can be washed from the concrete or
cement paste by continuous access of the water, and loss of the
material is verified.

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 CONCRETE LEACHING
The main leaching agents are:
• Acidic substances (eg sulfuric acid, sulphurous acid, carbonic
acid, humic acid, acid rain or condensation water from
industrial processes);
• Alkaline substances (eg caustic soda);
• Pure or low salt waters (rainwater, groundwater of great
depths, marshy waters few salinas.);
• Fungi and bacteria.

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 CONCRETE LEACHING
• Up to 20% loss of Ca (OH2) the strength decreases a little
• Itaipu case
• Jordao River Dam Case

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 THERMAL CRACKING
The occurrence of thermal cracking is directly related to volumetric
variations that occur in the concrete, due to the heat generated by
the hydration of the cement and to the restraint that exists
They are related to the leakage of water that occur in galleries,
downstream faces among other places.

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SCHEME OF CONCRETE BLOCK SUBMITTED TO
THERMAL VARIATIONS

T1

T 2 > T1

T3 < T2

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 CONCEPT OF MASS CONCRETE
fck=25MPa → fct=2,5MPa (~10% fck)
Ambient Temperature (AT) = 25°C
E=20.000MPa (modulus of elasticity)
=10-5/°C (coefficioent of thrmal expansion)
Cement content =250kg/m³
Thermal efficiency =0,10°C/kg/m³
Restraint (R) = 1,0
Creep (f) = 1,0
Factor of Safety = 1,0

Rough calculation of thermal stresses :

=E. .Δt.R.f.FS

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 CONCEPT OF MASS CONCRETE
→Hipothesis A T (ºC)

Placement temperature=30°C
Δt=Tmáx - AT
Delta T =55-25=30°C
=20.000x10-5x30x1x1 30ºC

= 6MPa 20ºC

10ºC
TL3= 10°C
→Hipothesis B
Compression TIME
Placement temperature=10°C
Δt=Tmáx - AT Tension
TA=35-25=10°C
=20.000x10-5x10x1x1
CRACK
=2MPa

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THERMAL CRAKING IN BRAZILIAN CONSTRUCTIONS

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THERMAL CRAKING IN CCR DAMS – BRAZIL
Downstream step

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THERMAL CRAKING AT BRAZILIAN DAM

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GALESVILLE DAM (USA)

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GALESVILLE DAM (USA)

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UPPER STILLWATER DAM (USA)

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UPPER STILLWATER DAM (USA)

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TUCURUÍ HPP
Height = 95m
Concrete volume = ~ 8.000.000 m3
Placement temperature (1st phase 1981) = 14ºC to 16ºC
Placement temperature (2nd phase 2006) = 23ºC to 27ºC
TUCURUI HPP SPILLWAY

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 TO DO OR NOT TO DO A THERMAL STUDY:
THAT IS THE QUESTION!

Main justifications for not doing a thermal study:

• Why?
• Expensive (1°C increase in the concrete placement temperature can
pay the calculation)
• Slow
• Not very specific
• Avoid "problems" (cooling, etc.)
• Avoid unnecessary expenses

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 MAIN GOALS OF A THERMAL STRESSES STUDY
Determine:
• Avoid thermal cracking and delayed ettringite formation (DEF)
• Spacing of concrete joints;
• Height and placement interval between lifts;
• Removal time of the formwork;
• Concrete placement temperature;
• Cooling methodology:
• Precooling
• Post-cooling

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 FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL CONDITIONS IN
CONCRETE
1. Climate conditions
• Placement temperature
• Exposure conditions during
construction
• Exposure conditions during
operation
• Final stabilization
temperature
• Seasonal temperature
variation
2. Concrete properties
• Cement
• Pozzolanic materials
• Aggregates
• Thermal properties of
concretes
• Elasto-mechanical
characteristics of concrete
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 FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL CONDITIONS IN
CONCRETE
3. Design and construction 4. Construction speed
• Section dimensions and • Lift height
shape • Concrete Intervals
• Contraction joints • Placement temperature
• Type of formwork / removal • Seasonal limitations
• Type of curing 5. Restraint (internal and
• Cooling external)
• Sun protection • Foundations
• Structural design • Walls
• Temperature differentials

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 NECESSARY INFORMATION ABOUT CONCRETE
• Adiabatic temperature rise
• Coefficient of linear thermal expansion
• Specific heat
• Thermal diffusivity
• Strain capacity
• Tensile strength
• Modulus of elasticity and Poisson's coefficient
• Creep

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 THERMAL CRACKING
• Cracks due to thermal stresses appears at lifts close to
structures with high modulus of elasticity, such as a foundation
or an old concrete.

Restraint coefficients for infinitely

rigid foundation
ACI 207/ (MEHTA & MONTEIRO, 1994)

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 THERMAL CRACKING
The cracks caused by the restraint tend to propagate to the top of the
structure.

Thermal cracking influenced by the restraint of the foundation

In thermal studies it is important to consider that measures taken to control

cracking in the structure must be performed in a way that is considered the
most critical regions. It should be considered that the restraint vary
throughout the structure and the determination of a limit of temperature is
most needed in places where the restraint is greater.

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 THERMAL CRACKING
The heat of hydration is directly influenced by:
• Type of cement;
• Cement content;
• Fineness of the cement.

The effect that causes greater cracking is thermal shrinkage.

However, the thermal expansion of the concrete can cause
cracking by lifting when adequately spaced expansion joints are
not available, which can lead to concrete fragmentation.

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 THERMAL CRACKING
The cracking tendency is minimized when:
• The difference between the peak temperature of the concrete
and the ambient temperature is small;
• The concrete’s coefficient of thermal expansion, modulus of
elasticity and degree of constraint are low;
• The strength of the concrete is high.

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 THERMAL CRACKING
Thermal cracking damage can impair the durability and safety of
the structures, as they allow the ingress of aggressive agents and
the leakage of water through them.

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 THERMAL STUDIES
Thermal studies are important to avoid cracking of concrete
structures and through them it is possible to determine the best
construction methods.

It is important to know that the cost of cooling and other controls

to prevent cracks in the structures are always less than the cost
to repair them. On the other hand the cost of cooling and other
controls done without necessity are also very expensive.

Therefore, in order to guarantee the durability and safety of dams,

with lower cost and time, it is important to conduct thermal
studies.

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 THERMAL STUDIES
Temperature changes are not exact due to variations in the
thermal properties of the concrete and ambient conditions, but it
can be said that the temperatures obtained through the thermal
studies are relatively accurate, as can be seen in the comparison
between the values obtained in the calculations and the values
measured through thermometers at the construction.

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 THERMAL STUDIES
Evolução das Temperaturas

60

55 Simulation

50
Measured
45
Temperatura(°C)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (days)
Tempo(dias)

Ponto em estudo Temperatura do ponto em estudo medida em obra

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 SOFTWARE - FEM
Finite element meshes generated through B4cast software.

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 EXAMPLES- FEM
The results obtained through the B4Cast software can be shown
in the three directions (x, y and z).

Seção x Seção y Seção z

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 PRODUCT = TEMPERATURES AND STRESSESS
The software allows to obtain the evolution of temperatures and
stresses as a function of time and hence reach the best method
of construction.
Temperatures evolution

Time (hours)
Lift

Evolution of temperatures for different lifts thicknesses

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 PRODUCT = TEMPERATURES AND STRESSESS
Example of the evolution of stresses at three critical points of
study. Having the compressive strength and the tensile strength
of the concrete it is possible to verify the possibility of cracking at
the structure.

Tensile strength

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 PRODUCT = INSTANTANEOUS CRACKING
In this example it is possible to check the moment when cracking
occurs.

Crack

Tensile strength

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY OF
A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
(Presented at PCH 2010 - CBDB)
Eduardo I. Funahashi Jr and Selmo Kuperman, DESEK

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY OF A
SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
SPILLWAY

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY OF A
SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
INSPECTION

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 PARAMETERS AVAILABLE FOR SIMULATION OF THE SPILLWAY

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN (kg/m3)

Composition Class I (15 MPa/90d) Class II (20MPa/90d)
Sand 728 735
Gravel 1300 1190
Cement 260 350
Water 179 184
Density 2467 2459
High early strength cement !!
Large and small aggregates of basaltic origin

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 THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY OF A SMALL
HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT

ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE RISE OF THE CONCRETE

Elevação Adiabática

70

65
63,6ºC
60

55

47,5ºC
50
Temperatura (°C)

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

Tempo (horas)

Classe I Classe II

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY OF A
SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
PLACEMENT CONDITIONS
Plac Int =3 days Wind velocity=5m/s Wood forms
Plac.temp=32°C AT= 25°C Curing with water

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
FINITE ELEMENTS MESH – (SOFTWARE-B4CAST)

Galley

Foundation

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT

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THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Evolução das Temperaturas
Evolution of temperatures
70
65 Peak
60
55
(°C)(°C)

50
45
Temperature

40
Temperatura

35
30
25
20
PT=32°C
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

Time
Tempo(days)
(dias)

C-III(1,15m) C-IV(2,75m) C-V(4,25m) C-VI(5,85m)

dw2018 | 105
 THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Influence of placement Evolução das Temperaturas
on upper lifts Evolution of temperatures
70
65
60
55
Stresses (MPa)

50
PT=32°C
(°C)

45
40
Temperatura

35
30
25
20
Placement
15 Interval
10
Curing
5 Period of 3 days
0
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
Tempo (dias)
Time (days)
C-III(1,15m) C-IV(2,75m) C-V(4,25m) C-VI(5,85m)

dw2018 | 106
THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
ANALYSIS
Possibility of Cracking
EvolutionOF RESULTS
of temperatures
Stresses (MPa)

Time (days)

dw2018 | 107
 THERMAL STRESSESS STUDY OF A SPILLWAY
OF A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWERPLANT
CONCLUSIONS

Simulations of thermal stresses showed that the possibility of

cracking in the C-IV, C-V and C-VI layers for the spillway block
was great, a fact evidenced by the thermal cracks when
inspecting the spillway;

In order to avoid the occurrence of thermal cracks, it would be

necessary to reduce the maximum temperature to be reached by
the concrete, in case of massive structures such as the spillway.

dw2018 | 108
 THERMAL STUDIES
The galleries have a significant dissipation effect. The galleries
are essential for heat dissipation in concrete structures.

dw2018 | 109
 THERMAL STUDIES
Zoning of concrete placement temperatures.

dw2018 | 110
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS DAMAGING CONCRETE
• Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (RAA)

• Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

• Attacks from the reservoir (leaching, sulfate, etc.)

dw2018 | 111
AAR OFFICIALLY DISCLOSED IN BRAZILIAN DAMS AND
OTHER STRUCTURES
• 1920 • 1950
Ilha dos Pombos Sá Carvalho
• 1930 Mascarenhas de Moraes
Billings-Pedras Paulo Afonso I
Jurupará Pirapora
Pedro Beicht Ribeirao do Campo
Salto do Meio • 1960
• 1940 Furnas
Peti Paulo Afonso II
Traição Pedras

dw2018 | 112
RAA OFFICIALLY DISCLOSED IN BRAZILIAN DAMS AND
OTHER STRUCTURES
• 1970 TA-6 (Cantareira )
Atibainha Tapacurá
Cascata • 1980
Jaguara Bridges
Jaguari (CESP) • 1990 to 2018
Jaguari (SABESP) Foundations of buildings, subways,
Joanes II flyovers, precast elements
Moxotó
Porto Colombia
Paiva Castro
Paulo Afonso III
Paulo Afonso IV

dw2018 | 113
 SOME RECENT BRAZILIAN CASES
JJJ

Building 9 years old (2008) - ASR Building where construction stopped – ASR + DEF - 2009

cockroach

Building 21 years old – ASR (2005) ASR in building, found in 2012

dw2018 | 114
BUILDING WITH AAR + DEF IN BRAZIL - 2011

dw2018 | 115
 TYPES OF ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION
• Alkali-Silica (ASR) reaction: better known and occurs faster
(The old Alkali-Silicate Reactivity was incorporated into ASR)

• Alkali-Carbonate reaction (ACR) : alkalis attack carbonate

dolomite by turning it into brucite ("desdolomitization"), with
weakening of the paste-aggregate bond

dw2018 | 116
MECHANISM OF THE ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (RAS)

Tetrahedron of
silica

Estrutura ordenada e Estrutura desordenada

Disorganized e
and poorly
Orderly and well
bem cristalizada mal cristalizada
crystallized structure crystallized structure

Atomic arrangement of silica group minerals with ordered structure and well
crystallized, with disordered and poorly crystallized structure (Collins, 2007)

dw2018 | 117
MECHANISM OF THE ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (ASR)

Aggregate grain in contact with pore The surface of the aggregate is

solution with reactive phase due to attacked by OH¯ ions that break
disordered crystal structure (Collins, the Si-O-Si bond to form silanol
2007) groups (Collins, 2007)

dw2018 | 118
MECHANISM OF THE ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (ASR)

Silanol groups (Si-OH) are disrupted by SiO- ions released are attracted by the alkaline
OH- ions in ions of SiO-, on the surface solutions of the pores, forming alkali silicate gel
of the aggregate (Collins, 2007) around the aggregate. Si-OH + Na + + OH¯ → Si + O
+ Na + H2O (Collins, 2007)

Gel of the reaction product shows in the gallery - Furnas,

Brazil (HASPARYK, DAL MOLIN, MONTEIRO, 2006)

dw2018 | 119
MECHANISM OF THE ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (RAS)
Large aggregates with RAA in the
aggregate interface/cement matrix
(Pecchio et al., 2006). Apud
Munhoz

Reaction edge.
Stereoscopic microscope.
Magnification 9x (ABCP
Collection). Apud Munhoz.

The alkaline gel, when absorbing

water, expands, exerting
Gel (arrow) in the contour Gel
osmotic pressure on cement of the large aggregate.
paste or aggregate (Collins, Aggregate
Transmitted light
2007) microscope. Enlargement
100x (ABCP Collection) - PastE
Apud Munhoz

dw2018 | 120
MECHANISM OF THE ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (RAS)

Couto - 2008

dw2018 | 121
 MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING ASR
Main Factors
• Reactive silica
• Alkalies
• Moisture
Other Factors
• Temperature
• Compressive stresses
• Mineralogical variations of reactive aggregates
• Dimensions and distribution of reactive aggregates
• Alkali migration of concrete pore solution
• Cement paste strength and toughness

dw2018 | 122
 AAR - FACTORS

Influence of cement fineness Influence of the amount of alkalies

(from IBRACON-Hasparyk 2011)

dw2018 | 123
 AAR - FACTORS

Influence of temperature Influence of humidity

(from IBRACON-Hasparyk 2011)

dw2018 | 124
HIWASSEE HPP (TVA + Hatch – Dodson & Curtis)

dw2018 | 125
HIWASSEE HPP (TVA + Hatch – Dodson & Curtis)

dw2018 | 126
ALTO CEIRA DAM (Portugal)
Source: Antonio Batista

dw2018 | 127
 ALTO CEIRA DAM (Portugal)
New construction and demolition of the old dam due to ASR (2013)

dw2018 | 128
CHICKAMAUGA HPP AND SLUICE GATE
(Source: TVA, ICOLD Workshop, Aug 2013 – Niznik & Curtis)

Before 2005 2012

dw2018 | 129
CHICKAMAUGA HPP AND SLUICE GATE
(Source: TVA, ICOLD Workshop, Aug 2013 – Niznik & Curtis)

dw2018 | 130
CHICKAMAUGA HPP AND SLUICE GATE
(Source: TVA, ICOLD Workshop, Aug 2013 – Niznik & Curtis)
1943 Surface cracking developed in the lock junction portion of the lock.

1955 Extensive pattern cracking was observed.

1962 Concrete growth was identified at the powerhouse.

1964 Significant cracks were found in the upper river approach wall and supporting piers.

1965 Three slots were cut in the upper river approach wall to relieve stress from upstream expansion and to allow for future
expansion. Supporting piers for blocks 27 and 28 were post-tensioned to restore structural integrity.

1977 The expansion slots in the upper approach wall were found to have closed due to continued expansion of the lock.
Considerable diagonal cracking was discovered in the concrete piers between the discharge ports in the lower riverwall. A
significant crack was observed in the end block of the lower river approach wall.

1977/78 The crack in the lower approach wall was grouted and post-tensioned. A slot was cut in the lower approach wall to
isolate it from the lock.

1979-1980 The existing slots in the upper approach wall were re-cut and an additional slot was added. Post-tensioned
reinforcement was added to piers 29, 30, 31, and 32.

1980 A diving inspection found that the diagonal cracking in the piers between the discharge ports had worsened.

19811982 Five-inch steel bars were installed in the piers by grouting them into drilled holes.

dw2018 | 131
CHICKAMAUGA HPP AND SLUICE GATE
(Source: TVA, ICOLD Workshop, Aug 2013 – Niznik & Curtis)
1983 Horizontal cracks at similar elevations to cracks that were observed in the cable tunnel were found during the unwatering inspection.
Overcore drilling was performed in the unwatered lock chamber at monolith blocks 41 and 46 to determine the stress in the lower portions
of the blocks.

1984 A horizontal crack in the culvert roof showed significant deterioration. Horizontal and vertical post-tensioning with high-strength bars
and tendons was completed as an emergency repair.

1995 The lower landwall gate hinge assembly almost failed because vertical growth in the landwall monolith caused the hinge pin to nearly
pull from the gate. An unscheduled lock closure was held while repairs were completed.

1995-2000 Blocks 8-26 and 33-48A were post-tensioned.

1995 Upper approach wall slots 3 and 4 were recut, and all four keys in the upper slots were removed and replaced. The lower approach
wall slot was also recut.

1999 Install piezometers along landwall earth fill. Obtain and performed shear tests on concrete samples.

2000 Installed pendulums in gate monoliths and Highway Bridge support monoliths. Rehab existing pendulum in dam junction block.

2001 A diving inspection noted increased damage around the discharge ports at the lower riverwall with spalling of the existing cracks.
Overcore testing in 6 monoliths.

2003 Flooding in May covered the lower approach walls. After the flood water receded, a 1- inch transverse offset was observed in the
lower approach wall slot. Realigned mooring bit tracks.

dw2018 | 132
CHICKAMAUGA HPP AND SLUICE GATE
(Source: TVA, ICOLD Workshop, Aug 2013 – Niznik & Curtis)

2004 Overcore drilling from the unwatered lock floor was completed in blocks 13 and 46.
Results were compared to the 1983 tests to determine increases in stress in the lower portions of the blocks.

2005 Lower portion of downstream approach wall removed for construction of new lock.
Finite element analysis of embedded miter gate anchorages.

2007 Upstream approach wall shear keys readjusted.

2008 Horizontal post-tensioning installed in lower riverwall gate block.

2009 Lower riverwall gate anchorage replaced.

2010 Install vertical replacement post-tensioning in upstream guide wall and horizontal post- tensioning between valve & bulkhead
slots. Grout placed in cable tunnel near upper sill and on the landwall upper and lower valve pits.

2011 Lower landwall gate anchorage replaced. Reinforced horizontal joints in upper guide wall. Installed 10 Shape Array Accelerators
and performed shear tests on concrete samples.

2012 Replace/adjust quion block gaps on downstream gate monoliths. Rehab lower riverwall discharge ports.

dw2018 | 133
FONTANA DAM - USA

dw2018 | 134
 ASR RETARDING AND MITIGATING ACTIONS
• Retarding Actions
• Drainage (Billings)
• Impediment of moisture ingress with surface treatments: membranes,
sealants, impregnants, penetrating

• Reinforcement and structural intervention

• Expansion restraints(prestressing, confinement), stresses release (cutting
of joints and sections) – (Moxoto, Fontana, etc)

• Total demolition or partial reconstruction (Alto Ceira, Drum Afterbay, etc)

dw2018 | 135
 MOXOTO HPP

Construction = 1972-1977 / Max flow = 28.000m³/s

20 tainter gates / 4 Kaplan units = 400MW
ASTM C 289 + ASTM C 227 + petrographic analysis showed no signs of AAR
Aggregate = biotite hornblend granite
Cement content = 350kg/m³, fck = 21 MPa/28d, alkalies > 1,0%
Severe cracking + displacements + turbine movements
1984 = Mielenz detects AAR / 1988 to 1992 = 3 joint cutting / joints closed after 9
years
Rate of expansion decreased from 80 μstrain/yr to 50 μstrain/yr

dw2018 | 136
 MOXOTO HPP
Movement direction (55o)

Mathematical modelling
Before After
1984 = SAP IV
Relative position between the 1986 = SAP 90
turbine runner and the discharge 2002 = ANSYS
ring
Sources: Cavalcanti
and Silva (CHESF)

dw2018 | 137
MOXOTO HPP: EXAMPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION

Alongameter base

Plumbline

Triortogonal joint meter (remote readings)

dw2018 | 138
BEHAVIOUR OF THE WATER INTAKE OF JAGUARI
HYDROPOWERPLANT AFFECTED BY ALKALI-
AGGREGATE REACTION
Flavio M. Salles, Julio C. Pínfari, Camilo Mizumoto CESP-
Companhia Energetica de Sao Paulo
flavio.salles@cesp.com.br
Selmo C. Kuperman
DESEK
selmo@desek.com.br

dw2018 | 139
 WATER INTAKE

SPILLWAY

POWERHOUSE

• Installed Capacity = 27.5 MW • First cracks, leaks = early 80’s

(2 Francis) • First maintenance = 1985
• Height = 63 m • First important cracks = 2000
• Crest Length = 623 m • AAR diagnosis = 2003
• Spillway Max. Discharge Capacity = 415 m3/s • R & D program = 2007
• 1st phase = 2007-2010 (lab tests +
• Reservoir = 56km2
instrumentation)
• Operation started 1973
• 2nd phase = 2011-2013

dw2018 | 140
 JAGUARI HPP

SPILLWAY

EARTH DAM

WATER INTAKE POWERHOUSE

dw2018 | 141
Water intake during construction Water intake in 2009

Slab in 2008

dw2018 | 142
 MONITORING
• Rod extensometers (3 rods)
• Triortogonal crack meters (7)
• Cracks openings (24)
• Laser sensor (1)
• LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) (1)
• Geodetic surveys

dw2018 | 143
ROD EXTENSOMETERS

dw2018 | 144
 TRIORTOGONAL CRACK METERS

2000 2010

Water intake during construction

Cracked slab and top of wall

2008

dw2018 | 145
EXAMPLE OF INSTRUMENTATION OF ONE PILLAR

dw2018 | 146
 PEDRA HPP

Location = Contas river, Jequie, Bahia State

Construction: = 1964-1968 / Height = 60m; Length = 408m / Type = Buttress
Francis turbine 48MW
Aggregates: Gneiss (with strained quartz); cement probably similar to ASTM Type I.
Problems: operational problems to tainter gates on the left side due to lateral thrust
on the end pillars of the spillway, map cracking, etc
Laboratory tests: petrographic analysis (complete with SEM)

dw2018 | 147
 PEDRA HPP
Analysis: mathematical model (FEM) – ANSYS
Probable rate of expansion = 38x10-6/year

Source: Cavalcanti, Tristão, Santos, Silva - 2011

dw2018 | 148
 PEDRA HPP
Slot cutting for expansion joints (4 slots)
Sealing the expansion joints with geomembrane

Carpi
geomembrane
sealing the
expansion joint
Source: Cavalcanti, Tristão, Santos, Silva - 2011

dw2018 | 149
 PEDRA HPP
Instrumentation: 5 direct plumblines, 7 rod extensometers, 4 water
flowmeters, 31 triorthogonal crack meters, 16 alongameter bases,
12 reference marks

Reference marks

Triortogonal
crack meter Direct plumbline

Direct plumbline

Rod
extensometers

dw2018 | 150
 FURNAS HPP
Beginning of construction: 1958
Conclusion / Beginning of operation:
DAM: 1963; Stage 1: 1965; Stage 2: 1974
1st signs AAR: 1976 (with 13 years)

Aggregate: Quartzite

Grande River – Alpinópolis

Air view of HPP MG -
BRAZIL
dw2018 | 151
 Problems related to AAR
• Cracks at the top of the spillway columns, in the
anchorage blocks of water conduits and in the
powerhouse.
• Unleveling between the central wall and adjacent blocks.
• Turbine # 6: bottom stationary wearing ring found to be
out of round; all 20 wicket-gate stems were found to be
out of the vertical plumb line.
• Concrete tests
• Petrographic analysis, compressive and tensile
strengths, modulus of elasticity, flexural strength,
chemical analysis of concrete and aggregates, mix
design reconstitution, ultrasonic pulse, etc Lateral view of a
column from
Spillway
(FURNAS, 1997)

dw2018 | 152
 Procedures
• Monitoring: first-order leveling line and planimetric trilateration
network, vibrating wire strain gages, triorthogonal crack
meters, rod extensometers, piezometers.
• Visual inspections.
• Repairs on cracked areas (use of high-performance mortar
and polypropylene fiber in spillway).
• Adjustments in the wear ring.
• Simulation with tridimensional FEM model RAS3D (software
from COPPE/UFRJ-FURNAS)
• Rates of expansion: 22x10-6/yr (1976) and 8x10-6/yr (1995).

dw2018 | 153
 Billings-Pedras Dam Operation
Start = 1937 / Discovery ASR = 1992 / Containment difficulties = 1996

dw2018 | 154
 BILLINGS PEDRAS DAM
• Aggregates = gneiss
• Cement = similar to ASTM Type I
• Petrographic analysis confirmed AAR
• FEM simulations in 1992
• Monitoring: triorthogonal crack meters, rod extensometers,
convergence meters, reference marks
• Repairs:
• 1996
• 2002
• 2007

dw2018 | 155
 ASR RETARDER AND MITIGATING ACTIONS
Drainage
Water

Billings Dam (Brazil) Billings Dam (Brazil) Crista

Crista – Before - After (2007)
(2004)

dw2018 | 156
 ASR RETARDER AND MITIGATING ACTIONS
Waterproofing

Billings Dam (Brasil) Billings Dam (Brasil)

Downstream face – Before Downstream face - After
(2004) (2007)

dw2018 | 157
 ASR – BRAZILIAN CASES
Water Intake (TA-6-Sabesp)

dw2018 | 158
 ALCALI-AGGREGATE REACTION (AAR)
• Concept
• Factors that affect AAR
• Prevention and neutralization / utility of NBR 15577
• Methods of testing
• Delaying and mitigating actions (foundations, decks, guard
rails)
• Detection and control
• Historical cases: power plants, foundations (bridges, towers,
buildings, sluice)
• Future (research and events)

dw2018 | 159
 EVIDENCE OF AAR OCCURRENCE
• Non-oriented cracking pattern, in simple concrete;
• Elongated and oriented cracks in reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete;
• Efflorescence and gel exudation;
• Deterioration of concrete;
• Concrete shifts;
• Misalignment and deformations of metallic structures.

dw2018 | 160
 PREVENTION AND NEUTRALIZATION OF RAS -
BRAZILIAN PRACTICE
• 1960 - First studies = Jupiá Hydroelectric Plant, CESP
• Beginning of the use of artificial pozzolans and fly ash to neutralize ASR in
dams and other structures
• Late 1970s = use of pozzolanic and blast furnace cements to neutralize RAS
• Late 1980s = use of active silica
• Early 2000 = metacaulim use
• 2005 = RAS in foundation blocks in the city of Recife
• 2008 = Brazilian Standard NBR 15577 "Aggregates - Alkali-Aggregate
Reactivity"
• 2010 = use of rice husk ash (??)
• 2014 = Brazilian standard revision = IBRACON committee
• 2018 = approval of the complete revision of the standard NBR 15577
• Structures that did not use preventive measures have ASR

dw2018 | 161
 IMPORTANT ASPECTS:
• A risk analysis must be performed by the engineer
before accepting the type of aggregate or the
concrete produced with this aggregate (the
engineer is responsible for this decision);
• Potentially reactive aggregates can be used in any
work, provided that AAR mitigating measures are
employed;
• Every quarry must perform AAR tests: every 6
months or after producing 150,000 m³ of
aggregates; petrographic analyzes and physical
tests should be performed.
• About 85% of the aggregates used for conventional
concrete in Brazil are granites, 10% are limestone
and 5% correspond to other lithologies (apud
Sbrighi-ANEPAC)

dw2018 | 162
SOME TESTS OF AAR CARRIED OUT IN THE
LABORATORY OF CESP- ILHA SOLTEIRA

Fotos fornecidas por

Flavio Salles (CESP)

dw2018 | 163
 IMPORTANT ASPECTS:
• 1997 - "I Symposium on alkali-aggregate
reactivity in concrete structures", CBGB-
FURNAS-IBRACON, Goiânia, Brazil
• 2006 - "II Symposium on alkali-aggregate
reaction in concrete structures", IBRACON-
CBGB-FURNAS, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• Several workshops, symposia, lectures,
publications, courses
• 2014 to 2018 - IBRACON Committee -
Review Standards and publication Best
Practices
• 2017: IPT Symposium, São Paulo

dw2018 | 164
 15th ICAAR - São Paulo, 2016
• More than 200 papers were received from
participants from 21 countries. This work
was submitted to an International Board of
Reviewers, with 129 chosen, 103 for oral
presentation and 26 for presentation in
poster session. The event counted on 196
registered participants, being 80%
foreigners, coming from 21 countries,
among them some of the best experts in
AAR. In addition to the oral sessions and
poster sessions, 6 thematic lectures and a
technical visit were held.

dw2018 | 165
DETECTION OF ASR IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• Carry out field inspections and tests
• Extract samples from concrete - petrographic evaluation with
emphasis on RAS
• Conduct investigations in the laboratory (E, fc)
• Will expansions continue to occur?
• Assess the situation - consult the project
• Structure Monitoring - Expansion Rate
• Assess the risks involved, if the AAR has continuity

dw2018 | 166
 IDENTIFICATION OF ASR IN THE FIELD -
CHEMICAL CONTRAST METHODS
• Uranyl acetate + UV (SHRP
method - Photo Spectroline, USA)

• Sodium Cobaltonitrite + Rhodamine

(Los Alamos Method - Photo CESP,
Brazil)

dw2018 | 167
Field research Sampling Petrographic analysis

Diagnosis: No
Are the damages or anomalies due to AAR?

Yes Find another

mechanism
Test specimens in the
laboratory

Yes Prognosis: Will expansions due to No

AAR continue to occur?

Field monitoring to Recommendations for

monitor and check future maintenance of the
expansion rate structure

dw2018 | 168
 IDENTIFICATION OF ASR IN THE LABORATORY -
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
• Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM)

• Dispersive energy spectrometer

(SEM-EDS)

dw2018 | 169
 ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION
• Why is it searched?

• What is known?

• What is not known or less known?

• What type of research or action is required?

dw2018 | 170
 WHY IS IT SEARCHED?
• New events in various parts of the world and in Brazil
• Changes in available materials
• Changes in constructive practices
• Existing problems in infrastructure works (dams, bridges,
viaducts, ports, pavements, etc.)
• Problem complexity due to mixing components
• Lack of transmission of knowledge to the technical
environment and to the younger generation

dw2018 | 171
 WHAT IS KNOWN?
• Basic Mechanisms of AAR, from Stanton (1940)
• How to avoid reaction and expansions
• How to choose the aggregates (not always): petrographic
analysis, tests with accelerated mortar bars, concrete prisms,
accelerated concrete prisms
• Pozzolanic materials reduce expansion (their control is still
uncertain)

dw2018 | 172
 WHAT IS NOT KNOWN OR LESS KNOWN?
• Effect of gel composition (depending on the type of aggregate,
effect of additions, etc.)
• Alkalies of the aggregates (how to test, how they dissolve, how they
influence the alkalinity of the medium, etc.).
• Correlation between the reactivity of the aggregates and the alkali
content of the mixture (different aggregates require different
amounts of alkalis)
• Effect of leaching on AMBT, CPT and ACPT results
• Real effect of moisture reduction
• Reactions on carbonate aggregates (will it be silica?)
• How to test concrete mix performance?
• How to better spread the word?

dw2018 | 173
Comparison between exposure blocks and concrete prisms test
(from a presentation by Folliard, U of Texas)

In general exposure blocks provide greater expansions than the

concrete prism test

dw2018 | 174
TEST BLOCKS AT ILHA SOLTEIRA HPP (Brazil)
Long time testing

1970 2014

1970 2014

Selmo Kuperman 175

 Valencia - Spain

Dusseldorf - Germany Reykjavik - Iceland

CANMET in Ottawa

Pictures from presentations by Borge Wigum (Norway) and Kevin Folliard (USA)

dw2018 | 176
 WHAT TYPE OF RESEARCH OR ACTION IS
REQUIRED?
• There is a lot of isolated research, spending time and money
• Need for a forum to exchange information
• Need for coordination of research
• Alkalies in the aggregates
• Carbonate Aggregates - Understanding the Mechanism
• Concrete Mixing Tests
• Studies of long-term reactions
• Mitigation methods
• Performance of actions to reinforce or restore structures over time

dw2018 | 177
 COMMENTS
• Broad dissemination of ASR required
• Careful examination of affected works
• Appropriate studies of aggregate deposits
• Use of cements containing adequate quantities of materials that
neutralize ASR: pozzolans, blast furnace slag, active silica,
metakaolin, etc.
• Research to determine expansion rates, duration of ASR and
methods to neutralize the reaction, when it is already installed

dw2018 | 178
SYNTHESIS OF ETTRINGITE GENERATION PROCESSES
• Etringite = Ettringen mineral - description: Lehmann 1847.

• Primary Etringite = formed during cement hydration = BENEFICIAL

(3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O)

• Etringite, Taumasite and Gypsite by ASE = external sulphate attack = MAY BE

MALEFIC

• Secondary Etringite or ASI (or RSI, ISA) = action of internal sulphates

(aggregates or cement) = MAY BE MALEPHIC or BENEFICIAL (like the
expansive cements)

• Delayed Ettringite or DEF (Delayed Ettringite Formation) = concrete with T>

65°C = MAY BE MALEPHIC

dw2018 | 179
 ETTRINGITE CRYSTALS

Ettringite crystals at the MEV (picture taken Detail of ettringitea crystals in

at Furnas Laboratory) MEV (cf. Stark e Bollmann)

dw2018 | 180
 PRIMARY ETTRINGITE FORMATION
• Solubilization of C3A:

• Formation of primary ettringite, or calcium trisulfoaluminate with 32 water

molecules:
C3A + 3 (CaSO42H2O) + 26H2O C3 .A.3CS.H32

• Excess C3A can be converted to hydrated calcium monosulfoaluminate by the

dissolution of preformed ettringite

dw2018 | 181
 SULFATE ATTACK
SULFATE ATTACK

EXTERNAL SOURCES INTERNAL SOURCES

SEA WATER SOIL CEMENT ADMIXTURES

ATMOSPHERIC UNDERGROUND
MIXING WATER AGGREGATES
POLLUTION WATER

dw2018 | 182
 ETTRINGITE CRYSTALS

Extreme case of sulphate attack
on the infrastructure of a bridge in
contact with clay containing pyrite
and moisture after 30 years (see
BRE Special Digest 1-2005).
Concrete previously of high resistance after attack and
formation of taumasite. The outer 50mm were made
into paste. Taumasite halos can be seen around
aggregates (see BRE Special Digest 1-2005). Bridge
Glocestershire, England, built in 1968. 5% pyrite in soil.

dw2018 | 183
 FORMATION OF ETTRINGITE OR TAUMASITE BY ATTACK OF
EXTERNAL SULFATE (ASE)
ETTRINGITE (Candlot-1887)
(3CaO · Al2O3 · 3CaSO4 · 32H2O)
requires:
• Source of sulfates or sulphides in
soil
• Water in motion
• Ca (OH)2 and C3A in cement
• pH> 10
TAUMASITE
(CaSiO3·CaCO3·CaSO4·15H2O) requires:
• Source of sulfates or sulphides in soil
• Water in motion
• Source of C3S / C2S, present in cement
• Presence of carbonates
• Low temperatures (usually <15oC)
• pH> 10.5
dw2018 | 184
REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETES EXPOSED TO
SOLUTIONS CONTAINING SULPHATES
(Brazilian Standard NBR 12655)

Sulfate soluble Soluble sulfate Maximum water/cement fck

Exposure
in water (SO4) (SO4) present in ratio, in mass, for (for concrete with normal
conditions due to
present in soil water concrete with normal or lightweight aggregate)
aggressiveness (ppm)
(% by mass) aggregates * (MPa)

Low* 0,00 to 0,10 0 to 150 -- --

Moderate** 0,10 to 0,20 150 to 1 500 0,50 35
Severe*** Above0,20 Above1 500 0,45 40
*Low water / cement ratio or high strength may be required to obtain low permeability of the concrete or protection
against reinforcement corrosion or protection against freezing and thawing processes.
**Sea water.
*** For severe aggressive conditions, sulphate resistant cements must be used.

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 GENERATION OF ETTRINGITE BY THE ACTION OF INTERNAL
SULFATES (ASI)
ASI - ISA - RSI
• Aggregates containing iron sulphides (pyrite,
pyrrhotite, etc.)
• Humidity + oxygen = oxidation and formation of
sulfates, iron oxides and hydroxides as well as sulfuric
acid
• Formation of ettringite and gypsum
• Volume of materials formed> original volume

Tavascan Dam, Spain – construction 1962

Cf. Araujo and others, 2006

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GENERATION OF ETTRINGITE BY THE ACTION OF
INTERNAL SULFATES (ASI)
DEF
• T> 65C - monosulfate formed and few ettringite
• After curing and hardening - sulphates and aluminates form
ettringite
• In the presence of humidity it can be expansive
• SO3/ Al2O3 ratio > 0,5;
• SO3 > 2,6% and C3A between 7% and 11%.
• Wetting and drying;
• Alkalies content > 3kg/m3 help more the formation of DEF.

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FACTORS INVOLVING DEF

Humid
ambient

Type of cement
Temperature

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GENERAL SCHEME PROPOSED FOR THE MECHANISM OF DEGRADATION
DUE TO LATE ETTRINGITE – (BRUNETAUD, 2005).

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 PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF DEF
• Reduce concrete temperatures:
• Decrease cement content
• Decrease fck (concrete strength)
• Use admixtures to reduce cement content
• Cool the concrete
• Limit Tmax to 65°C
• Limiting contact with water (waterproofing needs to be redone,
periodically!) = Not a definitive solution

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 DEF - DELAYED ETTRINGITE FORMATION
DEF
• 1987/1989 - Attention to cases in precast elements subjected to thermal curing
(Germany and Finland)
• 1991 - Former Czechoslovakia
• 1992 - Australia and South Africa
• 1995 - USA
• 1997 – Beginning of a massive problem in France at massive parts of bridges
cast in place (pillars, beams, foundation blocks, etc.)
• 2000 -Problem requires attention worldwide
• 2004 - Sweden
• 2008 - France - 30 bridges affected by DEF, without AAR. Time for discovery =
5 to 10 years after construction
• 2008 - Portugal - Fagilde, Pracana, Fratel dams
• 2010 to 2018- Brazil

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DEF – FAGILDE DAM (PORTUGAL)

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CASES OF DEF IN RAILWAY SLEEPERS
(PORTUGAL, apud Santos Silva, and SWEDEN)
PORTUGAL
•Production = 1996
•Discovery = 2003
•Cracks opening ~ 4mm
•T ~ 70°C to 80°C (steam curing + summer)
•Cement content~ 440 kg/m³
•Soluble alkalies = 3kg/m³
•Reactive aggregates but almost imperceptible ASR
•Conclusion of tests = DEF SWEDEN
• Cement content = 470kg/m3
•T~60ºC
•SO3/Al2O3 = 0,84
•Production = early 1990

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CASES OF DEF IN BRAZIL

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CASES OF DEF+AAR IN BRAZIL – Dam built 1970

Instrumentation will be installed

Trunnion

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 DEF CONSEQUENCES

• Increasing cracking
• E Reduction
• Loss of resistance
• Destruction of cement paste

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 Leaching
• Leaching is the name of the whole process of dissolving and transporting substances
out of the concrete
• When solid material is leached, the porosity will increase and the amount of OH" -ions
will decrease in the pore solution and in the pore walls. When the porosity increases,
the water permeability will increase and the leaching process will accelerate. When
the porosity increases, the strength will also decrease. When the permeability in
different parts of a concrete dam changes, internal pore pressure will also change in
the same way. The decreasing strength but also a changed pore pressure may lower
the stability for parts of or for the whole dam
• When coming out from the surface, the leached Ca(OH)2 reacts with CO2 in the air
and a hard calcite-Iayer is formed (CaCO3)
• However , this may not always be the case.
• Leaching may decrease the strength, increase concrete permeability, increase the
intemal forces in a dam, etc.

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Leaching x Strength Loss
When cement and water combine, one of the
compounds formed is hydrated lime, which is
readily dissolved by water (often made more
agressive by the presence of dissolved carbon
dioxide) passing through cracks, along
improperly treated construction planes. or
through interconnected voids. The removal of
this or other solid material by leaching may
seriously impair the quality of concrete.

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 Leaching x Strength Loss
(USBR-Tests in Hoover dam (was Boulder dam)
Percentage of strength between leached specimens
and normally cured specimens

Percentage of CaO removed from the leached specimen

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Is this a problem? Leaking joints

Stalactite

Stalagmite

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Leaking construction (lift) joints
• May cause a failure if the joint is unbonded
• Joints that leak are not necessarily totally unbonded
• Check construction records to get a sense for how likely the
joints are to be bonded
• Good joint treatment would include water curing tops of lifts,
waterblasting before next pour, green-cutting laitance, etc.
• Cores must be taken to show the bond between lift joints
• Eventually there may be no cohesion and only friction
• If factors of safety (sliding, overturning, flotation) are lower than
the desirable, remedial actions must be taken

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Leakage in RCC dams
(apud Schrader)

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 Rio Jordão Dam
(apud. Santi, M.R.A – MSc Thesis – 2008)

• Existing cracks (> 0,3 mm) in the upstream

face were injected with epoxy resin prior to
the reservoir filling, while existing cracks (<
0,3 mm) were sealed with epoxy.
• Drains at the contraction joints were grouted
after the reservoir filling

• Core = RCC 576.000m3 / 80kg/m3/ 0,40m height lifts

• Face = Conv Concrete 88.875m3 / 0,80m to 1,40m width
• H = 95m
• Length=550m
• 28 blocks, 20m wide each
• Reservoir filling = 1996
 Rio Jordão Dam
(apud. Portella, Baron, Soares, Elias e Borges – 2003)

Water level
Loss of ionic mass
Water level
Loss of mass (kg/month)
Flow (l/min)

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 LEAKAGE / INFILTRATIONS
Saco de Nova Olinda Dam - PE

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 LEAKAGE / INFILTRATIONS
Saco de Nova Olinda Dam - PE

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PLATANOVRISSYI

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PLATANOVRISSYI

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PLATANOVRISSYI

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 UPLIFT
Example: Capivara HPP (Brazil)

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Case of Capivara HPP
• Technical assumption during the
design: null uplift values at the
foundation on the upstream
extremity of the power house
block;
• Lack of monitoring instruments and
drainage system at the foundation
of the power house;

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Case of Capivara HPP

• Confirmed the non observance of the safety criteria (Eletrobrás criteria);

• Development of the detailed civil design: installation of drainage system in the gallery
and improvement of the instrumentation system of the powerhouse.
 A study showed that the Safety Factor for Flotation of the powerhouse was FSF = 1.10
for the maintenance condition
• After the installation of the new drainage system, the Safety Factor for Flotation was
FSF = 1.43 for the maintenance condition, a value higher than the one recommended by
Eletrobrás (FSF ≥ 1.3)

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 REPAIR AND RECOVERY
To determine the repair and recovery of dam deterioration, it is
necessary to:
• Project Knowledge
• Knowledge of predicted behavior and alert levels
• Adequate documentation of non-conformities and solutions
adopted
• Evaluation of materials
• Analysis of performance and instrumentation in time
• Complementary tests

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FREEZING AND THAWING

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 CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
The deterioration of concrete by corrosion occurs through chemical
reactions that are predominantly of expansion, generating internal
tensile forces and, consequently, cracking or leaching or dissolution
accompanied by washing.

The resistance of the concrete to chemical attack depends on its

permeability to water and the type and size of pores inside the
hardened concrete.

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CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT

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CAN AN ALLIGATOR BE A SIGNIFICANT PROBLEM FOR THE DAM ?

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION !

Selmo Kuperman

selmo@desek.com.br
(+5511 99175 2583)

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