GEO TECHNICAL ENGINEERING –I

CLASS NOTES
UNIT-I INTRODUCTION

SYLLABUS: Soil formation-soil structure and clay mineralogy - adsorbed water-mass volume
relationship-relative density - mechanism of compaction - factors affecting – effects of
compaction on soil properties-compaction control.

DAY-1
1. What is meant by Soil Mechanics?
Soil Mechanics is the branch of engineering that deals with the
engineering properties of soils and their behavior under stress.

2. What is meant by Soil Engineering?

Soil Engineering is a greater term which includes not only soil
mechanics but also geology, structural engineering, soil
dynamics and many other essential disciplines to obtain
practical solutions to day to day soil problems.

3. What is meant by Geotechnical Engineering?

Geotechnical engineering is relatively a new term and includes
Soil Mechanics, Rock Mechanics, Soil Engineering, and Rock
Engineering. Proper understanding of Engineering Geology is
very much essential in this field of engineering due to significant
overlap between two disciplines.

4. How can you define Soil?

Soil is defined in different ways in different disciplines
Agriculturist says that soil is top layer of earth which support
plant life
Geologist says soil is a thin outer layer of loose sediments with
in which plat roots are present.
According to civil engineers Soil means a naturally occurring;
relatively unconsolidated earth material – organic or inorganic
in character and which lies above bed rock.
5. Write about formation of soils.
Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or
without organic constituents that can be separated by gentle
mechanical means such as agitation in water. Soils are formed
by the process of weathering of the parent rock. The weathering
of the rocks might be by mechanical disintegration, or by
chemical decomposition.

Mechanical Weathering- Mechanical weathering of rocks to

smaller particles is due to the action of agents like expansive
forces of freezing water in fissures, due to sudden changes of
temperature or due to the abrasion of rock by moving water or
glaciers.

Rock weathering takes place in a very significant manner in arid

climates where free, extreme atmospheric radiation brings
about considerable variation in temperature at sunrise and
sunset. Erosion by wind and rain is a very important factor and a
continuing event. Cracking forces by growing plants and roots in
voids and crevasses of rock can force fragments apart.

Chemical Weathering - Chemical weathering (decomposition)

can transform hard rock minerals into soft, easily erodible
matter. The principal types of decomposition are hydration,
oxidation, carbonation, desilicationand leaching.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide which are always present in the air
readily combine withthe elements of rock in the presence of
water.

6. Write about Types of Soils.

a) According to their grain size, Soil particles are classified as
cobbles, gravel, sand, silt and clay.
 Grains having diameters in the rangeof 4.75 to 76.2 mm are
called gravel.
If the grains are visible to the naked eye, but are less than about
4.75 mm in size the soil is described as sand.
The lower limit of visibility of grains for thenaked eyes is about
0.075 mm. Soil grains ranging from 0.075 to 0.002 mm are
termed as silt and
Particles which are finer than 0.002 mm as clay.

b) On the basis of origin of their constituents, soils can be divided

into Residual and Transported soils.
i) Residual soilsare those that remain at the place of their
formation as a result of the weathering of parent rocks. The
depth of residual soils depends primarily on climatic conditions
and the time of exposure.
ii) Transported soilsare soils that are found at locations far
removed from their place of formation. The transporting
agencies of such soils are glaciers, wind and water. The soils are
named according to the mode of transportation.
i. Alluvial soils are those that have been transported by
running water.
ii. The soils that have been deposited in quiet lakes
arelacustrinesoils.
iii. Marine soilsare those deposited in sea water.
iv. The soils transported and deposited by wind are
Aeoliansoils.
v. Those deposited primarily through the action of
gravitational force, as in landslides, are Colluvial soils.
vi. Glacial soils are those deposited by glaciers.

c) Organic and Inorganic Soils:

Soils in general are further classified as organic or inorganic.
Organic soils are chiefly formed either by growth and
subsequent decay of plants such as peat, or by the accumulation
of fragments of the inorganic skeletons or shells of organisms.

Transported Soils consisting of the products of rock weathering

with a more or less conspicuous admixture of decayed
vegetable matter is known as Organic Soil
Transported Soils with minimal or no content of organic /
decayed vegetable matter are known as Inorganic Soils.

Previous paper questions:

1. Write short note on formation of soils.

2. Explain the formation of soils.
3. Describe briefly the different types of soil
 DAY-2
7. Explain about soil structures.

a) The orientation of particles in a mass depends on the size and

shape of the grains and on the minerals of which the grains are
formed.
b) The structure of soils that is formed by natural deposition can
be altered by external forces.
c) Figure gives the various types of structures of soil.
d) Single grained structurewhich is formed by the settlement of
coarse grained soils in suspension in water.
e) Flocculent structureformed by the deposition of the fine soil
fraction in water. Honeycomb structurewhich is formed by the
disintegration of a flocculent structure under a superimposed
load.
f) The particles oriented in a flocculent structure will have edge-
to-face contact as shown in Fig.d
g) In a honeycomb structure, the particles will have face-to-face
contact as shown inFig.e
h) Natural clay sediments will have more or less flocculated
particle orientations.
i) Marine clays generally have a more open structure than fresh
water clays.

8. Write about clay minerals and their structures

Clay materials are essentially composed of extremely small
crystalline particles of one or more members of a small group of
minerals that are commonly known as clay minerals.
These minerals are essentially hydrous aluminum silicates, with
magnesium or iron replacing wholly or in part for the aluminum,
in some minerals.
Many clay materials may contain organic material and water-
soluble salts.
Clays can be divided into three general groups on the basis of
their crystalline arrangement.
Two fundamental building blocks are involved in the formation
of clay mineral structures. They are:
1. Tetrahedral unit.
2. Octahedral unit.
A Tetrahedral unit, shown in Figure consists of four oxygen
atoms surrounding a silicon atom. The tetrahedron units
combine to form a silica sheet as shown in Figure-(a). In this
arrangement the three oxygen atoms locatedat the base of each
tetrahedron are shared by neighboring tetrahedra. Eachsilicon
atom with a positive valence of 4 is linked to four oxygen atoms
with a total negative valence of 8. However, each oxygen atom
at the base of the tetrahedron is linked to two silicon atoms.

(b)

Figures: a) Tetrahedral unit, b) Octahedral unit

This leaves one negative valence charge of the top oxygen atom
of each tetrahedron to be counterbalanced.
Figure b shows an octahedral unit consisting of six hydroxyl
units surrounding an aluminum (or a magnesium) atom. Figureb
shows an octahedral unit consisting of six hydroxylunits
surrounding an aluminum (or a magnesium) atom. The
combinationof the aluminum octahedral units forms a gibbsite
sheet (Figure 2b). Ifthe main metallic atoms in the octahedral
units are magnesium, these sheetsare referred to as brucite
sheets.

When the silica sheets are laid over the octahedral sheets, the
oxygen atoms replace the hydroxyls to satisfy their valence
bonds.

Previous paper questions:

1. Explain different types of soil structures with neat figures.
2. Describe briefly the different types of soil structures.
3. Write detailed note on minerals available in soil.
4. What are the different structures of clay minerals are
available? Discuss them.
 DAY-3
9. Explain about different Clay Minerals – Kaolinite, Illite and
Montmorillonite.

The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite in different

arrangements and conditions lead to the formation of different
clay minerals
Kaolinite:
a) This is the most common mineral of the kaolin group.
b) The building blocks of gibbsite and silica sheets are arranged as
shown in Fig. 2.4 to give the structure of the Kaolinite layer.
c) The structure is composed of a single tetrahedral sheet and a
single alumina octahedral sheet combined in units so that the
tips of the silica tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the
octahedral sheet form a common layer.
d) The thickness of the layer is about 7 A (one angstrom = 10-8 cm)
thick.
e) The Kaolinite mineral is formed by stacking the layers one above
the other with the base of the silica sheet bonding to hydroxyls
of the gibbsite sheet by hydrogen bonding.
f) Since hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong, the Kaolinite
crystals consist of many sheet stacking that are difficult to
dislodge (disturb). The mineral is therefore,stable, and water
cannot enter between the sheets to expand the unit cells.
Illite
a) The basic structural unit of Illite is similar to that of
Montmorillonite except that some of the silicons are always
replaced by aluminum atoms and the resultant charge
deficiency is balanced by potassium ions.
b) The potassium ions occur between unit layers.
c) The bonds with the non exchangeable K+ ions are weaker than
the hydrogen bonds, but stronger than the water bond of
Montmorillonite. Illite, therefore, does not swell as much in the
presence of water as does Montmorillonite.
d) The lateral dimensions of Illite clay particles are about the same
as those of Montmorillonite, 1000 to 5000 A, but the thickness
of Illite particles is greater than that of Montmorillonite
particles, 50 to 500 A.
The arrangements of silica and gibbsite sheets are as shown in
Figure
Montmorillonite:
a) Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the
Montmorillonite group.
b) The structural arrangement of this mineral is composed of two
silica tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina octahedral
sheet.
c) All the tips of the tetrahedra point in the same direction and
toward the center of the unit.
d) The silica and gibbsite sheets are combined in such a way that
the tips of the tetrahedrons of each silica sheet and one of the
hydroxyl layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer.
e) The atoms common to both the silica and gibbsite layer become
oxygen instead of hydroxyls.
f) The thickness of the silica-gibbsite-silica unit is about 10 A
g) In stacking these combined units one above the other, oxygen
layers of each unit are adjacent to oxygen of the neighboring
units with a consequence that there is a very weak bond and an
excellent cleavage between them.
h) Water can enter between the sheets, causing them to expand
significantly and thus the structure can break into10 A thick
structural units.
i) Soils containing a considerable amount of Montmorillonite
minerals will exhibit high swelling and shrinkage characteristics.
j) The lateral dimensions of Montmorillonite particles range from
1000 to 5000 A with thickness varying from 10 to 50 A.
k) Bentonite clay belongs to the Montmorillonite group. In
Montmorillonite, there is isomorphism substitution of
magnesium and iron for aluminum.

Previous paper questions:

1. Explain in detail about three clay minerals.
2. Describe the characteristics and construction of Kaolinite,
Montmorillonite and Illite groups.
 DAY-4
10.Write about Clay Particle Attractions observed in soils.
The behavior of a soil mass depends upon the behavior of the
discrete particles composing the mass and the pattern of
particle arrangement. In all these cases water plays an
important part. The behavior of the soil mass is profoundly
influenced by the inter particle-water relationships, the ability
of the soil particles to adsorb exchangeable cations and the
amount of water present.
Attraction and holding of water molecules is mainly due to
a) Dipole attraction
b) Cation attraction
c) Hydrogen bonding
DipoleAttraction: In nature, every soil particle is surrounded by
water. Since the centers of positive and negative charges of
water molecules do not coincide, the molecules behave like
dipoles. The negative charge on the surface of the soil particle,
therefore, attracts the positive (hydrogen) end of the water
molecules.

Figure showing clay particle attractions of water dipoles

Cation Attraction: This mechanism is more important at low
water contents. When cations attracted to the clay surface to
satisfy the negative charge deficiency, but still exist a
 considerable force for the attraction of water molecules to the
cations, as the charge of cations are not being completely
neutralized. Cation hydration causes increase in the size of
hydrated ion.
Hydrogen Bonding:
In this process, water is absorbed by the process of hydrogen
bonding of the water molecules to negatively charged clay
mineral surface. In detail, hydrogen atom of the water molecule
is attracted to the oxygens or hydroxyls on the surface of the
clay crystal. Formation of Hydrogen bonds is very easy with
oxygen or hydroxyls of tetrahedral sheet of clay minerals and
water-dipoles.
The water molecules are arranged in a definite pattern in the
immediate vicinity of the boundary between solid and water.
More than one layer of water molecules sticks on the surface
with considerable force and this attractive force decreases with
the increase in the distance of the water molecule from the
surface. The electrically attracted water that surrounds the clay
particle is known as the Diffused Double-Layer of Water.
11.Write about Adsorbed water
The electrically attracted water that surrounds the clay particles
is known as Double-Layer Water. The plastic property of clayey
soils is due to the existence of
double-layer water. Since the
innermost layer of double-layer
water is very strongly held by a clay
particle, it is referred to as
Adsorbed Water.
The adsorbed water affects the
behavior of clay particles when
subjected to external stresses, since
it comes between the particle
surfaces.
To drive off the adsorbed water,
 the clay particle must be heated to more than 200 °C, which
would indicate that the bond between the water molecules and
the surface is considerably greater than that between normal
water molecules.

Previous paper questions:

1. Write short note on Adsorbed water in soil.
2. Write about clay particle attractions seen in soils.
 DAY-5
12.How do you justify Soil is a Multi Phase Material?
Soil is a Particulate Material, which means that a soil mass
consists of accumulation of individual particles that are bonded
together by mechanical or attractive means, though not
strongly as for rock. In soil (in most rock), voids exist between
particles, and voids may be filled with a liquid, usually water or
gas, usually air.
Actually a soil bulk consists of soil particles, water and air in
irregular spaces between soil particles. Water surrounding
particles and at points of contact between particles, and filling
small void spaces.
So Soil can be categorized as a multiphase material (consists of
three phases)-
SOLID PHASE-LIQUID PHASE-GASEOUS PHASE

Figure showing different phases in a soil mass in different

conditions

It can also be TWO PHASE material:

-with Solid + Gaseous (DRY STATE)
-with Solid + Liquid (SATURATED STATE)
SOLID PHASE consists of:
Primary rock forming minerals (Size > 2μm, Poor Reactivity,
Prone to disintegration)
 Clay minerals (Basic materials that form the soil mass, Size <
2μm, High Reactivity)
Cementing material (Carbonates)
Organic matter (High water absorption, Compressible,
unstable).

LIQUID PHASE consists of:

Water soluble salts includes salts of Chlorides, Sulphates,

Bicarbonates
GASEOUS PHASE consists of:
Air and Gases entrapped between soil and water molecules of a
soil mass.
13.Write the Mass-Volume relations existing between different
phases of a soil mass.
The phase-relationships in terms of mass-volume and weight-
volume for a soil mass are shown by a block diagram of unit
sectional area is considered. The volumes of the different
constituents are shown on the right side and the corresponding
mass/weights on the right and left sides of the block. The
mass/weight of air may be assumed as zero.

Consider that the Soil mass has a total volume Vand a total
weight W.
Note that:
W=Ws+Ww
 V=Vs+Vv+Va
Where
Ws =weight of soil solids
Ww= weight of water
Vs= volume of the soil solids
Vw =volume of water
Va= volume of air.

The volume relations commonly used in soil mechanics are

Void Ratio, Porosity and Degree of Saturation.

Figure : THREE –PHASE representation of a soil mass (BLOCK

DIAGRAM)
A) VOLUMETRIC RATIOS:

1) VOID RATIO “e”:

Void ratiois defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the
volume of solids.
Vv
e = ∗ 100
Vs
2) POROSITY “n”:
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the
total volume.
Vv
n= ∗ 100
V
3) DEGREE OF SATURATION “S”:
The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a
dry soil) and the volume of voids (for a fully saturated soil).
Degree of saturation can be expressed in percentages as the
Fraction (or) Ratio of volume of water (Vw) to volume of voids
(Vv).
Vw
S= ∗ 100
Vv
For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.
4) AIR CONTENT“ac”:
Air content is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of
voids (Vv).
Va
ac= ∗ 100
Vv

5) PERCENTAGE AIR VOIDS “na”:

Percentage air voids is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the
total volume (V).
Va
na= ∗ 100
V
B) MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS:
1. Water Content, w:
The water content, w, of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of
the mass of water, Mw, in the voids to the mass of solids, Ms, as
M. The water content, which is usually expressed as a
percentage, can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred
percent. The natural water content for most soils is well under
100%, but for the soils of volcanic origin (for example
bentonite) it can range up to 500% or more.
Mw
w (%)= ∗ 100
Ms

2. Density, ρ :
Density(or, unit weight) is expressed as mass per unit volume.
There are several commonly used densities. These may be
defined as
 The Total (or Bulk), or Moist Density, ρr;
The Dry Density, ρd;
TheSaturated Density, ρsat;
The Density of the Particles, Solid Density, ρs; and
Density of Water,ρw.
Each of these densities is defined as follows
M
Total density, ρt=
V
Ms
Dry Density, ρd=
V
M
Saturated Density, ρsat= (for S = 100%)
V
Ms
Solid Density, ρs=
Vs
Mw
Density of Water, ρw=
Vw

3. Specific Gravity, G:
The specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of its
mass in air to the mass of an equal volume of water at
reference temperature, 4 °C. The specific gravity of a mass of
soil (including air, water and solids) is termed as bulk specific
gravity Gm. It is expressed as
𝛒𝐭 𝐌
Gm= =
𝛒w 𝐕𝛒w
The specific gravity of solids, Gs, (excluding air and water) is
expressed by
𝛒𝐬 𝐌s
Gs= =
𝛒w 𝐕𝐬𝛒w

Previous paper questions:

1. Define the terms specific gravity of particles, porosity and
submerged density.
2. Define the terms (i) void ratio, (ii) water content, (iii) dry
density and (iv) Degree of Saturation.
 DAY-6
14.Derive the Interrelationships of Different Parameters using
mass volume relations existing between different phases of
soil.
In order to develop the relationships, the block diagram shown
above is made use of. Since the sectional area perpendicular to
the plane of the paper is assumed as unity, the heights of the
blocks will represent the volumes.
The volume of solids may be represented as Vs = 1. When the
soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with water.
a) Relationship between e and n
Vv Vv
e = = = Vv
Vs 1
Vv Vv e
=> n = = =
V Vv+1 e+1
=> ne + n = e ,
=>n = e-ne = e (1-n)
𝐧
e = (𝟏−𝐧)

b) Relationship between e, Gs and S

Case 1: When partially saturated (S <100%)
Vw Vw
S= = ;
Vv e
Mw Mw w∗ Ms
But ρw= =>Vw= =
Vw ρw ρw
Ms
We have Gs= => Ms = Gs Vs ρw
Vs ρw
w∗ Ms w Gs Vs ρw
Then , Vw = = = w Gs ( since Vs =1)
ρw ρw
Vw wGs
Then, S= =
e e
=> 𝐰𝐆
S= 𝐬
𝐞

=> 𝐰 𝐆𝐬
e=
𝐒

Case 2: When fully saturated (S = 100%)

 In above equation
𝐰𝐆𝐬
e=
𝐒

S = 1, then
e = w Gs
15.Write the Weight-Volume relations existing between
different phases of a soil mass.
Consider a soil mass that has a total volume (V) and a total
weight (W). To develop the weight–volume relationships, the
three phases of the soil mass is required as shown in block
diagram above.
Consider that the Soil mass has a total volume Vand a total
weight W.
Note that:
W=Ws+Ww
V=Vs+Vv+Va
Where
Ws =weight of soil solids
Ww= weight of water
Vs= volume of the soil solids
Vw =volume of water
Va= volume of air.

The weight relations used are moisture content and unit

weight.
The following are the basic weight relations:
1. Moisture content w:
It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight
of soil solids, generally expressed as a percentage.
W
w (%)= w ∗ 100
Ws
Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.
2. The weight of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of
their particle unit weight of the soil grain solids. Unit weight
is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material. Unit
weight "γ" is the ratio of the total weight to the total volume
of the soil aggregates.
W
γ=
V
3. Dry unit weight:
It is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit
volume. The dry unit weight γd can also defined as the ratio
of the weight of soil solids to the total volume.
Ws
γd =
V
= (W –WW)/V
= [W/V –wWS/V]
= γbulk–wγd
γd+ wγd = γbulk , then
γd= γb/(1+w)
Dry unit weight is the measure of dryness of soil.
4. Bulk unit weight γt:
It is a measure of the total weight of soil mass, W per unit of
total volume, V.
W
γt =
V
5. Saturated unit weight:
It is the ratio of total weight of a fully saturated soil sample
Wsat to its total volume V.
Wsat
γsat =
V
6. Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight:
Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight is the
effective weight per unit volume when the soil is submerged
below standing water or below the ground water table. The
net weight of solids is reduced. The reduced weight is known
as submerged or the buoyant weight.
 Submerged unit weight is equal in magnitude to saturated
unit weight, γsat minus unit weight of water, γw.
W
γsub = sub = γsat - γw
V
7. Specific gravity Gs:
Specific gravity can also be defined in terms of weight as the
ratio of weight of given volume of solids to the weight of an
equivalent volume of water at 40C.
W
Gs= s
Vs γw

Specific gravity of solids can also be defined as the ratio of

the unit weight of solids to that of water.
γ
Gs = s
γw

For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies between 2.60

and 2.80. The presence of organic material reduces the value
of Gs.
 (For reference only)
Typical values of Unit Weight for Soils

Soil type γsat(kN/m3) γd(kN/m3)

Gravel 20 -22 15 -17

Sand 18 -20 13 -16
Silt 18 -20 14 -18
Clay 16 -22 14 -21

For most of soils Gs ranges from 2.5 –2.9

Specific Gravity of Mineral Gs

Kaolinite 2.62-2.66

Illite 2.60 –2.86

Montmorillonite 2.75-2.78

Typical values of void ratios

 DAY-7

16. Derive the Interrelationships between γd, Gs, w and nausing

weight volume relations existing between different phases of
soil.
Relationship between γd, Gs, w and na :
V = VS+ VW+ Va
1 = VS/V + VW/V + na
1 –na= VS/V + VW/V (Using VS = WS/GSγW& Vw= Ww/γw

1-na = [(ws/Gsγw)+(Ww/γw)]
1
= [(Ws/Gs) +(Ww/1)]
Vγw
Ws
= [1 +( Gs Ww/Ws)]
G s Vγw
Ws
= [1 +( Gs w)]
G s Vγw

Gs(1-na)= γd/γw[1 +( Gs w)](since γd = WVs

γd = (1-na) GSγw / (1 + wGS)

γd = (1-na) GSγw / (1 + wGS)

17. Derive the Interrelationships between γd, Gs, and eusing

weight volume relations existing between different phases of
soil.
Relationship between γd ,G and e:
We know that
Ws
γd = -------- (1)
V
Ws
we know γs =
Vs
 =>Ws = γs Vs --------------- (2)
Eqn(2) in Eqn(1) gives…

γs Vs γs
=>γd = =>γd = V ------ (3)
V (V )
s

Assuming that soil is Fully Saturated,

Then Va=0 and V=Vs+Vv
V Vs+Vv V
= = 1 + ( v ) = (1 + e)
Vs Vs Vs
V
Now replace with (1+e) in Eqn (3)
Vs

s γ
γd = (1+e) --------- (4)

We all know that,

γs
Gs = =>γs = Gγw
γw

Now replace γs with Gγw in Eqn (4)

Gγw
γd =
(1 + e)
18. Derive the Interrelationships between γsat, Gs, and e using
weight volume relations existing between different phases of
soil.
Relationship between γsat, G and e:
Wsat
γsat =
V
We all know Wsat =Ws+Ww

(Ws + Ww )
γsat =
V
Ws Ww
We have γs = , γw =
Vs Vw
 So,
(Ws + Ww ) (γs Vs + γw Vw )
γsat = = =
V V

19. A soil sample has a void ratio of 0.8, degree of saturation

of 0.9 and Gs of 2.68. Using SI units compute, total unit
weight, dry unit weight, water content, and saturated unit
weight.
 20. A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and
Gs= 2.72. Determine its (a) Dry unit weight (b) Moist unit
weight, and the (c) Amount of water to be added per m3 to
make it saturated. Use
Solution:

(a) = 15.51 kN/m3

(b)

= = 17.38 kN/m3

(c) =

= = 19.62 kN/m3

Water to be added per m3 to make the soil saturated

= = 19.62 – 17.38 = 2.24 kN

21.The dry density of sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3.

Find the void ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the
soil solids. [Take ]
n=0.387 ,γd =1600kg/m 3

Solution:

(a) e= = = 0.631

(b) γd =

Therefore Gs =
 22.Explain in detail about relative density of soil.
Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference
between the void ratios of cohesion less soil in its loosest
state and existing natural state to the difference between its
void ratio in the loosest and densest states. Porosity of a soil
depends on the shape of grain, uniformity of grain size and
condition of sedimentation. Hence porosity itself does not
indicate whether a soil is in loose or dense state. This
information can only be obtained by comparing the porosity
or void ratio of the given soil with that of the same soil in its
loosest and densest possible state and hence the term,
relative density (ID)is introduced.

Where, emax = void ratio of coarse grained soil (Cohesion less) in

its loosest state
emin = void ratio of coarse grained soil (Cohesion less) in
its densest state
e =void ratio of coarse grained soil (Cohesion less) in its
natural existing state in the field.
We have e=Vv /Vs &
γd =Gsγw/ (1+e);
e= (Gsγw/γd)-1.
So, void-ratio e is inversely proportional to the dry-density of
the material (soil) under consideration.
Previous paper questions:
1. Write a relationship between void ratio, degree of saturation,
unit weight of soil, unit weight of water and specific gravity of
soil solids.
2. Write a relationship between water content, void ratio, degree
of saturation and specific gravity of soil solids.

3. A sample of sand above the water table was found to have a

natural moisture content of15% and a unit weight of 18.84
kN/m3. Laboratory tests on a dried sample indicated values of
emin = 0.50 and emax =0.85 for the densest and loosest states
respectively. Compute the degree of saturation and the relative
density. Assume Gs = 2.65

4. A clay sample is found to have a mass of 423.53 g in its natural

state. It is then dried in an oven at 105 °C. The dried mass is
found to be 337.65 g. The specific gravity of the solids is2.70 and
the density of the soil mass in its natural state is 1700 kg/m3.
Determine the water content, degree of saturation and the dry
density of the mass in its natural state.

5. A partially saturated soil sample has a natural water content of

15% and a bulk unit weight is 20 kN/m3. Compute the degree of
saturation, void ratio and porosity if the specific gravity of solids
is 2.7. If subsequently the soil gets submerged compute its unit
weight.

6. A sample of soil has a volume of 65 ml and weighs 0.96 N. After

complete drying, its weight reduces to 0.785N. If the specific
gravity of solid particles is 2.65, determine the degree of
saturation.

7. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of a

soil from standard proctor test are 1.8 g/cm3 and 16%
respectively. Compute the degree of saturation of the sample,
assuming specific gravity of soil grains as 2.7.
8. A dry soil has a void ratio of 0.65 and its grain specific gravity is
2.80.
(i) What is its unit weight?
(ii) Water is added to the sample so that its degree of saturation
is 60% without any change in void ratio. Determine the
water content and unit weight.
(iii) The sample is next placed below water. Determine the true
unit weight (not considering buoyancy) if the degree of
saturation is 95% and 100% respectively
 DAY-8
23.What is compaction? and write the objectives of compaction

Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so

as to rearrange its particles and reduce the void ratio.
It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in
the process of placing fill such as in the construction of
embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and
reinforced earth walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a
level surface during construction of buildings. There is usually
no change in the water content and in the size of the individual
soil particles.
The objectives of compaction are:
To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing
capacity.
To reduce subsequent settlements under working loads.
To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to
flow through.
24.Write in detail about Laboratory Compaction

The variation in compaction with water content and

compaction effort is first determined in the laboratory. There
are several tests with standard procedures such as:
a) Indian Standard Light Compaction Test (similar to
Standard Proctor Test).
b) Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test (similar to
Modified Proctor Test)
Indian Standard Light Compaction Test
Soil is compacted into a 1000 cm3 mould in 3 equal layers, each
layer receiving 25 blows of a 2.6 kg rammer dropped from a
height of 310 mm above the soil. The compaction is repeated at
various moisture contents.
Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test
It was found that the Light Compaction Test (Standard Test)
could not reproduce the densities measured in the field under
heavier loading conditions, and this led to the development of
the Heavy Compaction Test (Modified Test). The equipment
and procedure are essentially the same as that used for the
Standard Test except that the soil is compacted in 5 layers,
each layer also receiving 25 blows. The same mould is also
used. To provide the increased Compactive effort, a heavier
rammer of 4.9 kg and a greater drop height of 450 mm are
used.
Dry Density - Water Content Relationship:
To assess the degree of compaction, it is necessary to use the
dry unit weight, which is an indicator of compactness of solid
soil particles in a given volume. The laboratory testing is meant
to establish the maximum dry density that can be attained for a
given soil with a standard amount of Compactive effort.
In the test, the dry density cannot be determined directly, and
as such the bulk density and the moisture content are obtained
first to calculate the dry density as,

where γt = bulk density, and w = water content.

A series of samples of the soil are compacted at different water
contents, and a curve is drawn with axes of dry density and
water content. The resulting plot usually has a distinct peak as
shown. Such inverted “V” curves are obtained for cohesive soils
(or soils with fines), and are known as compaction curves.
 Dry density can be related to water content and degree of
saturation (S) as

Thus, it can be visualized that an increase of dry density means

a decrease of voids ratio and a more compact soil.
Similarly, dry density can be related to percentage air voids (na)
as

The relation between moisture content and dry unit weight for
a saturated soil is the zero air-voids line. It is not feasible to
expel air completely by compaction, no matter how much
Compactive effort is used and in whatever manner.
25.Write the factors that are affecting compaction

Factors Affecting Compaction

The factors that influence the achieved degree of compaction
in the laboratory are:
3. Plasticity of the soil
4. Water content
5. Compactive effort
Effect of Increasing Water Content
As water is added to a soil at low moisture contents, it becomes
easier for the particles to move past one another during the
application of compacting force. The particles come closer, the
voids are reduced and this causes the dry density to increase.
As the water content increases, the soil particles develop larger
water films around them.
This increase in dry density continues till a stage is reached
where water starts occupying the space that could have been
occupied by the soil grains. Thus the water at this stage hinders
the closer packing of grains and reduces the dry unit weight.
The maximum dry density (MDD) occurs at an optimum water
content (OMC), and their values can be obtained from the plot.
Effect of Increasing Compactive Effort
The effect of increasing Compactive effort is shown. Different
curves are obtained for different Compactive efforts. A greater
Compactive effort reduces the optimum moisture content and
increases the maximum dry density.

An increase in Compactive effort produces a very large increase

in dry density for soil when it is compacted at water contents
drier than the optimum moisture content. It should be noted
that for moisture contents greater than the optimum, the use
of heavier compaction effort will have only a small effect on
increasing dry unit weights.
It can be seen that the compaction curve is not a unique soil
characteristic. It depends on the compaction effort. For this
reason, it is important to specify the compaction procedure
(light or heavy) when giving values of MDD and OMC.
Previous paper questions:
1. Describe standard proctor test and modified proctor test.
2. What are the factors affecting compaction? Discuss
3. Explain the mechanism of compaction
4. Differentiate between consolidation and compaction. Give
examples.
5. Explain the difference between IS light and heavy
compactions.
6. What is a compaction Curve? Give its salient features. What
is zero air void line?

7. The maximum dry density of a sample by light compaction

test is 1.78g/cm3 at an optimum water content of 15%. Find
the air voids and degree of saturation. G=2.67. What would
be the corresponding value of dry density on zero air void
line at optimum water content?

8. The following results were obtained from a standard

compaction test on a soil

The value of Gs is 2.67. Plot the dry density – water content

curve and give the optimum water content and maximum
dry density? Plot also the curves of 0%, 5% and 10 % air
content and give the value of air content at maximum dry
density. The volume of the mould is 1000 cm3.
 DAY-9
26.Write about Compaction of Cohesion less Soils

For cohesion less soils (or soils without any fines), the standard
compaction tests are difficult to perform. For compaction,
application of vibrations is the most effective method.
Watering is another method. The seepage force of water
percolating through cohesion less soil makes the soil grains
occupy a more stable position. However a large quantity of
water is required in this method. To achieve maximum dry
density, they can be compacted either in a dry state or in a
saturated state.
For these soil types, it is usual to specify a magnitude of relative
density (ID) that must be achieved. If e is the current void ratio
or γd is the current dry density, the relative density is usually
defined in percentage as

Or

Where
emax and emin are the maximum and minimum void ratios that
can be determined from standard tests in the laboratory, and
γdmin and γdmax are the respective minimum and maximum dry
densities
On the basis of relative
density, sands and gravels
can be grouped into
different categories:
 It is not possible to determine the dry density from the value of
the relative density. The reason is that the values of the
maximum and minimum dry densities (or void ratios) depend
on the gradation and angularity of the soil grains.
27.Explain how the Behavior of soil is going to be modified w.r.t
to Engineering characteristics after compaction.
(Or)
Write about effects of compaction on Soil properties.
Behaviors of Compacted Soils
The water content of a compacted soil is expressed with
reference to the OMC. Thus, soils are said to be compacted dry
of optimum or wet of optimum (i.e. on the dry side or wet side
of OMC). The structure of a compacted soil is not similar on
both sides even when the dry density is the same, and this
difference has a strong influence on the engineering
characteristics.
Soil Structure
For a given Compactive effort, soils have a flocculated structure
on the dry side (i.e. soil particles are oriented randomly),
whereas they have a dispersed structure on the wet side (i.e.
particles are more oriented in a parallel arrangement
perpendicular to the direction of applied stress). This is due to
the well-developed adsorbed water layer (water film)
surrounding each particle on the wet side.
Swelling
Due to a higher water deficiency and partially developed water
films in the dry side, when given access to water, the soil will
soak in much more water and then swell more.
Shrinkage
During drying, soils compacted in the wet side tend to show
more shrinkage than those compacted in the dry side. In the
wet side, the more orderly orientation of particles allows them
to pack more efficiently.
Construction Pore Water Pressure
The compaction of man-made deposits proceeds layer by layer,
and pore water pressures are induced in the previous layers.
Soils compacted wet of optimum will have higher pore water
pressures compared to soils compacted dry of optimum, which
have initially negative pore water pressure.
Permeability
The randomly oriented soil in the dry side exhibits the same
permeability in all directions, whereas the dispersed soil in the
wet side is more permeable along particle orientation than
across particle orientation.
Compressibility
At low applied stresses, the dry compacted soil is less
compressible on account of its truss-like arrangement of
particles whereas the wet compacted soil is more
compressible.

The stress-strain curve of the dry compacted soil rises to a peak

and drops down when the flocculated structure collapses. At
high applied stresses, the initially flocculated and the initially
dispersed soil samples will have similar structures, and they
exhibit similar compressibility and strength.
Previous paper questions:
1. Briefly discuss about the effect of Compaction of Engineering
Properties.

2. In a compaction test the optimum moisture content (OMC) =

11.0%, and the maximum dry density = 1.98 t/m3. At the
OMC the degree of saturation = 91%. Determine the greatest
dry density that it is possible for this soil to have when the
moisture content is 11%.

3. In a compaction test the optimum moisture content (OMC) =

11.0%, and the maximum dry density = 1.98 t/m3. At the
OMC the degree of saturation = 91%. Determine the greatest
dry density that it is possible for this soil to have when the
moisture content is 11%.

4. A clay sample is found to have a mass of 423.53 g in its

natural state. It is then dried in an oven at 105 °C. The dried
mass is found to be 337.65 g. The specific gravity of the
solids is2.70 and the density of the soil mass in its natural
state is 1700 kg/m3. Determine the water content, degree of
saturation and the dry density of the mass in its natural
state.
 Day-10
28.Do you think COMPACTION control is essential? And explain
how it is achieved in field.
To control soil properties in the field during earthwork
construction, it is usual to specify the degree of compaction
(also known as the relative compaction). This specification is
usually that certain percentages of the maximum dry density,
as found from a laboratory test (Light or Heavy Compaction),
must be achieved. For example, it could be specified that field
dry densities must be greater than 95% of the maximum dry
density (MDD) as determined from a laboratory test. Target
values for the range of water content near the optimum
moisture content (OMC) to be adopted at the site can then be
decided, as shown in the figure.

For this reason, it is important to have a good control over

moisture content during compaction of soil layers in the field. It
is then up to the field contractor to select the thickness of each
soil lift (layer of soil added) and the type of field equipment in
order to achieve the specified amount of compaction. The
standard of field compaction is usually controlled through
either end-product specifications or Testing specifications.
End-Product Specifications
In End-Product specifications, the required field dry density is
specified as a percentage of the laboratory maximum dry
density, usually 90% to 95%. The target parameters are
specified based on laboratory test results.
The field water content working range is usually within ± 2% of
the laboratory optimum moisture content.
It is necessary to control the moisture content so that it is near
the chosen value. From the borrow pit, if the soil is dry, water is
sprinkled and mixed thoroughly before compacting. If the soil is
too wet, it is excavated in advance and dried.
In the field, compaction is done in successive horizontal layers.
After each layer has been compacted, the water content and
the in-situ density are determined at several random locations.
These are then compared with the laboratory OMC and MDD
using either of these two methods: the sand replacement
method, or the core cutter method.
Testing Specifications
A procedure for the site is specified by giving:
Type and weight of compaction equipment
Maximum soil layer thickness
Number of passes for each layer
They are useful for large projects. This requires a prior
knowledge of working with the borrow soils to be used.
Field Compaction Equipment
There is a wide range of compaction equipment. The
compaction achieved will depend on the thickness of lift (or
layer), the type of roller, the no. of passes of the roller, and the
intensity of pressure on the soil. The selection of equipment
depends on the soil type as indicated.
Previously asked questions:
1. Discuss about the compaction control in the field.