Chemistry Textbook

Std. XI Sci.

Perfect Chemistry - II

Edition: July 2014

Prof. Santosh B. Yadav Prof. Anil Thomas
(M. Sc., SET, NET) (M.Sc., Chemistry)

Published by Price : ` 210/-

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Written according to the New Syllabus (2012-2013) published by the Maharashtra State
Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, Pune.
Std. XI Sci.
Perfect Chemistry - II
Salient Features :
• Exhaustive coverage of syllabus in Question Answer Format.
• Covers answers to all Textual, Intext and NCERT Questions.
• Simple and Lucid language.
• Neat, Labelled and authentic diagrams.
• Quick review for instant revision and summary of the chapter.
• Solved & Practice Numericals duly classified.
• Multiple Choice Questions for effective preparation.
TEID : 747
PREFACE
In the case of good books, the point is not how many of them you can get through, but rather how many can
get through to you.
“Std. XI Sci. : PERFECT CHEMISTRY - II” is a complete and thorough guide critically analysed
and extensively drafted to boost the students confidence. The book is prepared as per the Maharashtra State
board syllabus and provides answers to all textual and intext questions. Sub-topic wise classified ‘question
and answer format’ of this book helps the student to understand each and every concept thoroughly. Neatly
labelled diagrams have been provided wherever required.
National Council Of Educational Research And Training (NCERT) questions and problems based
on Maharashtra board syllabus have been provided along with solutions for a better grasp of the concept and
preparing the students on a competitive level.
Additional information about a concept is provided in the form of Note. Definitions, statements and
laws are specified with italic representation. Formulae are provided in chapters which involve numericals to
help the students to tackle difficult problems. Solved problems are provided to understand the application of
different concepts and formulae. Quick Review has been provided which gives an overview of the chapters.
Additional theory questions have been provided to help the student gain insight on the various levels of
theory-based questions.
Practice problems and multiple choice questions help the students to test their range of preparation
and the amount of knowledge of each topic.
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Representation of the
No. Class of the compound Functional group Example
class (General formula)
i. Alkanes R–H CH3 − CH3
(Saturated) C C Ethane
ii. Alkenes R − CH = CH − R H2C = CH2

C C
(Unsaturated) Ethylene
iii. Alkynes R−C≡C−R HC ≡ CH

−C≡C−
(Unsaturated) Acetylene
iv. Alkyl halides −X R−X CH3Br

(Halide) Methyl bromide
v. Alkyl cyanides or nitriles −C≡N R−C≡N CH3 − CN

(Cyano or cyanide or Methyl cyanide or
nitrile) Acetonitrile
vi. Nitroalkanes − NO2 R − NO2 CH3CH2NO2
(Nitro) Nitroethane
vii. Alcohols − OH R − OH CH3OH

(Hydroxyl) Methyl alcohol
viii. Phenols − OH Ar − OH C6H5OH

(Phenolic) Phenol or carbolic acid
ix. Amines − NH2 R − NH2 C2H5NH2

(Amino) Ethylamine
x. Ethers R – O – R′ CH3 − O − CH3

C O C Dimethyl ether
CH3 − O − C2H5
(Ether group) Ethyl methyl ether
xi. Aldehydes C H H C H
R C H
O O O
(Formyl or aldehydic) Formaldehyde
CH3 C H
O
Acetaldehyde
xii. Ketones C R C R′ CH3 C CH3
O O O
(Keto or oxo) Acetone
xiii. Carboxylic acids C OH R C OH H C OH
O O O
(Carboxyl group) Formic acid
xiv. Esters C OR CH3 C OC2H5
R C OR
O O O
(Ester group) Ethyl acetate
xv. Amides C NH2 R C NH2 CH3 C NH2
O O O
(Amido group) Acetamide
xvi. Acid anhydrides C O C R C O C R CH3 C O C CH3

O O O O O O
(Anhydride group) Acetic anhydride
xvii. Acyl chlorides C Cl C Cl

R C Cl CH3
O O O
(Acyl chloride group) Acetyl chloride
xviii. Sulphonic acids SO3H R SO3H C2H5 SO3H

(Sulphonic acid group) Ethane sulphonic acid
Contents
No. Topic Name Page No.
9 Hydrogen 1
10 s - Block Elements 35
11 p - Block Elements (Groups 13 and 14) 65
Basic Principles and Techniques in Organic 112

12
Chemistry
13 Alkanes 193
14 Alkenes 236
15 Alkynes 271
16 Aromatic Compounds 295
17 Environmental Chemistry 320
`Chapters 1 to 8 are a part of Std. XI Chemistry - I'

Note: All the Textual questions are represented by * mark
All the Intext questions are represented by # mark

Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Chapter 09: Hydrogen
09 Hydrogen
9.0 Prominent scientists
Scientists Contributions
Aristotle (384 − 322 BC) i. Considered water as an element and to be one of the four
(Greek philosopher) elementary components of nature along with fire, air and
earth.
ii. Put forward the idea of animated beings coming into
existence from inanimate objects.
iii. Was concerned with the transmutation of basemetal into
gold.
Henry Cavendish (1731 − 1810) i. Established water as a combustion product of hydrogen.
(British scientist) ii. Discovered hydrogen in 1766.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743 − 1794) i. Discovered in 1783, that water is a compound of hydrogen
(French chemist) and oxygen.
9.1 Introduction
Q.1. Why is hydrogen also called as “dihydrogen”?
Ans: i. Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table, with a simple atomic structure having only one
proton and one electron. Hence, it is the lightest known element.
ii. It exists in atomic form only at high temperature and as a diatomic molecule i.e., H2 in the normal
elemental form. Hence, hydrogen is also called as dihydrogen.
Note:
i. Hydrogen combines with other elements by losing, gaining or sharing of electrons.
ii. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and the third most abundant element on the earth’s
surface.
Q.2. *Explain the position of hydrogen in the periodic table on the basis of its electronic configuration.
(NCERT)
OR
Why is position of hydrogen considered in the periodic table as controversial or “anomalous”?
Ans: i. In the periodic table, elements are arranged on the basis of their electronic configuration.
ii. Hydrogen with atomic number 1 and electronic configuration 1s1 is the first element of the periodic
table.
iii. However, a proper position could not be assigned to hydrogen in the long form of the periodic table
because of the following reasons:
a. Resemblance with alkali metals with respect to:
1. Electronic configuration:
i. The electronic configuration (1s1) of hydrogen is similar to the outer electronic
configuration (ns1) of alkali metals.
ii. So, similar to alkali metals which are placed in the first group of the periodic table,
hydrogen can also be the member of the first group.
eg.
H(Z = 1) : 1s1
Li(Z = 3) : [He]2s1
Na(Z = 11) : [Ne]3s1
K(Z = 19) : [Ar]4s1.
1

Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry
2. Formation of unipositive ions:
Similar to alkali metals, hydrogen can lose one electron to from unipositive ion.
eg.
H ⎯→ H+ + e− Na ⎯→ Na+ + e−
1 0 1
(1s ) (1s ) [Ne]3s [Ne]
Hydrogen Proton Sodium Sodium
atom atom ion
3. Formation of halides, oxides and sulphides:

Similar to alkali metals, hydrogen can form corresponding halides, oxides and sulphides.
eg.
Halides Sulphides Oxides
Alkali metals NaCl KCl Na2S K2S Na2O K2O
Sodium Potassium Sodium Potassium Sodium Potassium
chloride chloride sulphide sulphide oxide oxide
Hydrogen HCl H2S H2O
Hydrochloric Hydrogen Water
acid sulphide
b. Resemblance with halogens with respect to:
1. Electronic configuration:
i. Halogens which are placed in the seventeenth group of periodic table have the
electronic configuration as ns2np5.
ii. They require one electron to attain the corresponding noble gas configuration.
iii. Hydrogen can be the member of group seventeen, similar to halogens as it is short
of one electron to achieve the corresponding noble gas configuration of helium
(1s2).
2. Formation of uninegative ions:
Similar to halogens, hydrogen can gain one electron to form uninegative ion.
eg.
H + e− ⎯→ H− F + e− ⎯→ F−
1 2 2 5
(1s ) (1s ) [He]2s 2p [He]2s22p6
Hydrogen Hydride ion Fluorine Fluoride
atom atom ion
3. Formation of diatomic molecules and other covalent compounds:

Similar to halogens, hydrogen also forms diatomic molecules, hydrides and large number
of covalent compounds.
eg.
i. Formation of diatomic molecules (like halogens):
H2 F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
ii. Formation of hydrides:
Na+H− Na+Cl−
Sodium hydride Sodium chloride
iii. Formation of covalent compounds:
CH4, SiH4, GeH4 Compounds of hydrogen
CCl4, SiCl4, GeCl4 Compounds of halogens.
iv. In terms of ionization enthalpy, hydrogen (which has a very high ionization enthalpy) resembles more
with halogens.
a. Ionization enthalpy of hydrogen and alkali metals:
H : ∆H = 1312 kJ mol−1 Li: ∆H = 520 kJ mol−1
Na: ∆H = 496 kJ mol−1
K : ∆H = 419 kJ mol−1
2

b. Ionization enthalpy of hydrogen and halogens:

H : ∆H = 1312 kJ mol−1 F: ∆H = 1681 kJ mol−1
Cl: ∆H = 1255 kJ mol−1
Br : ∆H = 1140 kJ mol−1
v. Also, hydrogen does not possess metallic character under normal conditions unlike the alkali metals
which exhibit metallic character.
vi. Hydrogen is very less reactive as compared to halogens.
vii. Thus, hydrogen resembles both the alkali metals and the halogens, though in case of certain
properties, it also differs from them.
viii. This unique behaviour of hydrogen makes its position in the periodic table controversial or
anomalous.
ix. Therefore, hydrogen is best placed separately in the periodic table.
Q.3. H+ does not exist freely. Explain.
Ans: i. H+ (proton) is formed by loss of electron from hydrogen atom.
ii. The nucleus of proton is of extremely small size (−1.5 × 10−3 pm) compared to normal atomic and
ionic sizes (50 to 200 pm).
iii. Consequently, H+ does not exist freely and is always associated with other atoms or molecules.
*Q.4. Why does hydrogen occur in a diatomic form rather than in monoatomic form under normal
conditions? (NCERT)
Ans: i. Hydrogen atom has only one electron in its valence shell having electronic configuration 1s1.
ii. It can acquire stable configuration of helium by sharing this electron with another hydrogen atom.
iii. Therefore, it shares its single electron with electron of the other H-atom to achieve stable inert gas
configuration of He.
iv. Thus, hydrogen readily forms diatomic molecule and exists as H2 rather than in monoatomic form.
9.2 Occurrence of hydrogen (dihydrogen)
*Q.5. What is another name of hydrogen? How does hydrogen occur in nature?
Ans: i. Hydrogen in the elemental form exists as a diatomic molecule (H2) and hence it is also known as
dihydrogen.
ii. Occurrence of hydrogen:
a. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe (about 70% of the total mass of the
universe) and is the main element in the solar system.
b. Hydrogen forms the major constituent of planets like Jupiter and Saturn.
c. In the free state:
1. Hydrogen is present in some volcanic gases and in the outer atmosphere of sun and other
stars of the universe.
2. Earth does not have enough gravitational pull to retain light hydrogen molecules. Thus,
hydrogen in free state is much less abundant (0.15 % by mass) in the earth’s atmosphere.
d. In the combined form:
1. It constitutes 15.4% of earth’s crust and is also found in oceans (in the form of water). It is
the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust.
2. It is also found in the plant and animal tissues, carbohydrates, proteins, hydrocarbons,
hydrides and several other compounds.
9.3 Isotopes of hydrogen
*Q.6. Mention the isotopes of hydrogen. (NCERT)
1 2 3
Ans: Hydrogen has three isotopes namely protium ( 1 H ), dueterium ( 1 H or D) and tritium ( 1 H or T).
Q.7. Name the isotope of hydrogen which
i. does not contain neutron? ii. is radioactive?
Ans: i. Protium ii. Tritium
3

Q.8. What is isotopic effect?
Ans: Hydrogen has three isotopes viz., protium, deuterium and tritium. Since the three isotopes have identical
electronic configuration, their chemical properties are similar but they differ in their physical properties due
to different masses. This effect is known as isotopic effect.
*Q.9. Write a brief note on isotopes of hydrogen.
Ans: Hydrogen has three isotopes:
i. Protium ( 11 H ): It has 1 electron, 1 proton and no neutron. Hydrogen occuring in nature is mainly
composed of atoms of protium.
ii. Deuterium ( 12 H or D): It has 1 electron, 1 proton and 1 neutron. It is also called as “Heavy
Hydrogen”. Terrestrial hydrogen contains 0.0156% of deuterium mostly in the form of HD.
iii. Tritium ( 13 H or T): It has 1 electron, 1 proton and 2 neutrons. It is the only radioactive isotope of
hydrogen and the concentration of tritium is about one atom per 1018 atoms of protium. Since, it is
radioactive, it emits low energy β- particles (half life = 12.33 years), hence called β – emitter.
iv. Since, the isotopes have the same electronic configuration, they have similar chemical properties, but
differ in their physical properties (isotopic effect).
v. In the study of reaction mechanism, the replacement of H by D or T slows down the reaction rates.
Hence, deuterium and tritium are used as tracers.
Q.10. Arrange H2, D2 and T2 in the decreasing order of their:
i. boiling points ii. density.
Ans: i. T2 > D2 > H2 ii. T2 > D2 > H2.
Note:
Atomic and physical properties of isotopes of hydrogen are as follows:
Properties Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
Active abundance (%) 99.985 0.0156 10−15
Relative atomic mass (g mol−1) 1.008 2.014 3.016
Melting point (K) 13.96 18.73 20.62
Boiling point (K) 20.39 23.67 25.0
Density (g L−1) 0.09 0.18 0.27
Enthalpy of fusion (kJ mol−1) 0.117 0.197 −
Enthalpy of vapourization (kJ mol−1) 0.904 1.226 −
Enthalpy of bond dissociation (kJ mol−1 at 298.3 K) 435.88 443.35 −
Internuclear distance (pm) 74.14 74.14 −
Ionization enthalpy (kJ mol−1) 1312 − −
Electron gain enthalpy (kJ mol−1) −73 − −
Covalent radius (pm) 37 − −
Ionic radius (H−) (pm) 208 − −
9.4 Preparation of dihydrogen
Q.11.*Explain the laboratory methods for preparation of di-hydrogen.

OR
Explain briefly the laboratory preparation for pure hydrogen.
Ans: Laboratory method for preparation of hydrogen:
i. Zinc on reaction with aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) forms soluble sodium zincate and hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯→ Na2ZnO2 + H2(g)↑
ii. Granulated zinc on reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid liberates hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2HCl(dil) ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2(g)↑
4

iii High purity hydrogen gas can be prepared by the action of pure dil. H2SO4 on magnesium ribbon.
Mg + H2SO4(dil.) ⎯→ MgSO4 + H2(g)↑
iv Preparation of pure hydrogen gas can also be carried out by action of water on sodium hydride.
NaH + H2O ⎯→ NaOH + H2(g)↑
v. Hydrogen can also be prepared by action of KOH on scrap aluminium or silicon.

2Al + 2KOH + 2H2O ⎯→ 2KAlO2 +3H2(g)↑
This method is known as Uyeno’s method and gives very pure hydrogen.
Q.12.*Describe the bulk preparation of dihydrogen by electrolytic method. What is the role of an
electrolyte in the process? (NCERT)
OR
How is dihydrogen prepared by electrolysis of acidified water?
Ans: i. Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis of acidified water (dilute sulphuric acid) using platinum
electrodes.
ii. At cathode, dihydrogen (H2) is liberated whereas at anode, dioxygen (O2) gas is liberated.
iii. Role of an electrolyte: The electrolyte used is acidified water. Since, pure water is a poor conductor
of electricity, it is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid to increase its electrical conductivity.
iv. During electrolysis, the following reactions take place:
Acidic medium: H2SO4 2H+ + SO 24 −
H2O H+ + OH−
At cathode : 2H+ + 2e− ⎯→ 2H; 2H ⎯→ H2(g)↑

− −
At anode: 4OH ⎯→ 4OH + 4e ; 4OH ⎯→ 2H2O + O2(g)↑
Since, the discharge potential of sulphate ions is much higher than that of hydrogen ions, sulphate
ions are not discharged at the anode.
Q.13. How can pure dihydrogen be obtained from barium hydroxide?

Ans: Electrolysis of warm aqueous solution of barium hydroxide using nickel electrodes yields dihydrogen of
high purity (> 99.96%).
Q.14. How is hydrogen obtained from water gas?

OR
Describe Bosch process for the preparation of hydrogen.
Ans: i. In Bosch process, water gas (CO + H2) is mixed with twice the volume of steam.
ii. In the presence of promoter (like Cr2O3 or ThO2), this mixture is then passed over heated catalyst
(Fe2O3) at 773 K.
iii. In this reaction, oxidation of CO to CO2 takes place.
Fe2 O3 + Cr2 O3
CO + H2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 773K
→ CO2(g)↑+ 2H2(g)
(Water gas) Steam
iv. Carbon dioxide so formed is removed by dissolving it in water under pressure (20 − 25 atmospheres),
thus leaving behind hydrogen which is collected.
Q.15. Explain how dihydrogen is obtained by the electrolysis of brine solution.
Ans: i. Electrolysis of brine solution is used for the manufacture of sodium hydroxide and chlorine and
dihydrogen is obtained as a byproduct in the process.
ii. Preferentially H+ ions are reduced at cathode liberating hydrogen gas, while Cl− ions are oxidised at
anode liberating Cl2 gas.
5

iii. During electrolysis, the following reactions take place:
At anode: −
2Cl(aq) ⎯→ Cl2(g) + 2e−
At cathode: 2H2O + 2e− ⎯→ H2(g) + 2OH (aq)
−
The overall reaction is,

− −
2Cl(aq) +2H2O(l) ⎯→ Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2OH (aq)
Q.16. How is hydrogen gas prepared from coke or hydrocarbons?

Ans: Reaction of steam on hydrocarbons or coke at high temperatures in the presence of catalyst yields
hydrogen.
CnH2n+2 + nH2O ⎯⎯⎯
1270K
Ni
→ nCO(g) + (2n + 1)H2
eg. CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯

1270K
Ni
→ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
*Q.17.Explain the terms:
i Syngas ii. Water gas shift reaction. (NCERT)
Ans: i. Syngas:
a. Syngas is the mixture of CO and H2. It is also called ‘water gas’.
b. It is used for the synthesis of methanol and many hydrocarbons, hence, the name syngas or
‘synthesis gas’.
c. It is produced from saw dust or scrap wood.
d. The process of producing syngas from coal or coke is called ‘coal gasification’.
e. Methanol can be prepared from syngas.
CO(g) + 2H2(g) ⎯⎯⎯ Cobalt
catalyst
→ CH3 − OH(l)
Syngas Methanol
(water gas)
f. Syngas is also used to prepare hydrogen.
Fe2 O3 + Cr2 O3
CO + H2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 773K
→ CO2(g) ↑ + 2H2(g)
(Water gas) Steam
ii. Water gas shift reaction:

a. Since it is difficult to remove carbon monoxide from the water gas (syngas), obtaining
hydrogen from water gas (syngas) also becomes difficult.
b. In order to have an increased production of dihydrogen, water gas is mixed with steam and the
resulting gaseous mixture is heated at 673 K in the presence of iron chromate (FeCrO4) catalyst.
673K
CO(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯ FeCrO 4
→ CO2(g) + H2(g)
Carbon Steam Carbon Hydrogen
monoxide dioxide
(from syngas
mixture)
This reaction is called water gas shift reaction.

c. The carbon monoxide of the syngas mixture reacts with steam to form carbon dioxide and
hydrogen.
d. Carbon dioxide is then removed by scrubbing with sodium arsenite solution.
Q.18. What is Lane’s process?
OR
How is hydrogen prepared from superheated steam?
Ans: When superheated steam is passed over iron filings heated to about 1023 − 1073 K, hydrogen is formed.
3Fe + 4H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯
1023−1073K
Fe
⎯→ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Steam
6

*Q.19.Complete the following chemical reactions:

∆
i. CO(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯→
catalyst
ii. Zn(s) + NaOH ⎯⎯⎯

heat
→ (NCERT)
iii. CH4(g) + H2O ⎯⎯⎯
1270 K
→
∆
Ans: i. CO(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯
catalyst
→ CO2(g) + H2(g)
Carbon Steam Carbon Dihydrogen
monoxide dioxide
heat
ii. Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯⎯→ Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc Sodium Sodium Dihydrogen
metal hydroxide zincate
Ni
iii. CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯
1270K
→ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Methane Steam Carbon Dihydrogen
monoxide
9.5 Properties of dihydrogen
*Q.20.What are the physical properties of dihydrogen?

Ans: i. Dihydrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
ii. It is combustible, but does not support combustion.
iii. It is lighter than air and is insoluble in water.
iv. It’s relative abundance is 99.985% while deuterium is 0.0156% and tritium is 10−15 %.
v. Melting point of dihydrogen is 13.96 K and its boiling point is 20.39 K.
vi. Relative atomic mass of dihydrogen is 1.008 g mol−1 and its density is 0.09 g/L.
Q.21. Describe the chemical behaviour of dihydrogen.

Ans: i. At room temperature, hydrogen is not very active (relatively inert) due to it’s high H − H bond
dissociation enthalpy (435.88 kJ mol−1 at 298 K).
ii. Thus, production of atomic hydrogen is carried out at a high temperature in an electric arc or under
ultraviolet radiations.
iii. Hydrogen combines with almost all the elements owing to its incomplete orbital with 1s1 electronic
configuration.
iv. Hydrogen exhibits many reactions due to:
a. loss of electron to form H+ ion.
b. gain of an electron to form H− ion.
c. sharing of electrons to form single covalent bond.
*Q.22.What is the effect of high enthalpy of H−H bond in terms of chemical reactivity of dihydrogen?
(NCERT)
Ans: i. Chemical reactivity of dihydrogen involves the breaking of H−H bond.
ii. The bond dissociation enthalpy of H−H bond is very high (435.88 kJ mol−1 at 298 K).
iii. Due to high bond enthalpy, it is not very reactive at room temperature.
iv. However, at high temperature or in the presence of catalysts, hydrogen combines with many metals
and non-metals to form corresponding hydrides.
Q.23. What happens when hydrogen reacts with halogens?
Ans: i. Hydrogen reacts with halogens (X2) to give the corresponding hydrogen halides (HX).
H2(g) + X2(g) ⎯→ 2HX(g)
Hydrogen Halogen Hydrogen
halide
(X = F, Cl, Br, I)
7

ii. The reaction with iodine requires a catalyst.
iii. The reaction between fluorine and hydrogen to form hydrogen fluoride occurs at very low
temperature (63 K) and even in dark due to greater affinity of fluorine towards hydrogen.
H2(g) + F2(g) ⎯→ 2HF
Hydrogen Fluorine Hydrogen
fluoride
iv. Chlorine reacts with H2 gas in the presence of diffused sunlight, 673 K, pressure forming HCl.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→diffused sunlight
673 K , pressure
2HCl(g)
Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen
chloride
Q.24. What happens when dihydrogen reacts with:

i. dioxygen ii. dinitrogen (Haber’s process) iii. sodium metal.
Ans: i. Dihydrogen reacts with dioxygen:
Dihydrogen reacts with dioxygen to form water and this reaction is highly exothermic.
2H2(g) + O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
catalyst or heating
⎯→ 2H2O(l) ∆H = −285.9 kJ mol−1
Dihydrogen Dioxygen Water
ii. Dihydrogen reacts with dinitrogen (Haber’s process):

Dihydrogen reacts with dinitrogen at 673K under 200 atm pressure in the presence of iron as a
catalyst to form ammonia.
3H2(g) + N2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
673K , Fe catalyst
200 atm
2NH3(g) ∆H = −92.6 kJ mol−1
Dihydrogen Dinitrogen Ammonia
iii. Dihydrogen reacts with sodium metal:

Dihydrogen combines with metallic sodium at high temperature to yield sodium hydrides.
2Na + H2 ⎯→ 2NaH
Sodium metal Dihydrogen Sodium hydride
Q.25. Explain the reducing nature of hydrogen.

Ans: i. Dihydrogen reduces some metal ions in aqueous solutions and oxides of metals (less active than iron)
into corresponding metals.
H2(g) + Pd2+(aq) ⎯→ Pd(s) + 2H+(aq)
H2(g) + CuO(s) ⎯→ Cu(s) + H2O(l)
ii. Hydrogen acts as a reducing agent, hence reduces certain oxides of metals below it in the
electrochemical series of metals.
ZnO + H2 ⎯→ Zn + H2O
Fe3O4 + 4H2 ⎯→ 3Fe + 4H2O
Q.26.*Explain the term hydrogenation. (NCERT)
OR
How does hydrogen react with various organic compounds to give useful, commercially important
products?
Ans: The reaction in which hydrogen gas reacts with unsaturated organic compounds in the presence of a catalyst
to form hydrogenated (saturated) compounds is called hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation gives some useful products of commercial importance.
eg.
i. Hydrogenation of polyunsaturated vegetable oil gives solid edible fats like margarine and vanaspati
ghee.
Vegetable oil + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Finely divided Ni
450K,8 −10 atm
Solid fat
(i.e., vanaspati ghee)
The reaction is also called as hardening of oil wherein liquid oil (containing unsaturated triglycerides)
gets converted into solid fat (containing saturated triglycerides).
8

ii. Hydrogenation of olefins gives corresponding aldehydes which further undergo reduction to give
corresponding alcohol.
H2 + CO + CH3CH = CH2 ⎯→ CH3CH2CH2CHO
Propene Butyraldehyde
(Olefin) (Aldehyde)
H2 + CH3CH2CH2CHO ⎯→ CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Butyraldehyde n-Butyl alcohol
(Butanal) (Butan-1-ol)
9.6 Uses of dihydrogen

Q.27.*What are the uses of dihydrogen?
OR
Give various applications of dihydrogen.
Ans: Dihydrogen is used in
i. the manufacture of vanaspati fat (ghee) by hydrogenation of polyunsaturated vegetable oils like
soyabean, cotton seed, etc.
ii. the synthesis of ammonia, by Haber’s process.
iii. the manufacture of methanol, hydrogen chloride and metal hydrides. (i.e., ionic hydrides, covalent
hydrides and interstitial hydrides)
iv. fuel cells, for generating electrical energy.
v. metallurgy, to reduce heavy metal oxides to metals.
vi. atomic hydrogen and oxyhydrogen torches.
vii. rocket fuel (mixture of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen).
Q.28. Mention the benefits of using dihydrogen in fuel cell for generating electrical energy.
Ans: i. Using dihydrogen in fuel cell has many advantages over conventional fossil fuels and electric power.
ii. In comparison to gasoline and other fuels, dihydrogen releases greater energy per unit mass of fuel
and does not produce pollution.
*Q.29.How does the atomic hydrogen or oxy-hydrogen torch function for cutting and welding purposes?
Explain. (NCERT)
Ans: i. For cutting and welding of metals, very high temperature is required.
ii. Atomic hydrogen is produced when molecular hydrogen (dihydrogen gas) at atmospheric pressure is
passed through an electric arc struck between two tungsten electrodes at 3773−4273 K.
H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Electric arc
3773 − 4273K
→ 2H ∆H = 435.90 kJ mol−1
Molecular Atomic
hydrogen hydrogen
iii. The atomic hydrogen atoms thus produced have a very short life time of 0.3 seconds and are
extremely reactive.
iv. The atomic hydrogen atoms get immediately converted into molecular form and during this
conversion, large amount of energy is liberated.
v. Thus, atomic hydrogen or oxy-hydrogen torches are used for cutting and welding purposes, wherein
atomic hydrogen atoms are allowed to recombine to generate a temperature of 4000 K on the surface
to be welded.
9.7 Hydrides (ionic, covalent, interstitial)
*Q.30. What are hydrides? Mention different types of hydrides.
Ans: i. Hydrides:
a. Dihydrogen, under certain reaction conditions combines with almost all elements (except noble
gases) to form binary compounds, called hydrides.
b. Hydrides can be represented as EHx (eg. LiH, MgH2) or EmHn (eg. B2H6), where E is the symbol
of an element.
9

ii. Hydrides are classified into three categories:
a. Ionic or saline or salt like hydrides: eg. LiH, MgH2
b. Covalent or molecular hydrides: eg. H2O, NH3
c. Metallic or non-stoichiometric or interstitial hydrides: eg. TiH1.8−2.0, LaH2.87
Q.31.*Explain ionic hydrides.

OR
Write a note on ionic or saline hydrides.
Ans: i. Ionic hydrides or saline hydrides are formed by the combination of hydrogen with metals having low
electronegativity values. These hydrides are stoichiometric compounds with highly electropositive
character.
ii. These include elements of s-block i.e., of group 1 (alkali metals), group 2 (alkaline earth metals).
However, stability of these hydrides decreases down the group.
iii. Ionic hydrides are generally crystalline, non-volatile and non-conducting in solid state.
iv. However, in the fused state, they conduct electricity liberating hydrogen at the anode, which indicates
the presence of hydride (H−) ion.
2H−(melt) ⎯⎯⎯
anode
→ H2(g) + 2e−
v. Saline hydrides react violently with water to produce dihydrogen gas.
KH(s) + H2O(aq) ⎯→ KOH(aq) + H2(g)
vi. Lighter metal hydrides such as LiH, BeH2 and MgH2 exhibit significant covalent character. BeH2 and
MgH2 are polymeric in structure.
vii. Lithium hydride is used in the synthesis of other hydrides, as it does not react with Cl2 or O2 at
moderate temperature.
8LiH + Al2Cl6 ⎯→ 2LiAlH4 + 6LiCl
2LiH + B2H6 ⎯→ 2LiBH4
Q.32.*Explain covalent hydrides.

OR
Write a note on covalent or molecular hydrides.
Ans: i. Covalent or molecular hydrides are formed by a reaction of dihydrogen with most of the p–block
elements.
eg. H2O, CH4, NH3 and HF.
ii. Covalent hydrides are volatile compounds.
iii. Molecular or covalent hydrides are further classified according to the relative number of electrons and
bonds in their Lewis structure into
a. Electron - deficient hydride: eg. diborane (B2H6), aluminium hydride (AlH3), etc.
b. Electron - precise hydride: eg. methane (CH4), silicon hydride (SiH4), etc.
c. Electron - rich hydride: eg. ammonia (NH3), water (H2O), hydrogen fluoride (HF), etc.
Q.33. *Explain the term electron deficient compounds of hydrogen with suitable examples. (NCERT)
OR
Write a note on electron deficient hydrides.
Ans: i. Hydrides of group 13 elements i.e., the boron family (eg. BH3, AlH3, etc.) do not have sufficient
number of electrons to form normal covalent bonds and hence, are called electron deficient hydrides.
ii. These hydrides have very few electrons for writing their conventional Lewis structure.
eg. Diborane (B2H6).
iii. These hydrides behave as Lewis acids (electron pair acceptors).
iv. To make up for this deficiency, they generally exist in polymeric forms such as B2H6, Al2H6, etc.
10

Q.34. *Explain the term electron precise compounds of hydrogen with suitable examples. (NCERT)
OR
Write a note on electron precise hydrides.
Ans: i. Hydrides of group 14 elements i.e., the carbon family (eg. CH4, SiH4, GeH4, SnH4, PbH4) have exact
number of electrons to form covalent bonds and hence, are called electron-precise hydrides.
ii. These hydrides have the required number of electrons to write their conventional Lewis structures.
iii. All these compounds possess tetrahedral geometry.
Q.35. *Explain the term electron rich compounds of hydrogen with suitable examples. (NCERT)
OR
Write a note on electron rich hydrides.
Ans: i. Hydrides of group 15, 16 and 17 elements i.e., the nitrogen family, oxygen family and fluorine family
respectively, have excess electrons which are present as lone pairs and hence, these hydrides are
known as electron-rich hydrides.
ii. These hydrides behave as Lewis bases (electron pair donors).
eg. Molecules of NH3, H2O and HF contain one, two and three lone pairs of electrons respectively and
thus behave as Lewis bases.
H N H H O F
H H H
iii. The presence of lone pairs of electrons on the highly electronegative atoms like N (3.0), O (3.5) and
F (4.0) in their corresponding hydrides results in hydrogen bond formation of considerable magnitude
between the molecules which in turn leads to association of molecules.
iv. Hence, the boiling points of NH3, H2O and HF is higher than the hydrides of their subsequent group
members.
#Q.36.Among NH3, H2O and HF, which would you expect to have highest magnitude of hydrogen bonding
and why? (NCERT)
Ans: i. Hydrogen bond is formed due to greater difference in the electronegativity of H-atom and the other
atom involved in the bond formation.
ii. Among N (3.0), O (3.5) and F (4.0), fluorine is the most electronegative atom.
iii. Hence, among the hydrides NH3, H2O and HF, the electronegativity difference between H and F atom
is the greatest.
iv. Hence, HF has the highest magnitude of hydrogen bonding (in which H carries partial positive charge
and F carries partial negative charge) than NH3 and H2O.
δ-
δ+ δ−
O δ−
H H H δ+
H F
δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- F
H δ−
H N H N H N 140o
δ+ O δ+ δ+ δ+ δ+
H H H H H H
δ+ H H
H
δ+ δ− δ−
δ−
O H F F
(a) δ−
δ+
H
δ+ O
H
δ+ (c)
H
(b)
Hydrogen bonding in (a) NH3 (b) H2O (c) HF
11

Q.37. Distinguish between ionic hydrides and covalent hydrides.
Ans:
No. Ionic hydrides Covalent hydrides
i. Ionic hydrides are formed by s-block i. Covalent hydrides are formed by p-block
elements. elements.
ii. Ionic hydrides are crystalline, non-volatile ii. Covalent hydrides are gaseous or volatile
in solid state. liquid compounds.
iii. Formed generally by metals. iii. Formed by non-metals.
Q.38. Write a note on metallic hydrides.

Ans: i. Most of the d-block elements and f-block elements form metallic hydrides.
ii. Only chromium from 6th group forms hydride like CrH whereas Mn group (7th group), Fe group (8th
group) and cobalt group (9th group) do not form hydrides.
iii. Metallic or interstitial hydrides conduct heat and electricity, though not as efficiently as their parent
metals.
iv. These hydrides are almost always non-stoichiometric being deficient in hydrogen.
eg.
TiH1.8−2 LaH2.87
YbH2.55 ZrH1.3 − 1. 75
VH0.56 NiH0.6 − 0.7, etc
v. In such hydrides, the law of constant proportion does not hold good as the quantity of hydrogen does
not bear an exact stoichiometric ratio to the metal.
vi. Earlier it was thought that, hydrogen atoms produce distortion in metal lattices (without any change in
its type) by occupying interstitial positions. Consequently they were termed as interstitial hydrides.
vii. However, recent studies have shown that metallic hydrides have different lattice structure from that of
parent metal (Exception: Hydrides of Ni, Pd, Ce and Ac).
viii. Transition metals have greater tendency to adsorb hydrogen. This property is widely used in
preparing large number of compounds by catalytic reduction or hydrogenation reactions.
ix. Metals like platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd) are used as a hydrogen storage media and as a source of
energy as they can accommodate a very large volume of hydrogen.
Note:
Hydrides formed by elements like B (eg. B2H6), Al [eg. (AlH3)x] and Ga (eg. Ga2H6) are called as polynuclear
hydrides.
Characteristics of different hydrides:
Type Formed by Physical character Bonding Examples

Ionic s-block elements Salt like solids, good Largely LiH, NaH, CaH2
conductors in fused state. ionic
Molecular p-block elements Gaseous or volatile liquids, Covalent HF, H2O, CH4,
or non-conductors. H2S
covalent
Metallic or d and f-block Metallic appearance, Partly ionic ZrH1.3−1.75,TiH1.8−2,
interstitial elements conductors/ semi- and LaH2.87
conductors. metallic
bond
12

9.8 Water (physical and chemical properties of water)

Q.39. “Chemistry of world is chemistry of water”⎯Justify.
Ans: i. Water is the most common, abundant and easily obtainable of all chemical compounds. It is a crucial
compound for survival of life on earth.
ii. Human body has about 65% and some plants have 95% water which indicates that a major part of all
living organisms is made up of water.
iii. Water is an universal solvent and can exist in solid, liquid and gaseous form. It is used as a principal
cleansing agent, acids in speeding up chemical action and is the basic material needed by almost all
industries.
iv. Life on earth would be totally impossible in the absence of water. Thus, it is rightly said that the
‘Chemistry of world is the chemistry of water.’
Note:
The distribution of water over the earth’s surface is not uniform. The estimated source of water supply is
given in table below:
Source % of Total
Oceans 97.33
Saline lakes and inland sea 0.008
Polar ice and glaciers 2.04
Underground water 0.61
Lakes 0.009
Soil moisture 0.005
Atmospheric water vapour 0.001
Rivers 0.0001
Q.40.What are the physical properties of water?
Ans: Physical properties of water:
i. Water is a colourless, tasteless liquid.
ii. Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity.
iii. It has high dielectric constant (78.39).
iv. Its boiling point is 373 K and freezing point 273 K.
v. Its density is 1.00 g cm−3.
vi. There is extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules.
Note:
Physical properties of water are given below:
Properties H2O
i. Molecular mass (g mol−1) 18.0151
ii. Enthalpy of formation (kJ mol−1) −285.9
iii. Enthalpy of fusion (kJ mol−1) 6.01
iv. Enthalpy of vapourization (kJ mol−1) 40.66
v. Melting point (K) 273
vi. Boiling point (K) 373
vii. Temperature of maximum density (K) 276.98
viii. Density at 298 K (g cm−3) 1.0000
ix. Dielectric constant (C2 / N.m2) 78.39
x. Electrical conductivity at 293 K (ohm−1 cm−1) 5.7 × 10−8
xi. Viscosity (centipoise) 0.8903
13

Q.41. Water shows unusual properties in the condensed phase. Explain.
Ans: i. In the condensed phase (i.e., in liquid and solid phase), it has been observed that properties like
freezing point, boiling point, heat of vapourization and heat of fusion of water are abnormally higher
than those of hydrides of other elements of group 16. (H2S, H2Se, etc.)
ii. The presence of extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules results in the unusual
properties of water in the condensed phase.
Q.42. Why is water called as universal solvent?
Ans: i. Water has a high dielectric constant. Hence, it has high ability to dissolve most of the inorganic
(ionic) compounds.
ii. Also most of the organic covalent compounds like alcohols, carboxylic acids, carbohydrates, urea,
etc., are able to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules and thus, they dissolve in water.
iii. Water can serve as a solvent for variety of compounds and it is also available in abundance.
Thus, water is regarded as a universal solvent.
Note:
Water is capable of dissolving most of the inorganic (ionic) compounds, except for some ionic compounds
like AgCl, BaSO4, CaF2, AlF3, etc., which are insoluble in it owing to their exceptionally high attractive
forces in the lattice.
Q.43. How does unique properties of water help to maintain the biosphere?
Ans: i. The high heat of vapourization and heat capacity of water are responsible for moderation of climate
and body temperature of living organisms.
ii. Properties like specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface tension, dipole moment and dielectric
constant of water have higher values compared to other liquids.
iii. Plant and animal metabolism requires transportation of ions and molecules. Water (being an universal
solvent) serves as an excellent solvent for this purpose.
iv. Due to these unique properties, water plays a key role in the biosphere.
Q.44. Describe the structure of water.
Ans: i. Water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
ii. The oxygen atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation and two O−H bonds (bond length 95.7 pm) are formed
by sp-s overlapping.
iii. The repulsion forces between two lone pairs present on oxygen atom gives a bent or angular structure
to water molecule with a H − O − H bond angle of 104°35′.
iv. Structure of water is as shown in the following figure:
lone pair of electrons Lone pair of
electrons
sp3 hybrid
orbitals
of oxygen O
O 2δ−
95.7 pm O
H 104°35′
δ+
δ+ H
H 104°35′ H H
H s-orbitals of
hydrogen
(a) (b) (c)
(a) The bent structure of water molecule (b) The water molecule as a dipole and
(c) the sp3-s orbital overlap in a water molecule
v. It is a highly polar molecule (as shown in figure b). In the liquid phase, water molecules are
associated together with hydrogen bonds.
vi. In solid phase, water is present in the crystalline form i.e., ice.
Ice crystallizes in the hexagonal form at atmospheric pressure and condenses to cubic form at very
low temperatures.
14

Q.45. Describe the hydrogen bonding in water.

Ans: i. Polar nature of water molecules results in the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds which hold
the water molecules together.
ii. As a result, an extensive three dimensional network is formed as shown in the figure below.
iii. In this arrangement, each oxygen is tetrahedrally surrounded by four hydrogen atoms, two linked by
covalent bonds and two by hydrogen bonds.
H
H H
O
H O
O H H
H H
O H
O Hydrogen bonds
H
H
O H O H
H
Hydrogen bonds
Q.46. Explain the structure of ice.

Ans: i. The crystalline form of water is ice and it has a highly ordered
three dimensional hydrogen bonded structure.
ii. Ice crystallizes in the hexagonal form at atmospheric pressure
and condenses to cubic form at very low temperatures.
iii. X-ray study of ice shows that each oxygen atom is surrounded
tetrahedrally by four hydrogen atoms at a distance of 276 pm.
iv. Thus, due to hydrogen bonding, structure of ice appears as an =O
open cage with wide holes. =H
v. These holes can hold some other molecules of appropriate size The structure of ice
interstitially.
Q.47. “Why does ice float on water?” Explain.

Ans: i. Liquid water and ice consists of aggregates of varying number of water molecules held together by
hydrogen bonds.
ii. Due to the hydrogen bonding, ice has an open cage-like structure having a number of vacant spaces.
iii. When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are broken and the water molecules go in between the vacant
spaces in the structure. As a result, the structure of liquid water is less open than structure of ice.
iv. Therefore, the density of ice is less than that of water and consequently ice floats over water.
Q.48.*What is auto-protolysis of water? What is its significance? (NCERT)
OR
Write a note on amphoteric nature of water.
Ans: i. Auto-protolysis of water means self ionization of water. It may be represented as,
+ −
ZZX H3O(aq)
H2O(l) + H2O(l) YZZ + OH (aq)
acid-1 base-2 acid-2 base-1
(Acid) (Base) (Conjugate (Conjugate
acid) base)
15

ii. Due to auto-protolysis, water is considered as amphoteric in nature i.e., it has the ability to act as an acid
as well as base. Water, in accordance with Bronsted concept, acts as a base towards acids stronger than
itself (like hydrogen chloride) and as an acid towards bases stronger than itself (like ammonia).
eg.
ZZX OH (−aq ) + NH +4( aq ) (Water as an acid)
H2O(l) + NH3(aq) YZZ
acid base
ZZX H 3O(+aq ) + Cl(−aq ) (Water as a base)
H2O(l) + HCl (aq) YZZ
base acid
Q.49. Explain the redox reactions involving water.

OR
Show that water can be a source of dihydrogen as well as oxygen.
Ans: i. Highly electropositive metals like Na can easily reduce water to dihydrogen.
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) ⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Thus, it is a great source of dihydrogen.
ii. During, photosynthesis, oxidation of water to O2 takes place.
sunlight
6CO2(g) +12H2O(l) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
chlorophyll
→ C6H12O6 (aq) + 6H2O(l) + 6O2(g)
iii. With fluorine, water gets oxidized to O2.

2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) ⎯→ 4H+(aq) + 4F−(aq) + O2(g)
iv. Thus, water can be a source of both dihydrogen as well as oxygen i.e., it can undergo both reduction
as well as oxidation reaction (redox behaviour).
Q.50. What is hydrolysis? Explain the hydrolysis of covalent ionic compounds.
Ans: Hydrolysis: Decomposition of a compound in the presence of water is called as hydrolysis. OR
Interaction of H+ and OH− ions of H2O with anion and the cation of a salt respectively to give the original
acid and original base is called hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis of covalent and ionic compounds:
i. Water which is a universal solvent, has very strong solvating tendency due to high dielectric constant.
ii. It dissolves many ionic compounds. However, certain covalent and some ionic compounds are
hydrolysed in water.
eg.
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) ⎯→ 4H3PO4(aq)
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) ⎯→ SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) ⎯→ Ca(OH)2(aq)
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) ⎯→ C2H2(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) ⎯→ 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Na2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) ⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(l)
*Q.51. Complete the following chemical reactions:
i. CaO + H2O ⎯→ ii. AlCl3 + H2O ⎯→
iii. Ca3N2(s) + H2O(l) ⎯→
Ans: i. CaO(s) + H2O(l) ⎯→ Ca(OH)2(aq) ii. AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) ⎯→ Al(OH)3(s) +3HCl(aq)
iii. Ca3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) ⎯→ 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Q.52. Write a note on formation of hydrates.
Ans: i. Hydration means addition of H2O to ions or molecules to form hydrated ions or hydrated salts.
ii. Many salts can be crystallized as hydrated salts from their aqueous solution.
iii. Such an association of water is of the following different types.
a. Co-ordinated water: eg. [Cr(H2O)6]3+3Cl−
b. Interstitial water: eg. BaCl2.2H2O
c. Hydrogen-bonded water: eg. [Cu(H2O)4]2+ SO 24 − .H 2 O in CuSO4.5H2O
16

Note:
In case of [Cu(H2O)4]2+ SO 24 − .H 2 O , one water molecule, which is outside the bracket (co-ordination sphere), is
hydrogen bonded. The other four molecules of water are co-ordinated.
*Q.53.What is the difference between the terms hydrolysis and hydration? (NCERT)
+ −
Ans: i. Interaction of H and OH ions of H2O with anion and the cation of a salt respectively to give the
original acid and original base is called hydrolysis.
eg. Na2CO3 + 2H2O ⎯→ 2NaOH + H2CO3
Salt Base Acid
ii. Hydration means addition of H2O to ions or molecules to form hydrated ions or hydrated salts.
eg. CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) ⎯→ CuSO4.5H2O(s)
Salt Hydrated salt
(Colourless) (Blue)
9.9 Heavy water

Q.54. What is heavy water? What are its uses?
Ans: i. Heavy water is also called as ‘Deuterium oxide’ (D2O).
ii. It is the water which contains deuterium i.e., heavy hydrogen ( 12 H ), an isotope of hydrogen.
iii. Uses:
a. Heavy water slows down the fast moving neutrons and hence, is used as moderator in the
radioactive nuclear reactors.
b. It is used as tracer compound in determining the mechanism of many organic reactions.
c. It is also used in the preparation of other deuterium compounds.
Note:
Urey in 1932 discovered heavy water.
Q.55. Give an account of the isotopic varieties of water?
Ans: i. Hydrogen and oxygen have 3 isotopic forms each and thus, there are 18 isotopic varieties of water
which are possible. Hydrogen has three isotopes namely, protium ( 11 H ), dueterium ( 12 H or D) and
tritium ( 13 H or T).
ii. The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium which has only one proton in its nucleus and no
neutron. Water with protium isotope is also known as protium water or ordinary water and is vital for
life processes.
iii. A dueterium atom contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleus and when combined with
oxygen, it forms heavy water (D2O).
Mass of dueterium atom is about twice the mass of ordinary hydrogen atom (i.e., it is 1.998 times
heavier).
Thus, in context of mass, a given volume of heavy water is about 11% heavier compared to the same
volume of the ordinary water.
Heavy water differs markedly from ordinary water in properties like freezing point (3.8 °C compared
to 0 °C of ordinary water) and boiling point (101.4 °C as compared to 100 °C of ordinary water).
iv. The tritium atom contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus and is about three times heavier
than ordinary hydrogen atom.
Tritium forms super-heavy water (T2O) by combining with oxygen.
The super-heavy water differs from ordinary water in properties like freezing point (T2O freezes at
9 °C), boiling point (T2O boils at 104 °C) and density (at 20 °C, density of T2O is 1.88 g/cm3).
v. Oxygen has three isotopic forms 16O, 17O, 18O.
17

Note:
1. Isotopic varieties of water.
H216O D216O T216O HD16O HT16O DT16O
(18) (20) (22) (19) (20) (21)
Lightest
water
(19) (21) (23) (20) (21) (22)
(20) (22) (24) (21) (22) (23)
Heaviest
water
Out of these 18 varieties of isotopic compounds of water, the lightest is H216O with a molecular
weight of 18 and heaviest is T218O with molecular weight of 24.
2. Water can be obtained from different sources like a pond, a pool, a river, a lake, a canal, a well or
even the sea. The abundance of any given isotopic variety of water depends upon the source from
which it has been taken.
eg.
Source Abundance of heavy water
(in gm per tonne)
Ordinary 150
tap water
Pacific 165
ocean
This difference is due to a process of isotopic exchange occuring continuously in nature.
#Q.56.Knowing the properties of H2O and D2O, do you think that D2O can be used for drinking purpose?
Ans: D2O cannot be used for drinking due to the following reasons:
i. D2O is about 11% heavier and denser than H2O.
ii. It boils at higher temperature i.e., 101.4 °C and freezes at 3.8 °C
iii. It is mildly toxic and can interfere with normal functioning of our body.
iv. Heavy water slows down the rates of biochemical reactions occurring in plants, animals and human
beings. Hence, D2O is injurious and not suitable for drinking purpose.
Note:
The physical properties of D2O are as tabulated below:
Property D2O
Molecular mass (g mol−1) 20.0276
Melting point (K) 276.8
Boiling point (K) 374.4
Enthalpy of formation (kJ mol−1) −294.4
Enthalpy of vapourization at 373K (kJ mol−1) 41.61
Temperature of maximum density (K) 284.2
Density at 298 K (g cm−3) 1.1059
Viscosity (centipoise) 1.107
Dielectric constant (C2 / N.m2) 78.06
Electrical conductivity at 293 K (ohm−1 cm−1) -
18

32. The volume strength of 1.5 N H2O2 solution is Answers to Practice Problems
_______.
(A) 4.8 (B) 8.4 1. 10 volumes. 2. 3.57 N
(C) 3.0 (D) 8.0 3. 0.759 g. 4. 30 volumes.
33. Dihedral angle in H2O2 in crystalline state is
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions
_______.
(A) 90.2° (B) 109°28′ 1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (D) 4. (B)
(C) 120° (D) 94.8° 5. (D) 6. (B) 7. (D) 8. (C)
9. (A) 10. (B) 11. (B) 12. (A)
34. The structure of H2O2 is _______.
(A) planar (B) non-planar 13. (B) 14. (B) 15. (D) 16. (B)
(C) spherical (D) linear 17. (D) 18. (D) 19. (D) 20. (D)
21. (C) 22. (C) 23. (C) 24. (D)
35. H2O2 is _______.
25. (B) 26. (B) 27. (D) 28. (B)
(A) diamagnetic
29. (C) 30. (C) 31. (B) 32. (B)
(B) paramagnetic
33. (A) 34. (B) 35. (A) 36. (B)
(C) ferromagnetic
37. (C) 38. (A) 39. (D) 40. (C)
(D) non-magnetic
36. H2O2 exhibits a dipole moment of _______.
(A) 1.2 D (B) 2.1 D
(C) 1.0 D (D) 2.0 D
37. H2O2 does NOT act as a _______.
(A) reducing agent
(B) oxidizing agent
(C) dehydrating agent
(D) bleaching agent
9.11 Hydrogen as a fuel
38. _______ is present as an impurity in dihydrogen.
(A) Nitrogen
(B) Oxygen
(C) Helium
(D) Carbon monoxide
39. Which of the following represents cathode
reaction in fuel cell?
1
(A) 2OH− ⎯→ H2O + O2 + 2e−
2
(B) 2H2O + 2e− ⎯→ H2 + 2OH−
1
(C) O2 + H2O + 2e− ⎯→ 2OH−
2
(D) H2 + 2OH− ⎯→ 2H2O + 2e−
40. _______ is the main energy currency in
hydrogen economy.
(A) Electricity
(B) Water
(C) Dihydrogen gas
(D) Dioxygen gas
34

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ii. Alkenes R − CH = CH − R H2C = CH2

iii. Alkynes R−C≡C−R HC ≡ CH

iv. Alkyl halides −X R−X CH3Br

v. Alkyl cyanides or nitriles −C≡N R−C≡N CH3 − CN

vii. Alcohols − OH R − OH CH3OH

viii. Phenols − OH Ar − OH C6H5OH

ix. Amines − NH2 R − NH2 C2H5NH2

x. Ethers R – O – R′ CH3 − O − CH3

xii. Ketones C R C R′ CH3 C CH3

xiii. Carboxylic acids C OH R C OH H C OH

xv. Amides C NH2 R C NH2 CH3 C NH2

xvi. Acid anhydrides C O C R C O C R CH3 C O C CH3

xvii. Acyl chlorides C Cl C Cl

xviii. Sulphonic acids SO3H R SO3H C2H5 SO3H

11 p - Block Elements (Groups 13 and 14) 65

Basic Principles and Techniques in Organic 112

16 Aromatic Compounds 295

17 Environmental Chemistry 320

`Chapters 1 to 8 are a part of Std. XI Chemistry - I'

3. Formation of halides, oxides and sulphides:

3. Formation of diatomic molecules and other covalent compounds:

b. Ionization enthalpy of hydrogen and halogens:

Q.11.*Explain the laboratory methods for preparation of di-hydrogen.

v. Hydrogen can also be prepared by action of KOH on scrap aluminium or silicon.

At cathode : 2H+ + 2e− ⎯→ 2H; 2H ⎯→ H2(g)↑

Q.13. How can pure dihydrogen be obtained from barium hydroxide?

Q.14. How is hydrogen obtained from water gas?

The overall reaction is,

Q.16. How is hydrogen gas prepared from coke or hydrocarbons?

eg. CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯⎯

ii. Water gas shift reaction:

This reaction is called water gas shift reaction.

*Q.19.Complete the following chemical reactions:

ii. Zn(s) + NaOH ⎯⎯⎯

9.5 Properties of dihydrogen

*Q.20.What are the physical properties of dihydrogen?

Q.21. Describe the chemical behaviour of dihydrogen.

Q.24. What happens when dihydrogen reacts with:

ii. Dihydrogen reacts with dinitrogen (Haber’s process):

iii. Dihydrogen reacts with sodium metal:

Q.25. Explain the reducing nature of hydrogen.

9.6 Uses of dihydrogen

Q.31.*Explain ionic hydrides.

Q.32.*Explain covalent hydrides.

Q.38. Write a note on metallic hydrides.

Characteristics of different hydrides:

Type Formed by Physical character Bonding Examples

9.8 Water (physical and chemical properties of water)

Q.45. Describe the hydrogen bonding in water.

Q.46. Explain the structure of ice.

Q.47. “Why does ice float on water?” Explain.

Q.49. Explain the redox reactions involving water.

iii. With fluorine, water gets oxidized to O2.

9.9 Heavy water

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