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Tuesday, 1 September 2015

B.Ed.Notes-Educational Management
EDU. 106. EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Module I - Educational Management

Prepared by

SABARISH-P

M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET

Assistant Professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education

Attur, Thrissur.

Contact me : pklsabarish@gmail.com

 Management – Meaning
• Management means steering an organization towards specified objectives through certain
processes.

• The collective body of those who manage or direct any enterprises.

• Management means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals.

• Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.

 Meaning/definition of educational management

 • ‘Steering an educational institution towards specified objectives through certain
processes’.- Paul Monroe

• Educational Management is an organized group working as an executive authority which takes

decisions on human resources, finance, equipments, proper planning and achieve its aims.

• Educational Management is an authoritative programme of determining educational programmes

and implementing them

• It is concerned with both human and material resources.

• The human elements include: (i) Children, (ii) parents, (iii) teachers and (iv) other employees in
general.

• On the material side there are (a) finance, (b) buildings and grounds, (c) equipments and
instructional supplies. Besides, there are ideas, laws and regulations and so on, having a bearing
on the educational process.

• The blending of these 'parts' into a 'whole' is educational management.

 Need/Importance of education management

• For Effective and efficient functioning.

• To bring qualitative changes.

• Achieving group goals

• Optimum utilization of resources

• Expansion and diversification

• Motivate members

• Good interpersonal relationships

 Scope of Educational Management

• Providing human resources like teaching/non-teaching staff to schools/colleges.

• Preparing academic time-tables.

• Looking after proper functioning of school (like discipline, teaching, examination etc.)
 • Maintaining records properly.

• Encouraging educational researches and publication etc.

• Providing material resources

 Functions of Educational Management

• Planning

• Organizing

• Directing

• Motivating

• Decision making

• Evaluating

1) Planning

a. Most basic and extensive process in management.

b. It means deciding in advance what result are to be achieved and what actions are to
be taken for the same and who should take such actions, where , when and how.

2) Organizing

a. It is the process of grouping people and activities at the disposal of an organization.

b. In a judicious manner, people and activities have to be grouped to produce the best
results by following

c. the most appropriate sequence of events

3) Directing

a. To function school properly, proper direction should be given to head master,

teachers, students and parents.

b. Direction strengthens the relationship among various units related to institution.

 4) Motivating

a. This means the continuous process of generation sufficient interest to each individual
to carry out actions that can be benefit the organization.

b. As strategies for motivation both monetary and non-monetary rewards are used.

5) Decision making

a. This means converting intentions to action plans on a rational basis, on the basis of a
perceived relationship between actions and outcomes.

b. Decision making is the essence of all management.

6) Evaluating

a. Evaluation is the process by which we judge the value of a thing.

b. It is the process of determining the extent to which an educational or institutional

objective attained

 Aspects of Educational Management (5M’s)

 Management of Men

 Management of Money

 Management of Machines

 Management of Material

 Management of Method

 Factors influenced the development of Educational management

 Growing complexity of educational enterprise

 Modern technological development

 Ever changing pattern of education

 Rising cost of education

 Increasing politicization of education

 Social changes
 Institutional Climate
 Set of characteristics that

- describe an organization

- Distinguishes an organization from other

- Relatively permanent over time

- Influences the behaviour of people in organization

• Personality of an organization

 Institutional Climate-Meaning

• Otherwise called as Organizational Climate

• Organizational Climate is the human environment in which employees do their work.

• Organizational Climate refers to enduring quality of the internal environment that experienced by
the members of an organization.

 Organizational/Institutional Climate - Characteristics

• Each organization has its own climate.

• Organizational Climate consists of a set of characteristics that describe an organization to

distinguish it from other organizations.

• One cannot see it but one can experience it.

• Organizational Climate influences motivation, performance and job satisfaction

 Types of Institutional Climate

• Open Climate

• Controlled Climate

• Familiar Climate

• Paternal Climate

• Closed Climate
 • Autocratic climate

• Custodial climate

• Supportive, Autonomous orDemocratic Climate

1) Open Climate

It is characterized by teacher relations that are professional, collegial, friendly, and committed to
the education of students.

The principal/management is supportive and professional and does not restrict or direct teachers
with orders.

2) Controlled Climate

Importance is given to the completion of tasks and little time is devoted to social life.

Teachers appear to be entirely devoted to their work and spend full time on fulfilling them. There is little
time available for interaction between each other.

Students are also heavily engaged with the tasks and are given little time to give over to the extracurricular
activities.

The principals usually keeps his distance from the teachers, students and parents in order to avoid any
degree of familiarity.

3) Familiar Climate

It is described as a sort of “laissez-faire” atmosphere. (let them do it).

The principal is much interested in maintaining a social atmosphere that favors the fulfillment of any
particular task. Thus, a significant number of teachers is not committed to their main task.

Most of the students do not take their learning process seriously and some others have hollow excuses
to be out of school or to be absent from it (unexcused absences).

Most parents are not involved in their children’s education,

4) Paternal Climate

In this the school principal is a hard-working person, but he falls short of having any effects on the staff;.

There is a degree of approachability between the leaders and teachers.

The school principal is full of life and lively, but his management style tends to lean on the autocratic side.
 Majority of the teachers, students and parents prefer to keep their cautious distance from the leader.

5) Closed Climate

It represents the opposite to the open climate.

It is primarily concerned with the lack of commitment and productivity.

There is no commitment particularly on the part of both the principal and teachers.

Teachers respond to with a minimum degree.

The school principal tends to be stern and wielding control. As a result, most of the teachers tend to be
frustrated and ineffective.

6) Autocratic climate

Managers uses authority to complete the work.

Employees live on the subsistence level and depend upon boss.

Employee is inherently distasteful to work and try to avoid responsibility.

Better performance is ensured through fear, threats, punishment and occasional rewards.

Little interaction between managers and employees

7) Custodial climate

Management decides what is good for the employees.

Not well recommended for matured employees.

In this climate employee depend on organization.

Employee feel happy but do not enjoy freedom and autonomy.

In this climate management feels it is their official right to decide what to be or not to be provided to
employee.

8) Supportive, Autonomous or Democratic Climate

In this employees are participated in decision making and interact with management in organizational
matters.
 This model of climate believes that employees are self motivated and have self direction and control.

Democratic climate help employees to fulfill their higher order needs such as esteem and self
actualization.

Supportive climate create conductive environment and best can be extracted from the employees.

There are no external threats or influence.

There is a close relationship between the managers, teachers, students and parents.

 Characteristics of Democratic Climate

• Employees like to perform the job with pleasure and satisfaction.

• Employees like to be in association with others.

• Managers experience that Employees follow their orders with respect.

• Managers’ instructions will be pleasantly obliged by the subordinates.

• Subordinates will work hard and show confidence in their superiors.

• Employees work happily and associate with the organization for a long time.

• Employees develop a sense of attachment with the organization.

• It results in increased job performance.

• It improves cooperation and bring unity.

• It keeps organization healthy.

• It creates favorable atmosphere among teachers, students parents etc

• An environment of mutual trust exists

• Co-operative planning, Discussion of problems

• Entire participation, encouragement

• Social gathering of staff, students, society members.

 Factors influencing Institutional Climate

• Leadership style

• Organizational policies

• Managerial values

• Organizational size

• Characteristics of members

• Economic conditions

• Factors influencing Institutional Climate

1) Leadership style

• There is a positive correlation between a good organizational climate and leadership style.

• In order to increase organizational performance, managers should, consequently, make use of

leadership styles that had already proven their positive impact on the working environment.

• Autocratic Leader - Autocratic climate

• Supportive/Democratic Leader - Supportive/Democratic climate

2) Organizational policies

• Organizational policy guides how organizations and businesses operate.

• Policies can be guidelines, rules, regulations, laws, principles, or directions

3) Managerial values

• Every organization has its own values. These values are communicated to employees through rules,
regulations and policies so that they can adapt them selves and modify their behavior.

• The values held by managers have a strong influence on organizational climate, because values
lead to actions and shape decisions

4) Organizational size
 • Most of research studies show a strong positive correlation between organizational climate and
Institutional climate.

• Small organizations are responsive and flexible and this guarantees them success.

• It is more difficult for management in large organizations to give the appropriate amount of
management to its subordinates

5) Characteristics of members

• Most of the research studies show that Characteristics of Members influence Institutional Climate.

• The climate should be friendly not only between students but also between teachers.

6) Economic conditions

• Economic condition also influences the organizational climate.

• Economic condition is closely correlated to the physical conditions of the organization.

• More sound the economic condition better the institutional climate.

 Organizational Process (in Schools)

• Academic planning

• Resource mobilization

• Co-curricular activities planning

• Time allocation

• Monitoring

• Evaluating

• Feedback

1) Academic planning

Academic planning includes

Planning and approval for new academic programs,

Substantial changes to those programs

Planning and approval for academic departments and centers/institutes,

 Changes associated with Subjects and courses.

A good academic plan evolves from Self-Assesment and Knowledge.

2) Resource mobilization

• Includes Mobilise Financial, physical and human resources for the support and development of
infrastructure and programmes.

• Identify needs, Design appropriately by collecting systems according to requirements.

3) Co-curricular activities planning

• Through rich and diverse programmes students should be able to experience safe, enjoyable and
challenging activities which will enable them to develop and grow into successful and happy
young adults.

• Activities and programmes are to be planned for the kinesthetic and emotional developments of
every student.

4) Time allocation

• It is an important aspect of planning.

• Proper time is to be allocated for each and every aspect of curriculum.

5) Monitoring

• Monitoring the implementation of projects and programmes that are executed and managed at
various levels is essential for quality outputs.

6) Evaluating

• Evaluation is essential for obtaining valid information about the performance of an organisation
and factor that affect performance.

• It is essential for improving organizational performance

7) Feedback

• Detailed analysis of strengths and opportunities for improvement.

• Insight from all levels and groups in the organisation.

• Comparing performance with other organizations for improvement.

• It is essential for adaptation, changes, and hence for survival.

 Leadership - Meaning
• Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal.

 Educational Leadership
• “An educational Leader is always trying to get others to accept his decisions or his objectives, or
encourages them to join in some common purpose. His skill like that of any other leader. Have
the ability to make significant judgment and to encourage others to accept these judgments”-
Barky

 Qualities That Make a Great Leader

• Honesty

• Ability to Delegate

• Communication

• Sense of Humor

• Confidence

• Commitment

• Positive Attitude

• Creativity

• Intuition

• Ability to Inspire

 HM/Principal as a Leader and a manager

 Leader of Academic activities

 Administrative duties

 Discipline
 Human management

 Financial management of the school.

 Role of the Head Master

• Controller & Co-ordinator

• Organiser

• Administrator

• Supervisor

• Teacher

• Leader

• Young & Energetic management

 Duties and Responsibilities of HM

• Teaching: Headmaster of a school is a teacher first and last. Teaching is his fundamental duty.
Headmasters remain so much absorbed in other duties that they never enter classes. But they
should take at least two periods a day on specialized subjects. They should deliver or guide
demonstration classes. By actually teaching, the Headmaster comes to know the standard of
pupils in different classes and the standard of teaching in the school. He directly comes in contact
and understands difficulties of students and teachers.

• Planning: Unless the Headmaster plans for the school, there will be confusion all round. For making
proper planning, help of pupils, teachers, and parents should be taken. Most of the planning will
be there in course of discussions of school problems in the staff meetings and students councils

• Organization and Administration:The next important task of Headmaster is organization. In the

organization of school plant the headmaster should procure adequate furniture and equipment
for the school. He should make petty repairs, distribute the furniture, look to the buildings,
organize laboratories, the workshop and the library and take care of the sanitation and entire
material aspect of school plant. The Headmaster looks to the instructional work of the school
including construction of curriculum, preparation and distribution at syllabi, work distribution
among the staff, allotment of co-curricular duties, construction of the time schedule and the
school calendar.
 • Supervision: Supervision and administration are the two combined functions which are mostly
blended in one. Administration means performance of certain routine duties in connection with
finance, discipline, correspondence etc. By supervision it is meant the overseeing the work done
by the teaching staff. Supervision is improving the total teaching learning situation. This situation
is no more "detection or fault finding." A Headmaster should follow the following principles of
supervision.

1. Its purpose is to help, encourage and guide rather than criticize.

2. It should be done in a spirit of cooperation.

3. It should be done regularly and effectively.

4. Partiality and prejudice should find no place in it.

5. The criteria of supervision should be known to teachers.

Supervision of instructional work is the most important function of the Headmaster.

 Some specific Duties of HM

• School Supplies: This involves planning. Estimates are to be prepared regarding the quantity of
purchases to be made. Specification of each item is to be laid down and quotations have to be
invited and approved by the Headmaster. Goods ordered should be inspected and checked on
arrival. Headmaster will appoint a selection committee for purchase and maintenance of
equipments

• School Campus: School plant should provide adequate educational services. Best use of all the
rooms, laboratories, workshops and the farm is made. In case of over-crowding students may
attend laboratories in groups. School may be used for its specific uses. All school buildings should
be guarded against building hazards. The perfect up-keep of the school campus is the lookout of
the Headmaster

• Co-Curricular Activities: Over-all management of school co-curricular activities is the Headmaster's

responsibility. Various activities may of course, be distributed amongst the staff members in
accordance with their previous background, interest and aptitude. Adequate budget allotment
should be made for these activities. All wastage and unnecessary expenditure should be checked.
 • Office management: The modern conception of the Headmaster's office is that, it is a service
centre. Communication with higher authorities, the parents, the public, the teacher and the
students is made by the Headmaster. Among the specific duty on the Headmaster in respect of
efficient working of school office, the following are noteworthy. The office must be located at a
suitable place. It must be adequately spaced and proper up-keep ensured. Office work must be
distributed adequately among members of the office staff. Headmaster must supervise their
work, check irregularities, check inefficiency and ensure regular and prompt work.

• Headmaster must decide time to be devoted for office work. Headmaster must make note of his office
duties.

• Duties of Headmaster prescribed by Education Department and Managing Committee should be strictly
followed.

• The Headmaster should strictly obey the rules and regulations by the University or school Board, to which
the school is affiliated.

• Routine duties of the Headmaster should be admission, checking class registers, cash book, acquaintance
roll; attendance registers accounts of various fees and fines.

All these general duties and specific responsibilities of the Headmaster will go to make better schools.

 Performance Appraisal
• Systematic evaluation of the performance of the employees.

• The systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to understand the abilities of a
person for further growth and development

• The process by which a manager or consultant

(1) Examines and evaluates an employee's work behavior by comparing it with preset
standards,

(2) Documents the results of the comparison.

(3) Uses the results to provide feedback to the employee to show

where improvements are needed and why.
 Performance Appraisal-Importance

• Facilitates growth, development, efficiency and effectiveness.

• Performance appraisals are employed to determine who needs what training, and who will be
promoted, demoted, retained, or fired.

 Criteria of Performance Appraisal of Teachers

• Knowledge of content area

• Knowledge of Delivery Methods

• Pedagogic content knowledge. (PCK)

• Understanding the Learning Process

• Understanding of Student Needs

• Curriculum Alignment

• Ability to use Student Achievement Data in Planning Instruction

• Classroom Management

• Professional Growth/Continuous Improvement

• Ability to use Technology as a Tool in the Classroom

• Communication with Stakeholders Inside and Outside the School Setting

• Establishes relationships with colleagues, students and parents.

1) Knowledge of the content area:Content knowledge refers to the body of information that teachers
teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area, such as English
language, mathematics, science, or social studies. Content knowledge generally refers to the facts,
concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned.

2) Knowledge of Delivery Methods: Good teachers are expected to have an ability to transfer the
content to learners in an effective and appropriate way. Communicating ideas and concepts in a
simple, clear and sequential manner using examples where ever possible is an important criterion
for effective teaching.
3) Pedagogic content knowledge. (PCK): In addition to teachers' content knowledge and their
general knowledge of instructional methods (pedagogical knowledge), pedagogical content
knowledge was originally suggested as a third major component of teaching expertise, by Lee
Shulman. Pedagogical content knowledge is a type of knowledge that is unique to teachers, and is
based on the manner in which teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about
teaching) to their subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach). It is the
integration or the synthesis of teachers' pedagogical knowledge and their subject matter
knowledge that comprises pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge is a
form of knowledge that makes science teachers ‘teachers’ rather than scientists.

4) Understanding the Learning Process: In order to engage, motivate and teach all learners at
optimal levels, teachers must understand the learning process. There are six interactive
components of the learning process: attention, memory, language, processing and organizing,
writing and higher order thinking. These processes interact not only with each other, but also with
emotions, classroom climate, behavior, social skills, teachers and family. Most of the learning
process will involve four essential processes:

• Synthesising (bringing together information internally).

• Organising (making sense and ordering this information).

• Memorising (holding on to this information in order to use it at will).

• Communicating (making your ideas available to others).

5) Understanding of Student Needs: To effectively choose teaching methods and help students learn,
teacher must first know something about whom you are teaching. Students will be coming from
different backgrounds and have various learning needs. Knowledge about students will enable
teachers to refine lectures, class discussions, comments, illustrations, and activities so that they
are more effective learning experiences. References to student interests, backgrounds, knowledge,
and even anxieties can make the class seem more personal and the material more accessible.
Student’s background can be properly accessed by suitable tools like questionnaires etc.

6) Curriculum Alignment: Curriculum alignment is the process in which teachers across all levels
formally evaluate/implement curriculum to address the changing needs of students and the
society. Curriculum alignment is defined as the degree to which expectations and assessments are
in agreement with one another to guide the system towards students learning what they are
expected to do and know.
7) Ability to use Student Achievement Data in Planning Instruction: Student achievement data such
as teacher observational notes of students performance in class, samples of students class work,
student portfolios, results of formal and informal classroom assessment, report cards should be
properly interpreted by the teacher for further improvement and planning of instruction.

8) Classroom Management :

• Manages discipline problems in accordance with administrative regulations, school board

policies, and legal requirements

• Design a safely, friendly and well managed classroom environment.

• Establishes and clearly communicates parameters for student classroom behaviour

• Promotes self-discipline

• Manages disruptive behaviour constructively

• Demonstrates fairness and consistency

• Arranges the classroom for effective instruction

9) Professional Growth/Continuous Improvement :

• Is involved in professional associations

• Participates on district/state committees, etc.

• Participates in professional workshops

• Attends professional meetings

• Keeps current in subject area

• Engages in continuing education

10) Ability to use Technology as a Tool in the Classroom: Teachers should have basic knowledge in
technology to use it in classroom for effective teaching and learning. Teacher should know to use
various softwares, projective and non projective aids to make teaching more interesting.
Additionally it is good for ateacher to have knowledge about Blogging, Using Google tools, Web
2.0, Interactive white boards, Web designing, video-audio editing etc.

11) Communication with Stakeholders Inside and Outside the School Setting: Teacher should have
essential soft skills like influencing, communicating, team building etc to maintain good
 interrelationship between students, staffs, and other stakeholders inside and outside the school
setting.

12) Establishes relationships with colleagues, students and parents:

 Encourages community involvement with the school

 Provides a climate which opens up communication between the teacher and parent

 Communicates with parents in the best interest of the students

 Supports parents/teacher activities

 Provides information related to support resources

 Interacts With Administration and Other Educational Personnel

 Cooperates with other teachers, the administration, and other educational personnel

 Makes use of support services as needed

 Shares ideas and methods with other teachers and maintain a good relation.

 Informs administration and/or appropriate personnel of school related items

 Records in Schools
• School records are official documents, and files containing essential information of actions and
events which are kept and preserved in the school office for utilization and retrieval of information
when needed.

• Such records are kept by principals, teachers, or administrative staff,

• Keeping accurate and proper records of students achievement and growth, information on school
activities and matters will help to promote efficiency and effectiveness of the school system.

 Importance of essential records in Schools

 • According to Durosaro (2002), records are important tools for effective planning and
administration of a school.

• School records have importance in the effective and efficient organization and administration of
the school for the planning and implementation of appropriate course of actions allowing proper
monitoring of activities/tasks.

• Records are important because they serve as major information tool that sustains the school and
aids in achieving educational goals and objectives. Records restore teaching competence and
maintain the trend in the history of teaching and learning processes.

 Important Records in the Schools

1. Admission register
2. Attendance register for staff and students
3. Attendance register for students
4. Stock register
5. Acquittance Register
6. Teaching Manual
7. Student Profile
8. Cumulative record
9. Service book

1) Admission Register

• Record of all the pupils

• Every admission and re-admission

2) Attendance Register of Staff /Teachers

• The regular attendance of the staff.

• Separate attendance register for teaching and non-teaching staff.

• Placed in the school office or principal’s room.

• Note down the time of their arrival as well as departure every day.

Purpose
 • To maintain institutional discipline

• To inculcate values like regularity and punctuality

• Provides an overview of leaves taken by staff members

3) Attendance Register of Students

• Kept and maintained by the class teacher

• Consists of admission numbers, roll numbers and names of the students.

• Should take attendance twice a day

4) Stock Register

• The details of all materials and equipments in the school.

• Furniture, stationary, laboratory equipments, sports materials, books, etc

• Separate stock register for library and laboratory

5) Acquittance Roll

• It is the financial document which shows the details of payment to the staff in the educational
institution

• The name and designation of the claimant and the net amount payable

6) Teaching Manual

• Record of teacher’s daily work

• His/her plan of work with the students

• What He/she has already done

• What he/she intends to do during a particular period?

7) Student Profile

• A report written by the teacher on a pupil’s academic and social progress.

• It can include the data submitted by the student as well as information which is added
by staff members

• Personal data, family background, health information, scholastic record, non scholastic record,
personality traits etc.
 8) Service Book

• An official record of the government employees regarding their professional life in the institution.

• Information about the official details of an employee.

9) Cumulative Record

• A record containing the detailed information about a child so as to reveal the growth and
development of the child while in school in all aspects

• Personality, physical, mental, moral, social etc- from the beginning to the end of his school
career.

• It keeps the whole history of a child during his school life.

 Rules to be followed while maintaining each record

• Should be Up-to-date

• Should be genuine

• Should be Authentic

• Should be true, correct, original and comprehensive.

• Should be easily available and accessible

• Should be properly secured.

SABARISH-P at 08:58:00
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EDUCATION NETWORK
Blog for B.Ed./M.Ed. students and any one interested in Education. Welcome to my world of
Words.
Friday, 21 August 2015

Unit I - UNDERSTANDING DISCIPLINES AND

SUBJECTS- B.Ed. Notes
Unit I - UNDERSTANDING DISCIPLINES AND SUBJECTS

Prepared by

SABARISH-P

M.Sc., M.Ed., JRF & NET

Assistant Professor in Physical Science, Arafa Institute for Teacher Education

Attur, Thrissur.

School subjects and academic disciplines-Meaning, definitions and differences

 School Subjects-Meaning
 A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally
defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.

 School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, history, geography, physics,
chemistry and economics.

 Newly there are some unconventional school subjects like tourism and hospitality.

 Academic school subjects, such as mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics, are to be
compulsorily taught to the students.

 The content of these academic subjects need to be worked with and transformed by the teachers in such
a way that it is appropriate for classroom teaching.

 Constructing a school subject involves the selection and arrangement of content of knowledge,
skills and the transformation of that content for school and classroom use.

 Constructing a school subject is in accordance with respect to both the societal expectations and the
activities of teaching.

 Thus, a school subject is the result of institutional selection, organization, and framing content for social,
economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic purposes.

 A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to curriculum
content, teaching, and learning activities.

 School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built enterprises, constructed in response to different social,
cultural, and political demands and challenges, and towards educational aims.

 Thus a school subject contains content, and translating content for educational purposes.

 Academic disciplines-Meaning

 The term ‘discipline’ originates from the Latin words discipulus, which means pupil, and
disciplina, which means teaching (noun).

 Academic discipline is a field or branch of learning affiliated with an academic department of a

university, formulated for the advancement of research and scholarship.
  Academic discipline is formulated for the professional training of researchers, academics and
specialists.

 An academic discipline or ‘field of study’ is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched
as part of higher education.

 Examples for Academic Disciplines are Anthropology, Space Science, psychology, sociology,
archeology, Education etc.

 School Subjects-Definition

 A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to
curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities (Karmon, 2007)

 School Subjects is defined as an “area of knowledge that is studied in school”.-Britannica

Encyclopaedia.

 “A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an
institutionally defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.”- Deng,
Z (2013)

 School subjects are human constructions in response to social, economic, cultural,

political, and educational realities and needs. They are “uniquely purpose built
educational enterprises, designed with and through educational imagination towards
educative ends” (Deng & Luke, 2008, p. 83).

 Academic disciplines - Definition

 “An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of knowledge that is taught and
researched as part of higher education”. - Anthony Biglan

 “Academic discipline is a field or branch of learning affiliated with an academic

department of a university, formulated for the advancement of research and scholarship.
It is formulated for the professional training of researchers, academics and
specialists.”- Deng, Z (2013)

 An academic discipline is a branch of learning or scholarly investigation that provides a

structure for the students’ (program of study,) especially in the graduate and post-
graduate levels.
  A branch of knowledge or learning which is taught or researched at the college or
university level.-Glosbe

 School subjects and academic disciplines – differences

 School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, history,

geography, chemistry and economics that have direct relation with their parent academic
disciplines.

 Some unconventional school subjects like tourism and hospitality have minimal
connections with academic disciplines.

 A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to
curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities.

 School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built enterprises, constructed in response to

different social, cultural, and political demands and challenges, and towards educational
aims.

 The formation of a school subject entails a theory of content - a special way of selecting,
framing, and translating content for educational purposes.

 Academic discipline is a field or branch of learning affiliated with an academic department

of a university, formulated for the advancement of research and scholarship.

 Academic discipline is formulated for the professional training of researchers, academics

and specialists.

 A fundamental conceptual distinction between school subjects and academic disciplines

is crucial for a proper understanding of curriculum development and pedagogical
practice.

 The distinction between school subjects and academic disciplines has not received
sufficient attention from policymakers, researchers, and educators.

 Aims of Schooling: Competing Curricular Ideologies (Existing Curricular ideas)

  Over the last century schooling has been asked to serve four different aims that are
reflected in four curricular ideologies

1) Academic rationalism:Primary function of schooling is intellectual development

through initiating students into specific bodies of knowledge, techniques, and ways
of knowing embedded in academic disciplines.

2) Humanism: The central goal of schooling in terms of fostering students’ potential,

personal freedom, self-actualization, and all round development.

3) Social efficiency: The central purpose of schooling is to meet the current and future
manpower needs of a society by training youth to become contributing members of
society.

4) Social reconstructionism: Schooling is primarily an instrument for solving social

problems (inequalities, injustice, poverty, etc.) and cause social reform and
reconstruction.

 Aims of Schooling: Recent Discourses (New ideas/alternatives)

In the 21st century three curricular discourses, autonomous learners, participatory

citizenship, and globalization, have become rather influential in the debates.

These discourses argue that contemporary schooling should allow individual learners to
construct their own knowledge base and competences. It should prepare young people for
their future role as active, responsible, and productive citizens in a democratic society.
Furthermore, schools are expected to be instrumental in equipping individuals for the
challenges created by economic and cultural globalization. These ideas have been employed
by governments across the globe as the reasons for changing curriculum content.

The above diverse aims and expectations of schooling entail different implications for how
school subjects should relate to academic disciplines.
 Relationship between school subjects and academic disciplines
(Three Juxtapositions –continuous, discontinuous, and related.)

 School subjects can have different and variable relationships to academic disciplines, depending on their
aims, contents, and developmental phases.
 There are three broad comparisons/contrasts (associations) between school subjects and academic
disciplines:
(1) School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.

(2) School subjects and academic disciplines are basically discontinuous.

(3) School subjects and academic disciplines are different but related.

 Each of the associations, ie Juxtapositions implies a particular curricular position concerning how school
subjects are constructed with respect to academic disciplines.

(1) School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.

 The continuous position shows the importance of transmitting disciplinary knowledge for the
development of the intellectual capacity of students and for the maintenance or reproduction of academic
culture/knowledge.

 This is called the doctrine of disciplinarity, according to which school subjects are derived from and
organised according to the structure of academic disciplines.

 The central purpose of a school subject, like that of a discipline, is to initiate the young into the academic
community of scholars.

 School subjects, therefore, are supposed to derive their life, from their related intellectual disciplines.

 School subjects constitute a faithful and valid introduction to the academic disciplines whose names they
bear.

 Students are dealing with relatively simple ideas and methods, they study the same ideas and methods
known by experts in the academic disciplines.

 In this Disciplinarity is alive.

 The exclusive reliance of the curricular position on academic disciplines in defining school subjects leaves
out other kinds of knowledge (e.g., practical knowledge, technical knowledge, local community
knowledge, etc.) that could be potential curriculum content.

 Curriculum development framed by this curricular position ignores the interests, attitudes, and feelings
of learners. Furthermore, this curricular position shows little concern about meeting social, economic, and
political needs, and is silent on issues about social reform and reconstruction.
 The world of knowledge, the needs of learners, and the needs and demands of society are three essential
factors that determine and shape curriculum content and set school subjects apart from academic
disciplines.

(2) School subjects and academic disciplines are basically discontinuous.

 In this curricular position school subjects and academic disciplines are essentially discontinuous in
purpose and substance. Hence, school subjects are allowed for construction, which could get beyond the
narrow academic or disciplinary concern.

 The discontinuous position finds support in humanism, social efficiency, and social reconstructions.

 Humanist educators argue that school subjects are created to provide students with rewarding
experiences that contribute to personal growth and individual freedom. School subjects, therefore, need
to be formulated according to the interest, attitudes, and developmental stages of individual students.
They need to derive content from a wide range of sources – such as personal experiences, human activities
and community cultures and wisdoms. Disciplinary knowledge may or may not be useful for the formation
of school subjects.

 From the perspective of social efficiency, school subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of
maintaining and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the
requisite knowledge, skills, and capital.

 The formation of school subjects, therefore, is justified with close reference to the needs of occupation,
profession, and vocation.

 Therefore, specialised and applied fields like engineering, accounting, and marketing, among others, are
the primary sources from which the contents of school subjects are derived.

 Academic disciplines are drawn upon only when they demonstrate their efficacy in promoting those skills
and knowledge actually needed in occupations.

 School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might lead to
liberation and cause social activity.

 The formation of school subjects is based upon an examination of social contexts, social issues, and
futures, with the intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own, standpoints, and actions.
 Like humanistic educators, social reconstructionists believe that school subjects derive contents from a
wide range of sources. Contemporary curricular views like autonomous learners, participatory citizenship
and globalisation further set school subjects apart from academic disciplines.

 The curricular discourses call for a learner-oriented approach to the construction of a school subject that
allows learners to construct their own knowledge according to their individual needs and interests.

 The curricular discourses require the school subject to be formulated in ways that help students cultivate
certain kinds of sensitivity, disposition and awareness needed for responsible participation in society.

 The school subjects equip students with general skills and lifelong learning abilities, essential for facing
the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.

(3) School subjects and academic disciplines are different but related.

 This third assumption demonstrates that the relationship between school subjects and academic
disciplines can exist in one of the three ways:

(a) that academic disciplines precede school subjects,

(b) that school subjects precede academic disciplines, or

(c) that the relation between the subjects and disciplines is conflicting.

The first way holds that a school subject results from the transformation of an academic discipline.

The second way reflects that parallels exist between the stages in the development of disciplinary
knowledge and the stages through which the individual passes on the way to maturity, and therefore,
school subjects are formulated to reflect those parallels.

The third way can be viewed as a combination of the first and the second ways, where an academic
discipline provides the endpoint for the formation of a school subject and the school subject provides
for getting to know the academic discipline.

 Formation of School subjects

The formation of a school subject, involves three levels of curriculum making; the societal, the
programmatic, and the classroom.
 The societal curriculum, also called the ideal or abstract curriculum, includes a conception of what
schooling should be with respect to the society and culture. Curriculum making at this level is
characterized by ideologies and discourses on curriculum policy according to schooling, culture, and
society.

The programmatic curriculum, or the technical or official curriculum, is contained in curriculum

documents (e.g., syllabus) and materials for use in schools and classrooms. Curriculum making at this level
translates the societal curriculum into school subjects, programs, or courses of study provided to a school
or system of schools. The process of constructing a school subject or a course of study entails the selection
and arrangement of content (knowledge, skills, and dispositions) and the transformation of that content
for school and classroom use.

The classroom curriculum – i.e., the enacted curriculum – is characterized by a cluster of events jointly
developed by a teacher and a group of students within a particular instructional context. Curriculum
making at this level involves transforming the programmatic curriculum embodied in curriculum
documents and materials into “educative” experiences for students.

The societal and programmatic curricula together form the institutional curriculum.

Thus, a school subject is formed as the result of institutional selection, organization, and framing content
for social, economic, cultural, curricular, and pedagogical purposes. Many important decisions concerning
content are therefore made prior to the actual instructional activities and the content actually taught in
the classroom, are independent in many respects from classroom teachers.

 Content of school subjects.

 It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know
the ‘theory of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it
can be transformed so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.

 The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social
history.

Distinctive school subjects are built for specific purposes and are constructed in accordance with the
prevailing social, cultural and political circumstances. The content of academic subjects such as
mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics are to be transformed by the teachers in way
conducive for classroom teaching.
The contents of a school subject primarily comprise of the arrangement of age-appropriate information
in an orderly manner, so as to fulfill the educational needs of a student. A school subject is constituted
with a consideration of the societal expectations and the teaching activities. A school subject is formed
with a “theory of content” aimed solely for educational purposes.

School subjects are formed according to the needs of occupation, profession, and vocation. Therefore,
specialised and applied fields like engineering, accounting, and marketing, among others, are the primary
sources from which the contents of school subjects are derived.

Many important and independent decisions concerning the contents of school subjects are made prior to
the execution of instructional activities.

Teachers and students play a vital role as they have the potential to improve the contents of a subject by
working in it for developing the instructional background. The educative experiences of teachers and
students contribute to a large extent in transforming a school subject.

Thus it can be established that institutional selection and organisational content form the backdrop of a
school subject and the contents are determined by the social, economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic
necessities.

 Why study school subjects ?

 In many parts of the world traditional school curriculum is being replaced by progressive types.
By studying about school subjects we can see that school subjects are essentially social and
political constructions.

 School subjects have connection with social structure; social relations and they have
contributed in the process of cultural transmission too. Now it is being recognized that school
subjects are important sources for studying about the society and problems in it.

 Recent researches offers that national and local proponents of subject change face a world
culture of school subjects.

 The national curriculum has reflected a new movement to reconstitute the school subjects first
launched in the world movement of 1890 to 1910 periods.

 Studying school subjects is necessary to investigate the link between school subject knowledge
and classroom pedagogy.
  School subjects are now being considered as cultural and historical phenomenon so it is
necessary to study about them.

 One of the important reasons for studying school subjects is that they provide a clear picture
of school knowledge and practices.

 Studying school subjects thus entails an understanding of the “theory of content” that is crucial
for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.

 School subjects are aimed to maintain the academic culture and develop the intellectual
capacity of students. School subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining
and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the requisite
knowledge, skills, and capital.

 School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that
might lead to liberation and cause social activity.

 School subjects are allowed for construction and further provide students with rewarding
experiences that contribute to their intellectual growth. The school curriculum encourages a
learner-oriented approach to construct a school subject that allows students to learn according
to their needs and interests in their chosen fields of study. The school subjects equip the
students with general skills and learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of
globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.

 The school subjects pave the way for students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their
social awareness, develop positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical
thinking skills. Thus, studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for students to
create and explore create new corridors leading to enlightenment.

 It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know
the ‘theory of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it
can be transformed so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.

 The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social history.

 Studying school subjects helps us to analyses how school subjects are influenced by the society,
culture and values of a nation.

 Why "subjects" are included in school syllabus ?

To develop basic skills like reading ,writing and arithmetic

 To enhance students’ understanding of their society, their nation, the human world and the physical
environment..

To help students become independent thinkers so that they can construct knowledge appropriate to
changing personal and social circumstances.

To develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity,
problem-solving skills, communication skills, and information technology skills.

To help students develop positive values and attitude towards life, so that they can become informed
and responsible citizens of society, the country and the world.

To provide all round development of the child and to attain the objectives of Education.

Why studying school subjects?

School subjects are aimed to maintain the academic culture and develop the intellectual capacity of
students. School subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining and enhancing
economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the requisite knowledge, skills, and
capital. School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might
lead to liberation and cause social activity.

School subjects are allowed for construction and further provide students with rewarding experiences
that contribute to their intellectual growth.The school curriculum encourages a learner-oriented
approach to construct a school subject that allows students to learn according to their needs and
interests in their chosen fields of study.The school subjects equip the students with general skills and
learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.

The school subjects pave the way for students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their social
awareness, develop positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking
skills.Thus, studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for students to create and explore
create new corridors leading to enlightenment.



 “Content” of school subjects- Why study school subjects ? (for student teachers)

(Note: For deep level of Understanding Only.

B.Ed. syllabus does not have scope for the matter discussing given below. However the
students can go through it to understand the essence of the area )

 It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory
of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be transformed
so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.

 The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social history.

 Teachers need to have three kinds of subject matter knowledge: content knowledge,
pedagogical content knowledge and curricular knowledge.

 Content knowledge includes knowledge of the substance and structure of the academic
discipline.

 Pedagogical content knowledgeinvolves an understanding of pedagogical representations and

instructional strategies, and of students’ pre-conceptions with respect to particular curriculum topics
at particular grade levels. By pedagogical content knowledge, the teacher transforms his or her
disciplinary content into forms that are powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and
background presented by students.

 Curricular knowledge involves an understanding of the curriculum and the instructional materials
available for teaching a subject at various grade levels, which can be an aid to the transformation
process. Two assumptions underly the framework of curricular knowledge: (1) that school subjects
and academic disciplines are essentially continuous in substance and practice; and (2) that classroom
teachers necessarily work with and transform the content of an academic discipline into the content
of a school subject.

 Reliance on the academic discipline as an essential frame of reference for defining teachers’
specialised understanding of content tends to overlook what is involved in knowing the content of a
school subject for teaching.

 Teachers do need basic knowledge of related academic disciplines, but knowing the content of a
school subject lies at the heart of their professional understanding.

 School subjects, constitute the locus of classroom teaching; they frame classroom teachers’
practice and perspectives on curriculum and instruction.
 Knowing the content of a school subject involves knowing how the content is selected,
formulated, framed, and transformed in ways that render meaningful and educative experiences for
students.

 The knowledge of the content of a school subject is crucial for disclosing the educational potential
inherent in the content.

 As example, it is possible to look at knowing the content of a secondary school science subjects
like physics, chemistry and biology and knowing the content of liberal studies (an additional course in
arts subjects taken by students studying for a qualification in science, technology, or the
humanities.). Knowing the content of a secondary school science subject involves knowing five
intersecting aspects;

1) logical (body of concepts and principles in the school curriculum),

2) epistemological (concerning how we know these concepts and principles and how they come to
reach their present refined form),

3) psychological (concerning how the concepts and principles to be taught can be developed out of
the interest, experience, and prior knowledge of students),

4) pedagogical (concerning the effective ways of representing and reformulating the concepts and
principles)

5) socio-cultural (concerning how knowledge relates to and interacts with society, technology, and
culture).

 The teacher needs to know how the logical can be formulated and transformed on the
epistemological, psychological, pedagogical, and socio-cultural planes, to render meaningful and
educative experiences to students. Teacher’s knowledge on the content of liberal studies entails
knowing how content can be organised, framed, and transformed into learning experiences to
broaden students’ perspectives, enhance their social awareness, develop positive attitudes and
values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking skills.

 With respect to liberal studies, four aspects are essential for knowing the content: namely inquiry
framing, socio-cultural framing, psycho-epistemological framing and pedagogic translation.

 Inquiry framing is the content made for cross-curricular and issue-based inquiry.
 Socio-cultural framing is the content prepared with reference to socio-cultural contexts.

 Psycho-epistemological framing is defining the content with reference to the curricular or

knowledge context of students.

 Pedagogic translation is translating the content into teaching and learning activities and selecting
instructional resources.

Each of these aspects can be characterised by a set of probing questions.

Inquiry Framing - What are the themes and key issues pertaining to the module? What are the key
concepts that underlie each of the themes? How are these concepts related to the concepts in other
modules? What are the related issues for exploration?

Socio-cultural Framing - What significance do the key issues and related issues have for students, the
society and the world? How might these issues arise from various socio-cultural contexts? What
different perspectives can be brought to bear on addressing these issues? What kinds of critical
thinking can be encouraged? What attitudes and values are worthy of cultivation?

Psycho-epistemological Framing - What prerequisite knowledge and skills are needed for learning the
issues and concepts? How might the key issues and concepts connect with what students learn in
other school subjects or from other learning experiences in the curriculum? What have students
already known and experienced in relation to these issues and concepts? How might their existing
knowledge and experience be drawn upon for learning the issues and concepts?

Pedagogic Translation - On the basis of the above considerations, what could be teaching and learning
activities like group discussion, debate, role-play, project work, and independent inquiry, that could
broaden students’ perspectives and provide them with opportunities for problem-solving,
independent learning, and cross-curricular and critical thinking? What resources could be employed
for achieving the instructional purposes? What tools are most useful for assessing student learning?
How could the results of assessment be used to inform instruction?

 Asking these questions allows teachers to interpret and reinvent the meanings of the content of
a particular module in specific instructional contexts.

 Teachers assume the role of curriculum developer at the school or classroom level.

 Knowing the content and studying school subjects thus entails an understanding of the theory of
content that is crucial for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.
 References

1) Deng, Z (2013), School subjects and academic disciplines. In A Luke, A woods & K weir (Eds.), Curriculum,
Syllabus design and equity: A primer and model. Routledge

2) Ivor F. Goodson and Colin J. Marsh, Studying school subjects, A guide (1996), Routledge

Expected questions

1) Define academic disciplines/school subjects.

2) What do you meant by academic disciplines/school subject?

3) What is the difference between academic discipline and school subject?

4) Explain the relationship between school subjects and academic disciplines.

5) What do you meant by ‘theory of content’ ?

6) Explain the concept of Content of school subjects.?

7) How can a teacher know the content of school subjects?

8) Show the importance of studying school subjects.?

9) Why studying school subjects?

10) What is the importance of teacher for studying about school subjects?

11) What are the different types of knowledge required by a teacher to know a school subject?

12) What are the requirements for knowing the content of a school subject?

13) Describe briefly the aspects that are essential for a teacher to know the content of school subjects?

SABARISH-P at 23:40:00
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