REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
from the outside by engulfing and fusing them with its
Calorie - A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food. It specifically
refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 kg (2.2lb.) of water by 1°C (1.8°F).
The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of
food, the greater energy it contains
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
Carbohydrates - serve as a major energy source for the
cells in the body | usually obtained from grains, cereals,
breads, fruits, and vegetables. | On average,
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.
Proteins- can also be used as an energy source but the
body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
and bones. | Come from dairy products, poultry, fish,
meat, and grains.
Fats - used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones,
and other cellular structures; also used to insulate
nervous tissue, and also serve as an energy source.
Contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important
for good health. | Obtained from oils, margarine,
butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods.
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
-include substances that animals can only get from the
foods they eat because they could not be synthesized
inside the body.
Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins
and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight could
not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan,
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine and valine.
Essential fatty acids – used for making special
membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans
Vitamins – organic molecules required in small
amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-
soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins
B, B2, B3, B12, C.
Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients
needed by the body in minute amounts; these form part
of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples
include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese,
selenium.
Endocytosis - A process in which cell takes in materials
plasma membrane.
phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big
particles
pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using
small vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.
receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on
membrane receptor recognition of specific solutes
which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated
pits.
Types of animals based on feeding mechanisms:
Substrate feeders – animals that live in or on their food
source.
filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which
draw in water and strain small organisms and food
particles present in the medium.
Coelenterates - an aquatic invertebrate animal of a
phylum that includes jellyfishes, corals, and sea
anemones. They are distinguished by having a tube- or
cup-shaped body and a single opening ringed with
tentacles.
fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a
living host.
Aphid – plant lice
bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and
have adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws,
pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it
to pieces.
Kinds of digestive compartments in animals:
Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse
with lysosomes that contain Hydrolytic enzymes.
Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system –
composed of a single opening through which food is
taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike
body cavity
A planarian is one of many flatworms of the Turbellaria
class. It is also the common name for a member of the
genus Planaria within the family Planariidae.
Sometimes it also refers to the genus Dugesia.
Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with Three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
an opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and an animals:
opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste
Ammonia – the primary nitrogenous waste for aquatic
materials are eliminated (anus).
invertebrates, teleosts, and larval amphibians.
Accessory Organs
Urea – produced by mammals, most amphibians, some
Liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats reptiles, some marine fishes, and some terrestrial
invertebrates.
Gall Bladder – stores bile produced by the liver
Uric acid – excreted by birds, insects, and terrestrial
Pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major
reptiles
food molecules; secretes buffers against HCl from the
stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism
Excretory systems in invertebrates

Cell surface or cell membrane – allows passage of

Regulation of Body Fluids wastes in unicellular organisms

Internal environment - The fluid environment that Contractile vacuole – a specialized cytoplasmic
bathes the cells (extra cellular fluid) composed of the organelle in many freshwater protists (e.g. Paramecium)
interstitial fluid and blood that expels excess water out of the cell to prevent lysis

Osmolarity - solute concentration expressed in Protonephridia or Flame Bulb System – network of

milliosmoles per liter of solution (mOsm/L). tubules that lack internal openings but have external
openings at the body surface called nephridiopores
Osmosis -the movement of water from a region of
such as in the flatworm, Dugesia.
higher osmolarity to a region of lower osmolarity across
a selectively permeable membrane. Metanephridia – the excretory tubule of most annelids
and adult mollusks
Osmoregulation - the regulation of water and ion
balance. Malpighian Tubules – the excretory tubules of insects
and other terrestrial arthropods attached to their
Excretion - the elimination of metabolic wastes
digestive tract
including nitrogenous wastes produced from the
breakdown of proteins

Types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body The mammalian urinary or excretory system
fluids in relation to the environment:
Renal capsule – the outer coat of connective tissue
Osmoconformers - These include most marine
Cortex – the zone near the capsule consisting of blood
invertebrates with body fluids that are generally
vessels and nephrons
hyperosmotic to their surroundings
Medulla – inner zone also consisting of blood vessels
Osmotic pressure - the pressure that would have to be
and nephrons
applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing
into a given solution by osmosis, often used to express Nephrons – the functional units of the kidney where
the concentration of the solution. urine is formed
Osmoregulators - These include most marine Renal pelvis – central cavity in the kidney where urine
vertebrates, birds, mammals coming from the nephrons is channeled before going to
the ureter.
Hypotonic - having a lower osmotic pressure than a
particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular
fluid
The components of nephrons
-functional units of kidneys
Bowman’s capsule – an infolded region that encloses a
ball of blood capillaries called glomerulus where initial
filtration of the blood plasma occurs.
Renal tubules – receive and modify the glomerular
filtrate; consist of a proximal convoluted tubule,
followed by a U-shaped loop of Henle, and a distal
convoluted tubule.
Peritubular capillaries – bring substances to and take
substances away from the renal tubules.
Collecting duct – receives the urine from the renal
tubule leading to the renal pelvis.
Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Immune System - The immune system is a network of
cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend
the body against attacks by “foreign” invaders. These
are primarily microbes—tiny organisms such as
bacteria, parasites, and fungi that can cause infections
Pathogen - Anything that can produce disease
Antigen - is a molecule capable of inducing an immune
response (to produce an antibody) in the host organism
Phagocytes - are cells that protect the body by ingesting
(phagocytosing) harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and
dead or dying cells.
Greek phagein, "to eat" | "-cyte", denoting "cell"
Greek kutos, "hollow vessel".
Pedigree Analysis
-Making use of diagrams showing the ancestral
relationships and transmission of genetic traits over
several generations in a family.
Proband - The individual in the pedigree that led to the
construction of the pedigree
Allele - one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular
location on a particular chromosome and control the
same characteristic, such as blood type or
colorblindness. Alleles are also called allelomorphs.
Gene - basic physical and functional unit of heredity.
Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to
make molecules called proteins.
Gregor Johann Mendel
Austrian monk
born in 1822
in monastery known for research and teaching
after his death (1884) acknowledgment of his
discoveries in 1900
Law of Segregation (1st Mendelian Law):
-For every trait governed by a pair of alleles, these
alleles segregate or separate during gamete formation
in meiosis
Law of Independent Assortment (2nd Mendelian Law):
-A pair of alleles for one trait will segregate or separate
independently of another pair of alleles for another trait
during meiosis
Genotype - The gene pair an individual carry for a
particular trait symbolized with a pair of letters
uppercase letter (eg. A) for a dominant allele and
lowercase letter (eg. a) for the recessive allele.
Autosomal Trait - A trait whose alleles that control it
are found in the autosomes (body chromosomes/ non-
sex chromosomes)
Phenotype - A phenotype (from Greek phainein,
meaning 'to show', and typos, meaning 'type') is the
composite of an organism's observable characteristics
or traits, such as its morphology, development,
biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and
products of behavior
Homozygous - When an individual has two of the same
allele, whether dominant or recessive, they are
homozygous.
Heterozygous - When an individual has one of each two
different alleles, whether dominant or recessive, they
are homozygous.
Homozygote- an individual having two identical alleles
of a particular gene or genes and so breeding true for
the corresponding characteristic.

Heterozygote- an individual having two different alleles

of a particular gene or genes, and so giving rise to
varying offspring.

Dominant- relating to or denoting heritable

characteristics that are controlled by genes that are
expressed in offspring even when inherited from only
one parent.

Recessive- relating to or denoting heritable

characteristics controlled by genes that are expressed in
offspring only when inherited from both parents

Sex-linked Trait

-The gene (pair) that determines a character (e.g.

hemophilia) is located on the sex chromosomes

X-linked trait

-A sex-linked trait is where the gene or allele for the

trait is found on the X chromosome

Color Blindness - An X-linked recessive trait where a

affected individual could not distinguish red from green
color

Hemophilia - An X-linked recessive trait where an

affected individual suffers from delayed blood clotting
during injuries because of the absence of certain blood
clotting factors

Y-linked trait - A sex-linked trait where the gene or

allele for the trait is found on the Y chromosome

Hypertrichosis pinnae auris - A Y-linked trait where

affected males have hair growing from their external
ears

Sex-influenced trait- Any trait in a diploid organism

whose expression is affected by an individual’s
biological sex; a trait that occurs at a higher frequency
in one sex over the other

Sex-limited trait- Any trait in a diploid organism whose

expression is limited to just one biological sex