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The vector potential of a point magnetic dipole

S. Sautbekov

PII: S0304-8853(18)32545-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2019.04.012
Reference: MAGMA 65160

To appear in: Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Please cite this article as: S. Sautbekov, The vector potential of a point magnetic dipole, Journal of Magnetism and
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 The vector potential of a point magnetic dipole

S. Sautbekov1
71 al-Farabi Ave., Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

Abstract

The retarded vector potential of a point magnetic dipole possessing an ar-

bitrary time dependence and undergoing an accelerated relativistic motion is
derived. A novel expression for the angular distribution of the radiated power
of an arbitrarily moving magnetic dipole is obtained. In particular, the case of
an uniformly accelerated particle with a constant magnetic moment is consid-
ered. The resulting equations are verified by showing that the fields reduce to
less general forms found in the literature.
Keywords: Dipole, magnetic moment, retarded potential, radiation.

1. Introduction

Investigation of the radiation properties of a moving dipole is of undeni-

able theoretical and practical interest. For instance, the Thomas-Bargmann-
Michel-Telegdi classical equation [1] is generally used as an analytical tool
5 in the interpretation of the extremely precise measurements of the magnetic
moments of fundamental particles. Besides, hypothesized early-universe Big
Bang conditions allow for neutrino radiation cooling and provide an energy
loss-mechanism for subsequent neutrino condensation [2]. Transition radiation,
and Bremsstrahlung radiation from fast neutrons play a critical role in plasma
10 physics. It is interesting that spin radiation manifests itself at high electron en-
ergies and can actually be measured in modern electron accelerators. In spite of
the fact that investigation of the electromagnetic field of an arbitrarily moving
dipole belongs primarily to the domain of classical electrodynamics, it has not
been sufficiently studied.

Preprint submitted to Journal of LATEX Templates March 17, 2019

15 In classical electrodynamics an electromagnetic field generated by an arbi-
trarily moving point charge is known to be determined by the Liénard-Wiechert
potentials [3, 4, 5]. The textbook by Becker [4] contains concise derivations very
much in the spirit of the original literature. For historical perspectives see the
books of Whittaker [6].
20 These potentials underlie the theory of relativistic radiation of charged par-
ticles. The Liénard-Wiechert field appears as the retarded solution to Maxwell’s
equations with a moving point source.
Unfortunately, a general deduction of the exact electromagnetic field of an
arbitrarily moving dipole via the traditional potential approach is lacking from
25 most undergraduate and graduate textbooks [3, 7, 8, 5]. Liénard-Wiechert tech-
nique has not been widely used in solving the radiation problems of arbitrarily
moving point sources. Due to the difficulty of getting exact solutions, numeri-
cal methods and approximation theoretical methods have been developed. The
literature on calculations of the fields of a moving point dipole is very extensive,
30 including [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
One of them is the so called multipole expansion method [7, 8, 17]. The
resulting expressions for the fields are usually called Jefimenko’s equations be-
cause they appeared for the first time in the textbook by Jefimenko [18]. Heras
[19] discussed Jefimenko’s equations in material media to obtain the electric
35 and magnetic fields of a dipole in arbitrary motion and has derived Jefimenko’s
equations from Maxwell’s equations using the retarded Green function of the
wave equation [20].
In some cases, the authors obtain the exact fields for the electric dipole by
assuming a harmonic time dependence for the sources [3] or by using a very
40 particular model for the charge and current distributions [8, 21]. In other cases,
the authors are interested only in the radiation fields [5, 7, 22]. As far as we
know, a general deduction of the exact electric and magnetic fields of moving
dipoles with arbitrary time dependence can be found in the works [19, 23].
Here we present a detailed derivation of the retarded vector potential of the
45 electromagnetic field of an arbitrarily moving magnetic dipole. We also obtain

2
 a formula for the angular distribution of the radiated power of an arbitrarily
moving magnetic particle and discuss the radiation of a uniformly accelerated
dipole possessing a constant magnetic moment.

2. Problem

50 To find the vector potential A(r , t) of a point magnetic dipole with a mag-
netic moment M moving in an arbitrary direction with velocity v . The particle’s
motion is given parametrically via the time τ by the equation of motion

r = r(τ ). (1)

It is assumed that the dipole motion is a priori known and that the path di-
mensions are macroscopically measurable in order for the classical field theory
55 be valid.
The electromagnetic fields are considered in vacuum in SI units.

3. Magnetic moment of a point particle

The magnetic moment of a distributed current in a certain volume is defined

as
1 1
Z
M = j (r 0 ) × (r − r 0 )d3 r 0 = j × ∗ r, (2)
2 R3 2
60 where the symbol × means the vector product and ∗ denotes a convolution over
space.
Note that the magnetic moment M in (2) doesn’t depend on the location of
the observation point (r ) and so the integral of the current density (j ) is equal
to zero due to r can be taken out from under the integral sign.
65 It is to be noted that the current [24]

j (r ) = −(M × ∇)δ(r ) (3)

is the solution to the equation (2), where δ is Dirac delta function. Indeed, Eq.
(2) is identically satisfied if j in (3) is substituted into (2) and use the simple

3
 convolution property [25]

D(f ∗ g) ≡ (Df ) ∗ g, (4)

where D is any differential operator.

70 The steady current expression (3) at r = 0 can be generalized to the
corresponding time-dependent form according to the particle motion equation
r = r(t)



j (r , t) = − M (t) × ∇ δ r − r(t) . (5)

The above expression can be written as

j (r , t) = ∇ × M δ(r − r(t) , (6)

according to Eq. (2) and the following identity

−(M × ∇) δ ≡ ∇ × (M δ) − δ (∇ × M ),
1 1
Z
∇×M =− ∇ × (r − r 0 ) × j (r 0 )d3 r 0 = j × ∗ (∇ × r ) = 0.
2 R3 2
It is useful to take advantage the convolution property (4), where D = ∇× is a
75 differential operator.
It is worth emphasizing that useful to use the relativistic formula [26] for
determining the magnetic moment M of a particle moving with velocity v via
the magnetic M 0 and electric P 0 moments in the rest frame

M (τ ) = M 0 + (1/γ − 1)(M 0 v (τ ))v (τ )/v 2 + P 0 × v , (7)

p 1
γ = 1/ 1 − v(τ )2 /c2 , c = (ε0 µ0 )− 2 .

4. The vector potential

80 The retarded vector potential

µ0 ∞ δ t − t0 − |r − r 0 |/c
Z Z
A(r , t) = j (r 0 , t0 )d3 r 0 dt0 (8)
4π −∞ R3 |r − r 0 |
can be represented via the current density j (defined by (6)) in integral form
Z ∞

µ0 δ t − t0 − |r − r 0 |/c
A(r , t) = ∇×
4π −∞ |r − r 0 |
Z
M (t0 ) δ r 0 − r(t0 ) d3 r 0 dt0 .


(9)
R3

4
 The integral over all space in (9) is easily computed using the delta function:
Z ∞ 0 0


µ0 0 δ t − t − |r − r(t )|/c
A(r , t) = ∇× M (t ) dt0 . (10)
4π −∞ |r − r(t0 )|
The delta function in (10) can be simplified for time integration as

δ(t0 − τ )
δ F (r , t, t0 ) =
|∂F (r , t, t0 )/∂t0 | t0 =τ
with
F (r , t, t0 ) = t − t0 − |r − r(t0 )|/c, (11)

where τ is a single root of the equation

F (r , t, τ ) = 0. (12)

85 It is to be noted that, the relation (12) expresses in implicit form a functional

dependence of the electromagnetic wave retardation time t − τ = |r − r(τ )|/c
on the location of a particle and observation point.
Thus, calculating the integral (10) and introducing the notations

R ≡ r − r(τ ), β ≡ v /c, v = ∂r(τ )/∂τ (13)

we obtain the vector potential

µ0 M (τ )
A(r , t) = ∇× (v < c). (14)
4π R − Rβ
90 This implies the important expression ∇ · A = 0 for the vector potential A of a
point electrically neutral particle corresponding to the Coulomb gauge-condition
by virtue of the operator identity ∇ · ∇× ≡ 0.
In order to calculate the vector potential, we write the expression (14) in
the form
µ0  1 1 
A(r , t) = −M ×∇· + ∇×M , (15)
4π R − Rβ R − Rβ
95 taking into account that
n R
∇ · R = n(1 − v ∇ · τ ) = , n≡ ,
1 − nβ R
∂(Rβ) (Rβ̇/c) − β 2
∇ · (Rβ) = β + ∇ · τ =β−n .
∂τ 1 − nβ

5
 Note that the last gradient has a dynamic part.
The following gradient is calculated similarly
!
1 1 (Rβ̇/c) + 1 − β 2
∇· = 2 2
β−n (16)
R − Rβ R (1 − nβ) 1 − nβ

as well as the curl

∂ n × Ṁ
∇×M ≡∇·τ × M =− . (17)
∂τ c(1 − nβ)

Here, the overdots mean differentiation with respect to time (τ ) and we have
used
Ṙ = −v , Ṙ = −nv .

The expression
n
∇·τ =−
c(1 − nβ)
is useful for calculating the dynamic component of the curl (17) and can be
100 obtained by using the quotient rule and an implicit differentiation of F in (11)

∂τ ∂F/∂x Rx
=− =− , (18)
∂x ∂F/∂τ cR(1 − nβ)

where
∂F Rx ∂F
=− , = −1 + nβ.
∂x cR ∂τ
After substituting (16) and (17) into (15) we finally obtain the vector potential
of a particle with a magnetic moment M

1 − β2 

µ0 M 
A(r , t) = − × β − n +
4π R2 (1 − nβ)2 1 − nβ

n  n β̇ 
× Ṁ + M . (19)
cR(1 − nβ)2 1 − nβ τ

The first term in (19) corresponds to the quasi-static field of a particle, the
later to the radiation field of a dipole moving with the acceleration (β̇) as well
105 as radiation due to time-dependent magnetic moment (Ṁ ).
This formula constitutes a new result of classical electrodynamics.

6
 5. The particle radiation field

Bearing in mind the implicit dependence of τ on the coordinates in A and

taking into consideration the identical representation of the curl’s dynamic part
110 (17), we can determine the electromagnetic field of a particle in the form

1 ∂ 
H = ∇·τ × A+∇×A , (20)
µ0 ∂τ

∂τ ∂
E =− A. (21)
∂t ∂τ
Equations (20) and (21) for magnetic and electric fields of an arbitrary time-
dependent moving dipole are of general character. It will be shown that these
equations have three contributions, namely, the static zone contribution, pro-
115 portional to 1/R3 , the intermediate zone contribution, proportional to 1/R2 and
the far zone of radiation contribution, proportional to 1/R.
Substituting (19) into (20) and retaining the far zone contribution, propor-
tional to 1/R, it is easy to obtain

n n
H Rad (r , t) = × 3 × M̈ + M
4πc2 R(1 − nβ)

(β̈n) 3(β̇n)  (β̇n) 
+ Ṁ + M . (22)
1 − nβ 1 − nβ 1 − nβ τ

Taking into account of the derivatives

∂τ 1 ∂n n(nβ) − β c
= , =c = n × (n × β) , (23)
∂t 1 − nβ ∂τ R R

120 similarly, we obtain the electric field expression


1 n
E Rad (r , t) = × M̈ + (β̈n)
4πε0 Rc2 (1 − nβ)3

M 3(β̇n)  M 
+ Ṁ + (β̇n) . (24)
1 − nβ 1 − nβ 1 − nβ τ

This formula was first obtained in [19] and then used for estimation the radiated
energy by the dipole surface of a sonoluminescent bubble [27].

7
 Note that the vectors E Rad , H Rad and n form a right-handed triple because
of the expression

1
H Rad (r , t) = (µ0 /ε0 )− 2 n × E Rad (r , t), (25)

125 with respect to the magnetic and electric fields formulae (22) and (24).

5.1. The angular distribution of the radiation power from a moving particle

Now we are going to calculate the angular distribution of the radiated power
of a particle possessing a time-dependent magnetic moment.
The radiation energy incident per unit area upon a surface ndσ at the ob-
130 servation point during the receiving time interval dt is equal to (nS )dσ dt. Here
the Poynting vector is given by S = E × H .
Dividing the radiation energy by the solid angle element dΩ = dσ/R2 and
radiation time dτ we find the angular distribution of the radiation power

dP dt
= (nS )R2 = (nS )R2 (1 − nβ). (26)
dΩ dτ

Here, according to the formula (21), dt = (1 − nβ)dτ is the registration time of

135 the radiated power where the change in the distance (nv )dτ of a particle from
the observation point during the time τ is taken into account, which leads to
the change in the registration time (nβ)dτ .
It is worth emphasizing that the difference of duration the radiation time dτ
and receiving time dt leads to a change the frequency of the wave reception by
140 virtue of ”Doppler factor” (1 − nβ)−1 .
The angular distribution of the radiation power from a moving particle can
be written
dP (1 − nβ)
= (RE Rad )2 (27)
dΩ µ0 c
with the aid of the Poynting vector

n
S= (E Rad )2 (28)
µ0 c

in agreement with the expressions (25) and (26).

8
145 Finally, using the electric field in (24), the expression (27) for the angular
power distribution is written in the general form

dP µ0 1 n ×M
= n × M̈ + (β̈n) +
dΩ (4π)2 c3 (1 − nβ)5 1 − nβ
2
3β̇n  n ×M 
n × Ṁ + (β̇n) . (29)
1 − nβ 1 − nβ τ

5.2. Radiation from a uniformly accelerated particle

Let us consider a simple case of the expression (29) for a particle with a
constant magnetic moment and uniformly accelerated linear motion (Ṁ = 0,
150 M̈ = 0, β̈ = 0)
!
dP (t) 9µ0 (n × M )2 (β̇n)4
= 9 . (30)
dΩ (4π)2 c3 (1 − nβ) τ

Here it should be remembered that the instantaneous power dP radiated

into the solid angle dΩ is determined at the time τ , where dΩ corresponds to
its plane angle α = ∠(nv (τ )).
While the particle travels the distance Rβ during the time R/c, the obser-
155 vation point should be seen from the angle θ at the time t and the distance Rt
to the observation point.
Therefore, α in the vector products in (30)

|n × M | = M sin α, (nβ) = β cos α, (n β̇) = β̇ cos α

must be defined by θ.
The angular dependence on α can be redefined by the expression

α = θ − arcsin(β sin θ), (31)

which follows from a system of simple trigonometric equations


cos α = β + Rt /R cos θ,


sin α = Rt /R sin θ.


Taking into account the expression (31), from (30) we obtain

dP (t) 9µ0 β̇ 4 M 2
= F (θ, β), (32)
dΩ (4π)2 c3

9
160 where
sin2 α cos4 α
F (θ, β) = (M ⊥ v ). (33)
(1 − β cos α)9
The normalized radiation pattern F (θ, β)/K(β) of a particle with the con-
stant acceleration a = β̇ is presented in Fig.1, where K(β) = max(F (θ, β)) is
the maximum magnitude of radiation power. Here we consider the following
cases:
165 a) the directions of the particle velocity and the magnetic moment are par-
allel (v  M ) (Fig.1 a);
b) the velocity and the magnetic moment are perpendicular (v ⊥M ) (Fig.1
b).
This is justified by the fact that the least radiation occurs towards the par-
170 ticle’s motion as well as by virtue of the inequality θ > α (θ ∈ [0, π]) following
from (31).
In the case of a particle with a perpendicular magnetic moment, the radiation
loss turns out by order magnitude greater (see Fig. 1), the maximum radiation
is directed towards the motion of a particle.
175 The angular distribution of the radiation power from a moving particle in
this case is determined by the function

cos6 α
F (θ, β) = (v ⊥ M ). (34)
(1 − β cos α)9

6. Discussion

Let us look at same limiting cases. From the vector potential (19) in the
limiting case β → 0, it is easy to obtain the vector potential of a nonrelativistic
180 particle
µ0 M ? × n
A= , M ? = M + Ṁ R/c. (35)
4π R2
In particular, we have the well-known vector potential for a non-oscillating mag-
netic dipole [8, 28]
µ0 M × n
A= .
4π R2

10
 The exact expressions for electric and magnetic fields of a oscillating dipole
at rest [11, 23] can be obtained from the formula (35)

4π M? ×n
4πH = − n × Ȧ + ∇ × =
µ0 c R2
(36)
3n(nM ? ) − M ? (M̈ × n) × n
+ ,
R3 c2 R
?
1 n × Ṁ
E = −Ȧ = , (37)
4πε0 c2 R2
it is sufficient to substitute (35) in (20) and (21).

185 7. Conclusion

Explicit expression for the current density j (6) of an arbitrarily moving

electrically neutral particle with the magnetic moment M have been examined.
The general retarded vector potential A for a point dipole with an arbitrary
time dependence magnetic moment M has been obtained in (19) by means of
190 the current density j and Green function appearing inside the integral in (8).
The fields (20) and (21) for an arbitrarily moving point particle with a mag-
netic moment oscillating in time and expressed in terms of the vector potential
A have been derived. A general expression for the angular distribution of the
radiated power of a magnetic dipole has been obtained.
195 The developed technique allows to calculate easily the electromagnetic field
in the near and far zone. A direct deduction of the expressions for electric and
magnetic fields (24), (25) of a moving dipole in the far field zone is demon-
strated. The first coincides with the exact expression obtained by Heras [19] for
the electric radiation field. The angular power distribution of the moving mag-
200 netic dipole is obtained, which coincides with the exact outcome of Heras [11]
possessing a constant magnetic moment. It is obvious that the above general
expressions include the magnetostatic field [7] in the limiting case β → 0 as well
as the electromagnetic field of a oscillating dipole.
It is to be noted that the retarded vector potential simplifies considerably the
205 computation fields of point sources, particularly that of an arbitrarily moving

11
 magnetic particle. The significance of the obtained vector potential also lies
in the fact that it can be used to construct a Lagrangian for solving many
important physical problems.

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15
 90

120 60
.5
0

9
150 0. 30

.1
0

180 0

210 330

240 300

270

a) v  M
K(0.1) = 0.3, K(0.5) = 28.2, K(0.9) = 0.9 · 107 ;

90

120 60

150 = 0.9 30

= 0.5

180 0

= 0.1

210 330

240 300

270

b) v ⊥ M
K(0.1) = 2.6, K(0.5) = 512, K(0.9) = 109 .

Figure 1: The angular distribution F (θ, β)/K(β) of the radiation power of a magnetic dipole.

16
 Highlights

1. The novel exact retarded vector potential of a point magnetic dipole with an arbitrary time dependence
undergoing accelerated relativistic motions, whence follow (by the vector potential):
2. The corresponding electric and magnetic fields expressions (in the general form) of an arbitrary
moving point particle (maybe with a magnetic moment oscillating in time).
3. A novel expression in the general form for the angular distribution of the radiated power of an
arbitrary moving magnetic dipole.
4. In instance, the angular distribution of the radiation power of a magnetic dipole with a constant
magnetic moment and uniformly accelerated linear motion.
5. The resulting equations are verified by showing that the fields reduce to less general forms found in
the literature. It is obvious that the above general expressions include the magnetostatic field as well as
electromagnetic field of an oscillating dipole.

The significance of the obtained vector potential also lies in the fact that it can be used to construct a
Lagrangian for solving many important physical problems.