Buddhist monasticism

Buddhist monasticism is one of the earliest surviving forms of

organized monasticism in the history of religion. It is also one of the
most fundamental institutions of Buddhism. Monks and nuns are
considered to be responsible for the preservation and dissemination of
the Buddha's teaching and the guidance of Buddhist lay people.

Contents
History and development
Monastic life
Local variations
Monks outside the temple at the Tibetan
Tibet
Buddhist monastery, Rato Dratsang, in India,
East Asia
January 2015
Southeast Asia
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History and development

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime between the fifth and fourth
centuries BC. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the
Buddha had studied under. It was not really isolationist or eremetic: the sangha was dependent on the lay community for basic
provisions of food and clothing, and in return sangha members helped guide lay followers on the path of Dharma. Individuals or
small groups of monks – a teacher and his students, or several monks who were friends – traveled together, living on the outskirts
of local communities and practicing meditation in the forests. Monks and nuns were expected to live with a minimum of
possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that monks
required, and provided shelter for monks when they were needed. Some Buddhist schools assert that during the Buddha's time,
many retreats and gardens were donated by wealthy citizens for monks and nuns to stay in during the rainy season (although there
is as yet no archaeological evidence to support this claim - evidence only exists for such monastic enclosures at a much later
date). Out of this tradition grew two kinds of living arrangements for monastics, as detailed in the Mahavagga section of the
Vinaya and Varsavastu texts:

1. avāsā: a temporary house for monastics called a vihara. Generally more than one monk stayed in each house
with each monk in his own cell, called a parivena.
2. ārāma: a more permanent and more comfortable arrangement than the avasa. This property was generally
donated and maintained by a wealthy citizen. This was more lavish (as suggested by the name – Araama means
both pleasant and park). It generally consisted of residences within orchards or parks.[1]
One of the more famous Arama is Anathapindika's, known as Anathapindikassa arame, built on Prince Jeta's grove. It had
buildings worth 1.8 million gold pieces built in a beautiful grove, with the total gift worth 5.4 million gold pieces.[2]
After the parinirvana of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of
living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life
centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns—the
Patimokkha—relate to such an existing, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of
monks or nuns. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada monks follow around 227 rules. There are a larger
number of rules specified for bhikkhunis.

Monastic life
Buddhism has no central authority, and therefore many different varieties of practice and philosophy have developed over its
history, including among monastic communities, sometimes leading to schisms in the sangha. The information presented here,
unless otherwise noted, characterises only certain Buddhist monks who follow the most strict regulations of the 'Southern
Schools' tradition. The oldest existing set of texts concerning a Buddhist form of life are those of the Pāli Canon. Although no
copy of these texts comes from the time of the Buddha, because of its relative age the Pāli Canon is used by some monastic
communities to define their conduct and identity. In some schools of Buddhism, notably those lineages in South East Asia (Sri
Lanka, Thailand, etc.) that compose Theravada, the Buddhist monastic community is theoretically divided into two assemblies,
the male bhikkhu (Pali, Skt. bhikshu) assembly, and the female bhikkhuni (Skt. bhikshuni) assembly. According to some stories,
although his followers initially consisted only of men, the Buddha recognized women as followers after his stepmother,
Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. Also the Buddha's disciple Ananda strongly
insisted on including female order. Female monastic communities in the bhikkhuni lineage were never established in the
Vajrayana communities of Tibet and Nepal; Theravada communities formerly existed, but died out between the 11th and 14th
century. Ordination in the bhikkhuni lineage continues to exist among East Asian communities, and attempts have been made at a
revival in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Such divisions are more rarely made in the Northern schools, or in the West.

Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the

Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to
preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism.
They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity,
and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers, providing
laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving
gifts and support to the monks. In return for the support of the
laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused
on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and
the observance of good moral character. The relative degree of
emphasis on meditation or study has often been debated in the
Buddhist community. Many continued to keep a relationship with
Young Buddhist monks in Tibet practising formal
their original families.[3] debating

A Bhikkhu or Bhikkhuni first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for

a year or more. There are some conditions which must be met in order to be allowed into Buddhist monaticism, such as age
between 7 and 70 and haven't broken sīla in some manners when undertaking them.[4][5] Male novices often ordain at a very
young age, but generally no younger than 8. Women usually choose to ordain as adults, since there is no expectation that they do
so in childhood. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules,
vinaya. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu or Bhikkhuni, is usually given only to those 20 or older. Women
monastics follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer period of time, typically five years. In
Thailand, monks are considered well supported by the community, and in return the monks offer guidance in life and in the
Dharma. They can give the Bhikkhu or Bhikkhuni vows back and return to non-monastic living. According to the vinaya, the
sangha should not accept a former Bhikkhuni to retake these vows, and for Bhikkhu up to taking three or seven times in a
life.[6][7][8][9][10] Breaking some important vinaya in manners according to the Vinaya Pitaka would not be accepted for
monasticism again for a lifetime.[11] In Burma, Taiwan and Hong Kong, there is sometimes short term monastic ordination
available to lay buddhists to take some vows for a week up to month.[12][13] In Thailand such arrangements are currently
available for male only.[14]

The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of
deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, seen as being the preeminent factor in
separating the life of a monastic from that of a householder.[3] (http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/layguide.ht
m) Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day, provided either by direct
donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by lay supporters.

Unlike Christian monastics, some schools of Buddhist monastics are not required to live a life of obedience to a superior.
However, it is expected that monastics will offer respect to senior members of the Sangha (in Thai tradition, seniority is based on
the number of rains retreats, vassas, that one has been ordained). The Buddha did not appoint a successor, nor did he specify rules
mandating obedience in the monastic code. Individual groups of monastics are expected to make decisions collectively through
regular gatherings of the community, at which decisions regarding violations of monastic rules and the dispositions of communal
property are to be made. Individual relationships of teacher/student, senior/junior, and preceptor/trainee may be observed among
groups of monastics, but there are no formal positions, nor is there any authority to give orders or commands invested in senior
monks. An abbess or abbot, typically a senior monastic still young enough to be active, is usually responsible for the day-to-day
administration of the monastery, and may appoint others to assist with the work. In some traditions, the abbess/abbot is chosen by
a vote of the monastics in a monastery. In other traditions (Thailand, for example), the abbot is chosen by the lay community.

Local variations
Monastic practices vary significantly according to location. In part, this can be attributed to differences in the scriptural and
doctrinal traditions that were received in different parts of the Buddhist world. Additionally, local concessions to social,
geographical, and climatic conditions have been adopted by most monastic orders in order to smooth the integration of monks
into local communities, and to ensure that monks live in a safe and reasonable manner. In cold climates, for instance, monks are
permitted to own and wear additional clothing not specified in the scriptures. In areas where begging rounds are impossible (due
to traffic, geography, or disfavor by the lay community), monks more commonly employ a kitchen staff of monks or lay followers
who are responsible for providing meals for the community.

Although there were a number of distinct vinaya traditions or ordination lineages, only three have survived to the present day: the
Theravāda, Dharmaguptaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda.

Tibet
In Tibet, before the Chinese invasion in the late 1940s and early 1950s, more than half of the country's male population was
ordained. Today, this is no longer the case. While generally adhering to a Mahayana tradition that advocates the virtues of
vegetarianism, Tibetan monks generally eat meat as a concession to climatic conditions that make a plant-based diet largely
unfeasible. Tibetan monks follow the Mūlasarvāstivāda vinaya lineage.

Lamas who take bhikṣu vows are not allowed to marry.[15] The Nyingma school includes a mixture of bhikṣus and non-celibate
ngakpas, and it is not unusual for lamas to wear robes closely resembling monastic garb despite them not being bhikṣus.[16][17]
Sakya school does not allow monks to get close to women after they have sons.[18] Gelug school emphasized Vinaya ethics and
monastic discipline; Choekyi Gyaltsen refused to wear monk clothing after he married.[19] Kagyu monks are also required to
return to non-monastic life to marry.[20][21]
East Asia
In East Asia, monastics live in greater isolation from the lay population than is
observed in most Theravada countries. Because of local conditions of geography and
climate, as well as local attitudes towards begging, monks generally do not make
begging rounds in China, Korea, Vietnam, and many parts of Japan. Instead,
monasteries receive donations of bulk food (such as rice) and funds for the purchase
of food that is then stored and prepared at the monastery. Many monks and nuns are
vegetarians and, after Baizhang Huaihai, many monks farm food to eat; some work
or sell.[22][23][24][25] Most eat after noon.[26][27][28] The management of the kitchen
and monastery properties may be the purview of a specially designated layman or a
monk who has been given a special role by the abbot of the monastery. Monks chant
many mantras in regular living.[29] Buddhist monks and nuns lived together in China
in Lingshansi (河南信阳灵山寺),[30] Luming'an (河南固始九华山妙高寺鹿鸣 A Buddhist monk in Kaohsiung,
庵),[31] Hong'ensi (重庆鸿恩寺),[32] Ciyunsi (重庆慈云寺),[33] Sandingsi (西藏山 Taiwan, wearing the robes of an
南桑丁寺),[34] Chahuasi (云南茶花寺)[35] abbot in a monastery

Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the Buddhist tradition because the
monks and nuns can marry after receiving their higher ordination. This idea is said
to be introduced by Saichō, the founder of the Tendai school, who preferred
ordaining monks under the Bodhisattva vows rather than the traditional Vinaya.
There had long been many instances of Jōdo Shinshū priests and priestesses
marrying, influenced by the sect's founder Shinran, but it was not predominant until
a government Nikujiku Saitai Law ( 肉 食 妻 帯 ) was passed during the Meiji
Restoration that monks or priests of any Buddhist sect are free to seek
wives.[36][37][38] This practice influenced Korea and Taiwan.[39] A nun in Taiwan
gave birth.[40] Some Korean monks live with wives in their monasteries.[41]

Monks of certain Chinese Buddhist sects are allowed to marry,[42][43][44] [45] such
as in historical Yunnan,[46] Lingnan and Taiwan.[47][48] Buddhism in China was
historically viewed to be the lowest of the three major religions in China because
buddhist monks came from the lower classes and were both poor and
A mendicant monk in Kyoto,
uneducated.[49]
Japan

Southeast Asia
In Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar, where the Theravada school is dominant, there is a long tradition of
temporary ordination. During a school break, many young men usually ordain for a week or two to earn merit for loved ones and
to gain knowledge of Buddhist teachings. In most countries, this temporary ordination occurs during the vassa retreat, which is
regarded as a period of intensified spiritual effort by local Buddhists. Men in Thailand typically ordain only before being married;
men in Laos and Myanmar could traditionally return to the monastery from time to time after being married, provided that they
secured their wives' permission. Theravada monks are also most likely to engage in traditional practices of collecting alms,
although the urbanization of parts of Southeast Asian (particularly Thailand) has presented a challenge to this practice.

In Thailand, where the Buddhist institution has traditionally been closely associated with the government and the institution of
kingship, a more hierarchical structure has evolved to deal with the administration and regulation of monasteries. This system
initially stemmed from a system of royal patronage, in which monks who were appointed the abbots of 'royal monasteries' (those
endowed and supported by members of the royal family) were accorded greater respect than those who headed more conventional
monasteries. This system remained fairly unstructured until the modernization efforts of the 19th century, during which a more
formal system of governance was created by the central government. Modern Thai
monks are ranked according to their ability to pass examinations in Buddhist
doctrine and the Pali language, and are appointed to successively higher positions in
the ecclesiastic hierarchy on the basis of these exams, as well as their support among
influential members of the royal family and government. Local affairs continue to be
handled primarily by the local monastic and lay community, but nationwide efforts
(such as curriculum decisions for monastic schools, and the authoritative form of
scriptures and rituals) are typically made by the central hierarchy.

See also
Abbot (Buddhism)
Buddhist ethics
Greco-Buddhist monasticism
Monastery
Monasticism
Young Buddhist monk in the
Sangha streets of Luang Prabang, Laos

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Bibliography
Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 556–560. ISBN 0-02-
865718-7.
Wijayaratna, Mohan (1990). Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the Theravada Tradition.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_monasticism&oldid=911449087"

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