RESEARCH TECHNIQUES :

RESEARCH - re - search

definitions:

The systematic investigation into and study of existing knowledge in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.

‘systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’

‘ scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions

about presumed relationships about various phenomena’

controlled – in a study of cause-and- effect it is important to be able to link the effect with the
cause. The concept of control implies that in exploring causality in the relation of two variables,
you set up the study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.

This is easier achieved in physical sciences, but in social sciences it is extremely difficult to
control various existing factors.

valid and verifiable – this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

empirical – based on facts or real observable phenomena

The basic types of research :

The types of research may be classified on the basis of objective of the research, application or
mode of enquiry.

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. In social
science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post
facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with
the formulation of a theory.

“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a
view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research.

the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: (based on type of measurement)

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular
thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a
difficult job.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without
due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which
are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental
type of research. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove
or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate
the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and
his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful
support possible for a given hypothesis.

(v) Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. From the
point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in
which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic
research. Such research follow case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest
us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.

The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research
is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies
are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

Corrrelational research seeks to clarify patterns of relationships between two or more variables
or factors involved in the situation under study.

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time.

Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing

conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as
he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is
always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark
upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

Most studies are a combination of research types .

There are two main paradigms that form the basis of research in
the social sciences : Basically can the physical sciences
methodology be applied to study of social phenomena.
The paradigm that is rooted in the physical sciences approach is
called the positivist approach or the scientific approach.
The other approach is known as the qualitative, ethnographic,
ecological or naturalistic approach.
RESEARCH PROCESS

deciding WHAT to research

step I Formulating a research problem
deciding HOW to research – PLANNING a research study
step II Conceptualising a research design
step III Constructing an instrument for data collection
step IV Selecting a sample
step V Writing a research proposal
CONDUCTING the research study
step VI collecting data
step VII processing and displaying data
step VIII WRITING a research REPORT

step I Formulating a research problem

The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide
what you want to find out about.
It is like identification of a destination before a journey.

The first step is literature review – to find the existing body of

knowledge in the area of interest.
Literature review has value before the research process starts,
helps you design the research and supports you throughout the
journey of the research.
the broad functions of a literature review are:
to provide a theoretical background to your study
to enable you to contextualise your findings in relation to the
existing body of knowledge
Formulating a research problem can be more confusing after the
initial stage but consider thus a sign of progression.
Confusion is often but a first step towards clarity
Formulating research objectives – main objective & sub objectives
REFERENCES:
A reference list generally contains only sources you have cited in-text in your
report. Reference lists are created to allow readers to locate original sources themselves. Each
citation in a reference list includes various pieces of information. Citations are listed in
alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If there are multiple sources by the same author,
then citations are listed in order by the date of publication.
Referencing system can be the Parenthetical systems (in which you cite (author,year) or
Notational systems – either in form of a footnote/endnote or series of
numbered references.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: is a list of all the sources you used to generate your ideas
about the topic.

STANDARD REFERENCING STYLES:

APA format structure:
Book:
Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher City, State:
Publisher.
e-book:

Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work [E-Reader Version].

Retrieved from http://xxxx or DOI:xxxx

Journal article in print:

Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical

Title, Volume(Issue), pp-pp.

Citing a journal article found online

Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical

Title, Volume(Issue), pp-pp. doi:XX.XXXXX or Retrieved from URL

Harvard format structure:

 Last name, First Initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher,

Page(s).
When citing a chapter in an edited book:

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Chapter title. In: First initial. Last name,
ed., Book Title, 1st ed.* City: Publisher, Page(s).
 When citing a print journal:

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Journal, Volume (Issue),
Page(s).

When citing journal articles found on a database or through a website, include all of the
components found in a citation of a print journal, but also include the medium ([online]),
the website URL, and the date that the article was accessed.

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article Title. Journal, [online]
Volume(Issue), pages. Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo. Year].

MLA format structure:

 Last name, First name. “Title of article”.Title of book/

journal, volume/number, Publisher, Year publication year/date,
location (pg no/ online url/ city).

Chicago format structure:

 Last name, First name. “Title of article”.Title of book/

journal, volume/number, City:Publisher, Year publication year.
location (pg no of journal article/ online url/).

Vancouver format structure:

 Last name First name initial. “Title of article”.

journal(abbreviated), year month volume number (issue no.):
pg no.,
Tashiro J, Yamaguchi S, Ishii T, Suzuki A, Kondo H, Morita Y, Hara K, Koyama I. Inferior oncological
prognosis of surgery without oral chemotherapy for stage III colon cancer in clinical settings. World J
Surg Oncol. 2014 May 10;12(1):145.

References:

o Kothari C.R., 1990, Research Methodology, New age international Publishers.

o Kumar Ranjit, 2011, Research Methodology, Sage Publications.