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Introduction to Manufacturing Process

(Experiment no-01)

Aim of experiment: Introduction to various machine tools and demonstration on machining

Apparatus required:
1. Conventional Lathe
2. Conventional Milling

Procedure:
1. Study various type of machine tools as mentioned above
2. Note down the specifications, capabilities of various machines
3. Study various machining that can be done on each machines.

Known Theory

Lathe

Function Of Lathe:
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine and then
turning it against cutting tool which will remove metal from the work in the form of chips. To cut the
material properly the tool should be harder than the material of the work piece, should be rigidly held
on the machine and should be fed or progressed in a definite way related to the work.

Specification Of Lathe:
1. Height Of Centre: The height of the centers measured over the lath bed.
2. Swing Over Bed: Swing or max diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways.
3. Swing Or Diameter Over Carriage. This is the largest diameter over carriage. This is the largest
diameter over carriage of work that will revolve over the lathe saddle.
4. Distance Between Centres: Max job length in mm that may be held between the
Centers (head stock & tail stock)
5. Bed Length: Bed length in meters which may include

PARTS OF LATHE:

The following are the main parts of a lathe.


Milling Machine
INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE:
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast
rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be mounted
simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling machine finds
wide application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces,
contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical surfaces
of various cross-sections. Typical components produced by a milling are given in Fig. In many
applications, due to its higher production rate and accuracy, milling machine has even
replaced shapers and slotters.

Principle of Milling Machine:

In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges.
For cutting operation, the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the work piece moves
against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of trochoid shape.
Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be machined is
held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between centers, in a special
fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotator speed of the cutting tool and the feed rate of the
work piece depend upon the type of material being machined.

Specification of Milling Machine:

• Table Overall Size : 1245 X 230 MM


• Longitudinal Movement : 560 MM
• Transverse Movement : 250 MM
• Vertical Movement : 390 MM
• Speed Range : 45 – 2000 RPM

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES:


Milling machine rotates the cutter mounted on the arbor of the machine and at the same time
automatically feed the work in the required direction. The milling machine may be classified in several
forms, but the choice of any particular machine is determined primarily by the size of the work piece to
be undertaken and operations to be performed. With the above function or requirement in mind,
milling machines are made in a variety of types and sizes. According to general design, the distinctive
types of milling machines are:

1. Column and Knee Type Milling Machines


(A) Hand Milling Machine
(B) Horizontal Milling Machine
(C) Universal Milling Machine
(D) Vertical Milling Machine
2. Planer Milling Machine
3. Fixed-Bed Type Milling Machine
(A) Simplex Milling Machine.
(B) Duplex Milling Machine.
(C) Triplex Milling Machine.
4. Machining Center Machines
5. Special Types of Milling Machines
(A) Rotary Table Milling Machine.
(B) Planetary Milling Machine.
(C) Profiling Machine.
(D) Duplicating Machine.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE & THEIR FUNCTIONS:


The principal parts of a column and knee type vertical milling machine are described as under.
Base
It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column at its
one end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box shaped,
heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and table feed. The
front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail guide way
for supporting the knee.
Knee
The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the
column face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee
and it also supports the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different
controls to operate it.
Saddle
The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guide ways set exactly at 90°to the
column face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.

Table
The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw under the table
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power. In universal
machines, the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted
on a circular base. The top of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for
clamping the work and other fixtures on it

Spindle
It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears and clutches and transmits it to the arbor.

4.5 MILLING METHODS:


There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-Milling or Conventional Milling
2. Down-Milling or Climb Milling

UP-Milling or Conventional Milling:


In the up-milling or conventional milling the metal is removed in form of small chips by a cutter
rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece. In this type of milling, the chip
thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut. As a result the
cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the milling
cutter. The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the tendency of cutting force to lift
the work from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained. But being a safer process, it is
commonly used method of milling.
Down-Milling or Climb Milling:
Down milling is also known as climb milling. In this method, the metal is removed by a cutter
rotating in the same direction of feed of the work piece. The effect of this is that the teeth cut downward
instead of upwards. Chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum
in the end. In this method, it is claimed that there is less friction involved and consequently less
heat is generated on the contact surface of the cutter and work piece. Climb milling can be
used advantageously on many kinds of work to increase the number of pieces per sharpening
and to produce a better finish. With climb milling, saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily
than with standard milling. Another advantage is that slightly lower power consumption is
obtainable by climb milling, since there is no need to drive the table against the cutter.

Observation
Name of Type No of axis Machining that can
machine(make) be performed

Conclusions: Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-02)

Aim of experiment
Manufacturing of A cylindrical work piece containing different operations like Facing, turning,
step turning, chamfering, taper turning.

Apparatus required:

 Lathe machine

 OD turning tool

 Dead center

 Vernier caliper(0-150mm)

 Chuck ley

 Tool holder key

 Double ended spanner

Procedure:
1. Cut the material to size 105.0mm

2. Load the part in three jaw self-centering chuck.

3. Load the tool in the tool post and do the center height adjustment of the tool.

4. Do the facing, chamfering, OD turning of Ø26.0 up to length40.0mm

5. Reverse the job.

6. Do the facing.
7. Do the OD turning of Ø12.0, taper turning, chamfering, and step turning as per drawing.

8. Unload the part and deburr it.

Drawing of part

Conclusions:

Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-03)

Aim of experiment

Manufacturing of Regular polygon by vertical indexing method containing square profile.

Apparatus required:

 Horizontal milling arbor ISO-40 with arbor support


 Vernier caliper(0-150mm)
 Chuck key
 Vertical Indexing device
 Universal milling machine
 Side and face cutter dia 120 with insert.
 DRO
 2nd cut file

Procedure:
1. Collect the raw material and check the dimension
2. Hold the work piece in 3 jaw self-centering chuck of the vertical indexing head having a
projected length of 40 mm outside the chuck.
3. Fix the cutter in the arbor and tighten it.
4. For cutting of square first touch the cutter to the top of the work piece and make Z axis zero in
the DRO.
5. Then touch the Cutter in Y axis to the job and make Y axis zero in the DRO.
6. Move the table to one side of cutter, give the depth of cut by 1mm in Z-axis and shift the Y axis
by 2mm and then move the table in X- axis. Repeat the cut in Z –axis up to the depth of 10mm
and after completion of Final Z value, move the table in Z axis to the Z zero point in DRO. Move
the Y axis by another 2 mm and Repeat the cut up to Z -10mm. Maintain the 1st side of the
square to a Y axis Value of (39.6-20.0)/2=9.8mm.
7. Similarly machine remaining 3 side as per the point no 6.
8. After completion, remove the part from the chuck and debur it.

Figure of the part:


Observation
Dimension as per Measuring Reading Conclusion
drawing instrument used

Conclusions:
a) Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-04)
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-05)

Aim of experiment

Manufacturing of a sand mould using a split pattern.

Apparatus required:

1. Sand
2. Moulding flask
3. Foundry accessories

Theory
Foundry practice deals with the process of making castings of moulds, formed in ither sand or some
other material. The involves the operations of pattern making, sand preparation, molding, melting of metals,
pouring in moulds, cooling, shake – out, fettling, heat treatment, finishing and inspection. Casting is the process
of making parts by pouring the molten metal into moulds and allowing them to solidify.
There is no limit to the size and shape of the article to be produced by the casting process. It also offers one of
the easiest and most economical methods of producing intricate parts.

Mould is a cavity formed by a pattern. It is similar in shape and size to that of the actual casting plus some
allowances for shrinkage, machining, etc. molding is the process of making moulds.

Moulds are classified as temporary and permanent. Temporary moulds are made of refractory sand and other
binding materials and may be produced either through hand molding or machine molding. Permanent moulds
are made of ferrous metals and alloys, i.e., cast iron, steel etc.
Manual methods of green sand moulds are presented. The stages involved in the sand molding process are: sand
preparation, pattern making, core making (if required), molding and closing.

Melting furnaces convert the charge materials into the molten state by heating to a temperature above their
melting point. Melting furnaces can be fired on liquid, solid or gaseous fuel or heated by electric energy.

For production requirements, a cupola furnace is used for producing molten metal (cast iron).

MOLDING SAND
Sand is the principal material used in a foundry. The principal ingredients of molding sands are: (1) silica sand, (2)
clay sand, (3) moisture. Clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the molding sand. Moisture when added
in correct proportion provides the bonding action to the clay. Special additives and binders are also added to
develop certain desired properties to the molding sands. Silica sand can withstand very high temperatures and
does not react with the molten metal.

Natural molding sand is either available in riverbeds or dug from pits. They possess an appreciable amount of
clay and are used as received, with the addition of water. The percentage of clay in this sand is around 20%. It
needs 5 to 8 % of water for making moulds.

Synthetic sands are prepared by adding clay, water and other materials to silica sand, so that the desired
strength and bonding properties like permeability and refractoriness and are suitable for making heavy castings.

Pure silica sand is not used as molding sand, due to its lack of binding properties. Any material added to the pure
silica sand or available in the natural sand that imparts cohesiveness to it is called binder. The binder holds the
sand grains together, imparts strength and resistance to erosion.

Clay is a naturally available binder. There are three types of synthetic binders in use. These are: (1) Clay type
binders, Ex: Bentonite; (2) Organic binders, Ex: Resins (3) Inorganic binders, Ex: Sodium silicate.

Most of moldings is done with green sand, i.e., sand containing 6 to 8 percent moisture and 10 percent clay
content to give it sufficient bond. Green sand molds are cheaper and take less time to prepare. These are used
for small and medium size castings.

Dry sand moulds, obtained after drying or backing green sand moulds, are used for large castings.

Parting sand, which a clay free, fine grained silica sand, is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also to prevent the cope and drag from clinging.

Core sand is used for making cores. This is silica and mixed with core oil and other additives.
PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SAND
The essential requirement of good molding sand is that it should produce sound castings, which are free
from defects. For producing sound castings, molding sand or mold should possess the following
properties; to quote a few:
Porosity or permeability
When molten metal is poured into a mold, gases and steam will be formed. The sand mold should
have sufficient porosity to allow the gases and steam to pass through it. If they are not removed,
casting defects such as blowholes will be formed.
Plasticity is the property of the molding sand by virtue of which, it flows to all the corners around
the pattern in the mold, when rammed. Only due to this property, the molding sand gets the shape
of the pattern in the mold.
Cohesiveness
it is the property by which the sand particles stick to each other. Coarse-grained sand particles
give better cohesiveness than spherical grained sand particles.
Adhesiveness

Sticking of the sand particles to another body is known as adhesiveness. The molding sand sticks to the sides of
the cope and drag parts of the molding box.

Refractoriness

It is the property of the molding sand, to resist high temperature, without undergoing any changes.

Collapsibility

It is the property of the molding sand, by which mold should disintegrate with minimum force after casting has
solidified.

NOTE:

Sand moulds are suitable for all types of ferrous castings, i.e., cast iron, wrought iron, steel, etc. However the
main drawback is that a mould is suitable for one casting only and it has to be made a fresh for another casting,
with the help of the patterns. Further, sand molding contributes to rejections and rework done to casting
defects, costly machining and generally lower quality in mass production.
To overcome the above problems, permanent or metal moulds are used. Though, initial cost of
metal molding equipment is high, it can be justified with the large number of castings that can be
cast per mould repeatedly.

Tools Used In Moulding

(1) Vent wire for sticking vent holes through the sand of the mould.

(2) Pattern lifter.

(3) Joint trowel and (4) heart trowel for smoothing and finishing the parting and flat surfaces of the
mould.

(5) Gate cutter and pattern lifter.

(6) Slick and oval spoon for finishing mould surfaces.

(7) (8) Sand lifters and slicks.

(9) Yankee heel lifter and flat slick.

(10) Flange and bead slick.

(11) Corner slick.

(12) Edge slick.

(13) Bound corner slick.

(14) Pipe slick.

(15) Button slick. (16.) Oval Slick.

(17) Hand rammer for ramming sand in flasks

(18) Spirit level for leveling open sand moulds


Fig. Tools Used In Moulding

Flasks For Green And Dry Sand Moulds

Other Equipment

Shovel; Gate Cutter; Trowels; Smoothers and corner slices; Anvil


Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material (usually metal and polymers) is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is
also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials
are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together
such as epoxy, concrete, plaster or clay. A typical casting mold is shown in Figure below. Casting is generally used
for making intricate shapes (difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods).
Fig. A typical casting mold
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-06)

Aim of experiment

Practice on Manual arc welding and welding of different joints like Butt joint, lap joint And T-joint.
Apparatus required:

1. Arc welding machine


2. Welding Electrode
3. Electrode holder
4. Earth clamp
5. Welding helmet
6. Hand screen
7. Safety shoe
8. Welding cable/leads
9. Gloves
10. Apron
Safety precaution
Arc UV Light

1. Arc welding tends to be used for thick metal at high amps, so the light generated by the arc is
very bright. Any exposed skin will become sunburned quickly so overalls and welding gauntlets
(gloves) are a must.
2. Looking directly at a welding arc even for a short time causes arc eye where the UV from the arc
burns the cornea. Expect to be awake all night with the sensation that someone is sticking pins
in your eye. Also warn others in the area not to look at the arc and keep the welding area
screened from public view.
3. Auto-darkening helmets are very useful for arc welding - with fixed shade helmets is difficult to
judge where the end of the rod will first make contact with the work. A shade between around
10 and 12 would be suitable for arc.

Fumes

Welding fume (in total) should be controlled to ensure there is less than 5mg per cubic metre of clean
air. Keep the work area well ventilated, and keep your head out of the fumes.
Spatter

There can be a lot of sparks and spatter flying around especially when learning to arc weld. Cotton
overalls are more resistant to spatter than man made fabrics, and leather aprons offer excellent
protection. Spatter down the neck or shoes can be especially annoying. A welding cap can help protect
the head when overhead welding.

The welding area should be cleared of inflammable materials. Fires can be difficult to notice while
wearing a welding helmet.

Keep a fire extinguisher nearby - Both CO2 and dry powder types are suitable. Any type that contains
water (foam or water types) should not be used near mains powered electrical equipment.

Electric Shock

For a shock you would need to bridge between the electrode and the earth return. Minimise the
extent of live parts by making sure all cables are in good condition (with no bare insulation or frayed
wires), and that the rod holder is insulated.

Slag

Slag is lightweight and brittle so can fly a fair distance. Wear eye protection when chipping.

Arc welders don't have a button to start the arc. Unlike MIG welders the rod (electrode) will become live
as soon as the machine is switched on.

The arc is started by touching the electrode momentarily against the work to complete the electrical
circuit before raising the electrode to establish the arc. This needs to happen quickly to avoid welding
the rod to the work. "Tap Starting" and "Scratch Starting" are the two common methods of starting the
arc.

Because the rod is live at all times it needs to be kept insulated from the earth when not in use. In the
photo the welding bench is earthed, and a piece of wood is being used to isolate the rod from the bench.
After welding the rod is returned to the piece of wood.

Starting the ARC

Tap Starting

A sharp tap of the rod against the work will remove excess flux from the end of the rod and create the
electrical contact needed to start the arc.

A sharp wrist action should allow a momentary contact with the work before quickly pulling the rod a
short distance away. Too heavy a contact or too slow an action can cause the rod to stick.
Scratch Starting

An alternative starting method is to lightly scratch the rod against the work. Moving the rod
against the work removes excess flux from the rod and allows electrical contact from the steel in the
middle. As soon as the rod starts to spark it is lifted from the work to start the arc.

A tip to make starting much easier

Keep some scrap material near the work and start the rod on that before beginning your weld.
This will remove excess flux and warm up the rod which will make it much easier to start your weld.

Arc length fault


 Arc Length Too Short
This weld was laid with the end of the rod covered by the molten slag. The surface of the weld is uneven
where it has been dragged along by the rod, and the weld will be low on power and contain slag
inclusions.
 Arc Length OK
A normal arc weld. The weld has a consistent profile and minimal spatter.
 Arc Length Too Long
Too great a distance between the rod and the work will increase the voltage resulting in a flat and wide
weld with a great deal of spatter. It also makes the arc unstable, and the slag will be difficult to remove
from the edges of the weld. Sectioning this weld reveals undercutting to the left side.

Travel Speed Faults

 Speed OK
The bead is fairly consistent. The ridges in the weld are semi-circular.
 Speed Too Fast
Excessive speed results in a thin, weak bead. The ridges in the weld are elongated and triangular. Had
the current been increased to compensate for the speed the ridges would still remain elongated.
 Speed Too Slow
Welding too slowly results in a wide tall build up of weld. The shape of the weld is not consistent as the
weld pool has built up and then collapsed into the crater. The poor control of the weld pool can result in
cold joints and slag inclusions.

Current Setting Faults

Amps too low


Setting the amps too low will result in a tall, narrow bead lacking in penetration. The weld will
be difficult to start and the arc prone to straying towards one side of a joint in preference to the other.
 Amps too high
The bead is wide, flat and irregular, and a small undercut can be seen on the right of the weld in
the sectioned photo. A deep crater has formed at the end of the weld, and the slag is difficult to remove
from the edges of the weld.
Excessive current should not be compensated by excessive travel speed. This can result in slag inclusions
due to rapid cooling of the weld.
 Amps OK
With the amps set correctly the bead is a consistent rounded shape, and the slag is easy to
remove.

Conclusions:
Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.
Introduction to Manufacturing Process
(Experiment no-07)

Aim of experiment

Hand practice on gas welding and demonstration on different types of flame

Apparatus required:

1. Oxygen cylinder(black colour)


2. Dissolved Acetylene cylinder(maroon colour)
3. Oxygen pressure regulator
4. Acetylene regulator
5. Rubber hose pipe and connection
6. Blow pipe and nozzle
7. Goggles
8. Safety shoe
9. Gloves
10. Apron
Safety precaution
1. All inflammable materials should be kept away from from the welding area.
2. Always use goggles with filter during welding
3. Wear fire resistant clothes, asbestos gloves and apron during weldingalways keep fire
extinguisher handy and in working order
4. Keep the cylinder valve close when not in use.
5. Always use correct size of cylinder key.
6. Check the leakage before using oxy acetylene welding equipment.

Types of oxyacetylene flame:


Why acetylene is used for gas welding?

The oxy acetylene gas flame is used for gas welding

Because

1-it has a well controlled flame with high temperature.

2-The flame can be easily manipulated for proper melting of base metal.

3-It does n’t change the chemical composition of base metal.


Neutral flame
Oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportion in the blow pipe. This flame doesn’t have a bad
effect on the base metal/weld i.e. the metal is not oxidized and no carbon is available for reacting with
the metal.

Use:- Mild Steel, Cast iron, Stainless steel, copper and aluminum

Oxidizing flame:
It contains an excess of oxygen over acetylene as the gas comes out of nozzle.

Use: Useful for welding of brass and for brazing of ferrous metal.

Carburising flame:
It contains an excess of acetylene over oxygen as the gas comes from the blow pipe.

Use: Useful for stelliting (hard facing),” ‘Linde’ welding of steel pipes and flame cleaning
Comparison

Sl no Metal Flame
01 Mild steel Neutral
02 Copper(de-oxidised) Neutral
03 Brass Oxidizing
04 Cast iron Neutral
05 Stainless steel Neutral
06 Alluminium(pure) Neutral
07 Satellite Carburizing

Conclusions:
Comments are to be written based on the observations observed during the experiment.

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