1) ¿Cómo va a ser el examen?

1.- BRIEFLY DEFINE AND EXEMPLIFY THE FOLLOWING CONCEPTS. (Teoría)

2.- IDENTIFY THE WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES INSTANTIATED IN THE

FOLLOWING WORDS. JUSTIFY YOUR ANSWER WITH THE INPUT, OUTPUT
AND MEANING. (Word-Formation)

3.- IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF COMPOUND INSTANTIATED IN THE FOLLOWING

WORDS, DO NOT FORGET TO INCLUDE THE STRUCTURE AND MEANING OF
THE WORDS. (Compounds)

4.- HOW WOULD ADVOCANTS OF LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY HANDLE THE

FOLLOWING WORDS? JUSTIFY YOUR ANSWERS WITH APPROPRIATE
PHONOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. (Lexical Morphology)

5.- ARE THE FOLLOWING WORDS PROBLEMATIC FOR THE STRUCTURALIST

SCHOOL OF MORPHOLOGY? IF SO, WHY? (Trampilla)
5.- ARE THE FOLLOWING WORDS PROBLEMATIC FOR THE STRUCTURALIST
SCHOOL OF MORPHOLOGY? IF SO, HOW ARE THESE PROBLEMS
CIRCUNVENTED IN WORD-BASED MORPHOLOGY? (Trampilla)
 Explicación Básica Previa: Un poco de teoría nunca sobra

Structuralists VS Word Based:

The Structuralists defended (and still defend) that every word can be divided into Morphemes
and Morphs, and we must remember that a Morpheme is: - Single, Indivisible and Recurrent
(In their Idiosyncrasy) while the Word-based people only defended (And still defend) the
relation between Form and Meaning.

For example, with words like Sheep, which plural is an irregular form: SHEEP + PLURAL. The
Structuralists can't contemplate that: "¿How is it possible that a plural is in the MORPHEMES
while in the morphs nothing appear?"

Everything because it is an irregular plural with the Zero Derivation, so, the Structuralists have a
problem with that word, while the Word-Based People only say: "There is a dynamic interaction
between the meaning component "SHEEP" and "PLURAL" at the level of the word gives rise to the
word "Sheep"

Another example is the word Gooseberry, along with the berry-words (Except Blueberry and
Blackberry) Gooseberry can't be divided because "Goose" is not single, indivisible and recurrent.
It is UNIQUE MORPHEME+MORPHEME and belongs to Group 3 words, like Dismay.

(Of course you can find "May" and "Goose" alone, and "Dis" will be a Negative Morpheme, but in
that combination of words giving the exact word as Dismay or Gooseberry is not analyzable by
the Structuralists)
 Explicación Básica Previa: Un poco de teoría nunca sobra

-Phonologically conditioned allomorphy: The choice of the allomorph is

predictable on the basis of the pronunciation. (e.g the phonological shape) of adjacent
morphemes(Example: Third person singular present/ Plurals/ Saxon Genitive/
Regular Past and certain past participle forms/

-Morphologically conditioned allomorphy: The choice of the allomorph is

determined by particular morphemes, not just their phonological shape: Usually,
some soit of pattern, regularity can be detected: Consume>Consumption,
Subsume>Subsumption, Assume, Assumption

The change from /sju/ to / ʃʌmps/ in derived nominals is handled as a case of

morphological conditions.

It is not determined by the shape, but for the origins.

- Lexical Conditioning: The choice of the allomorph is unpredictable, and must be

memorized/Stored on a word-by-word basis.
Example: Irregular plurals such as "oxen, "Sheep", "Children". For many
morphologists, grammatical/morphological conditioning and lexical conditioning can
be lumped together (e.g they are idiosyncratic, and lack a phonological motivation)
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
Suele repetir preguntas. Es bastante probable que caigan pero no siempre ha sido así.
Conviene pegarle un repaso a la teoría una vez dominados estos puntos.

-Ablaut vs Umlaut:

The Ablaut is the systematic change of vocals in the different tenses:

Sing Sang Sung

Sink Sank Sunk

The Umlaut is something called "The U mutation" and it can be seen in cases like:

Cactus Cacti

Alumnus Alumni

Mouse Mice
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS

-Morpheme vs Phonoastheme

A Morpheme is the small, meaningful and recurrent unit while the phonoastheme is a
recurrent part of words which occur in very limited sets and yet do not seem to have
any specifiable meaning nor any meaning at all beyond the limited set.
An example of the Morpheme could be a regular analysis in Morphemes of any word
and with the phonoastemes we should pick the example (/n/ in not, neither, no,
never)

-Single/Free Morph vs Bound Morph

A Single Morph is a Morph that can stand alone as a word and a Bound Morph is a
Morph that can't stand alone as a word.

Examples: Pointed. Point is the Free Morph, -ed is the Bound Morph.

Repainted. Repaint is the Free Morph, -ed is the Bound Morph. (It is divided in
Repaint and -ed because the verb "Repaint" means "To paint again" while "Paint" is "To
paint" and won't have the same meaning)
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
-Roots vs Stems

Stems are the forms to which inflections may be added, but which may already have
derivational suffixes. The root is the word to which derivations may be added. For
example: Repainted

Root: Paint

Affixed: Re- and –ed

In "Repaint" we have a Derivational + Root, and the result will be a Stem.

In "Repainted" we have the Stem "Repaint" with the Inflectional suffix "-ed"
We must remember that the inflections maintain the category of the word "Noun to
noun, Verb to Verb" while the derivations change the category "Noun to Verb, Noun to
Adjective"
THE NEXT THING IS NOT OBLIGATORY, BUT JUST A FRIENDLY REMINDER OF
MORPHS AND MORPHEMES ANALYSIS. (From Myself)
MORPHS "re-" + "paint" + "-ed"
MORPHEMES AGAIN + PAINT + PAST
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
-Unique Morpheme vs Pseudomorpheme

An Unique Morpheme is a Single, Indivisible and recurrent unit while a

Pseudomorpheme is where both morphemes look like morpheme+morpheme but the
parts bear no meaningful relation to the morpheme themselves. Examples:

Unique Morpheme: Reject

Pseudomorpheme: Disappoint, Disclose, Dismay

ADDED EXPLANATION IN CLASS FOR FURTHER UNDERSTANDING: A Zero

Morpheme is a Morpheme that converts an adjective into a noun function without
form.
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
-Allomorph vs Suppletion

Allomorphs are different morphs that represent the same morpheme, like the past -
ed: /t/ /Id/ or /d/

Suppletion is allomorphs of a morpheme that are phonetically unrelated: Seek Sought

Sought, Go-Went, Is-Were, Good-Better-Best
You can't repeat a single word in suppletion.

-Lexical Morph vs Grammatical Morph

Lexical morphs are morphs that can be used in the creation of new words, for example
"Headline" while Grammatical Morphs represent grammatical categories, for example:
"-Ed" or "-ist“

ADDED EXPLANATION IN CLASS FOR FURTHER UNDERSTANDING

Doublets are words from the same source by different routes of transmission, for
example: Mouse to Mice (Animal) or Mouse to Mouses (Electronic Device)
Brother - Brothers - Brethren
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
-Trysillabic laxing vs Lexical Morphology

The trysillabic laxing is where the phenomenon whereby tense vowels (e.g
diphthongs) or long vowels become lax (short monopthongs) when followed by two
syllabes (in a derived environment), the first of which is unstressed. [Example: From
Impede to Impediment, from Grateful to Gratitude, ect...] On the other hand, the
lexical morphology concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and
compounding. For example it is where you combine two words in order to create a new
word. [For example: Head + Line, Headline] Or you derive a word form one to
another: Real + ity, Reality.
 Pregunta Nº1: DEFINE BRIEFLY AND EXEMPLIFY THW FOLLOWING
CONCEPTS
-Trysillabic laxing vs Lexical Morphology

The trysillabic laxing is where the phenomenon whereby tense vowels (e.g
diphthongs) or long vowels become lax (short monopthongs) when followed by two
syllabes (in a derived environment), the first of which is unstressed. [Example: From
Impede to Impediment, from Grateful to Gratitude, ect...] On the other hand, the
lexical morphology concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and
compounding. For example it is where you combine two words in order to create a new
word. [For example: Head + Line, Headline] Or you derive a word form one to
another: Real + ity, Reality.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: IDENTIFY THE WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
INSTANTIATED IN THE FOLLOWING WORDS. JUSTIFY YOUR ANSWE WITH
THE INPUT, OUTPUT AND MEANING

IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF COMPOUND INSTATIATED IN THE FOLLOWING

WORDS, DO NOT FORGET TO INCLUDE THE STRUCTURE AND MEANING OF
THE WORDS

¿Por qué van en el mismo bloque? Porque la pregunta Nº3 es solo analizar compounds,
y la pregunta Nº2 es analizar procesos de formación de palabras donde también
pueden caer compounds. Sabiendo hacer la pregunta Nº2, se saca la pregunta Nº3.

A continuación veremos todos los tipos de formación de palabras y varios ejemplos. Es

recomendable quedarse con todos los pasos que hay que poner a la hora de analizar la
palabra. Pues interesa que Gonzálvez vea que sabéis el proceso. No importa que
vuestra deducción sea errónea, si sabéis “defenderlo”, demostrando dominio de la
materia, dará puntos.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

A) Conversion by Zero Derivation

INPUT, OUTPUT
MEANING
TYPE
EXAMPLES

Special tip: For Zero Derivation both words must be related

+ Zero Derivation Example

INPUT: fish (N)
OUTPUT: fish (V) Derived
MEANING: Kind of animal that lives in the water (N)
The act of catching X (V)
TYPE: It is a case of Zero derivation since we don't have a splicit morph for a
verb.
Examples: The fish live in deep waters
I never fish in this region.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

B) Derivation by affixation (Or Inflection if the Category of the word

maintains)

INPUT, OUTPUT
GLOSS
MORPHEME ANALYSIS
EXAMPLES OF RECURRING ONES

+ Affixation Example
INPUT: "help" (v) + "-ful" (Adj) (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: helpful (Adj)
GLOSS: A person who X-s
MORPHEME ANALYSIS: "HELP" (FREE MORPHEME) + "-FUL" (BOUND,
LEXICAL MORPHEME)
EXAMPLE OF RECURRING ONES: "Help": Helpless. "Ful": Grateful
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

C) Compounding

INPUT, OUTPUT
TYPE: Endocentric, Exocentric, Appositional, Copulative
METONIMY/METAPHOR/ECT...
MEANING
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
OTHER EXAMPLES

There won't be a resolved example of the compounds because there is 4 Types of

Compounds with 9 Types of Argument Structure, Tips and Text will be provided.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

C) Compounding

+ Text to put in "TYPE": Endocentric: There is a hyponymy relationship between the

meaning of the compound as a whole and the meaning of the head. In other words, a "
Insert here the Endocentric Compound Word" is a type/kind of "Insert here the Head
of the compound".
+ Text to put in "TYPE": Exocentric: There is no hyponymy relationship between the
meaning of the compound as a whole and the meaning of the head. In other words, a
"Insert here the Endocentric Compound Word" is not a TYPE/kind of "Insert here the
Head of the compound", but a "Insert here the meaning of the Exocentric".
+ Text to put in "TYPE": Appositional: There is a bidirectional hyponymy relationship
between both heads A and B, being there an identity relationship between them. In
other words, a "Insert here Head A" is a "Insert here Head B", and a "Insert here Head
B" is a "Insert here Head A".
+ Text to put in "TYPE": Copulative: None of the two elements can act as a head. This
kind of compound combines, in a compositional way, the meaning of the two
components, A and B.
+ To put in a "Neoclassical Compound": Cosmonaut, Astronaut, Microorganism,
Biocrat, Astronaut: Bound elements, they are not productive, not free morphemes.
Neoclassical words must be looked individually. There are not clear signs of division.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

C) Compounding
A trick to Identify the Head is to think that it is usually in the Right side, and put it in
plural. If both are Ok, it is the Head. A very usual word with the Head at the left is
"Mother-in-law“
+ Tips for the Argument Structure:
Noun Compounds Verb + Adverbials
Sub + Verb Swimming Pool: X Swims in the pool
Sunrise: The sun rises Babysitter: X sits with the baby
Rattlesnake: The snake rattles Homework: X works at home
Dancing-girl: The girl dances
Subject + Object
Verb + Object Windmill: The wind powers the mill
Blood-test: X tests your blood Public-House: The house is public
Tax-payer: X pays taxes Toy-Factory: The factory produces toys
Doorknob: The door has a knob
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

C) Compounding
Subject + Complement (Use always copulative verbs: Be/ Seems) [Ser,
Estar o Parecer)
Darkroom: The room is dark

Adjective Compounds
Verb + Object
Maneating: X eats men

Verb + Adverbial
Ocean-going: X goes across the ocean

Verbless
Crystal-Clear: As clear as crystal

Special cases
Prep + Prep
Into: A kind of within
Onto: A kind of within
Within: A kind of within.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

D) Clipping
INPUT, OUTPUT
BASE
DERIVATIVE/RESULTING FORM
MEANING
TYPE OF W.F

+ Example of Clipping: Perp

INPUT: "Perpetrate" (V) + "-or" (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: Perpetrator (N)
BASE: Perpetrator (N)
DERIVATIVE/RESULTING FORM: Perp (N)
MEANING: Someone who commits a crime
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and
all you keep is the first four letters.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

E) Backformation

INPUT, OUTPUT
MEANING
TYPE OF W.F

+ Example of Backformation
INPUT: "Babysitting" (N)
OUTPUT: "To babysit" (V)
MEANING: To look after babies/children while parents are absent
TYPE: A case of word formation by means of a process of backformation,
since a shorter word has resulted from a longer and more complex word.

TIP FOR DISTINGUISH BETWEEN BACKFORMATIOND AND CLIPPING: If it

changes its category of word, is a backformation "Noun to Verb, for example" if it
maintains it, Clipping "Noun to Noun"
With the Endocentric, put an example, or more, using the Head. With the Exocentric,
Metonymy or Metaphor.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

F) Acronym

(Maybe the phonemes will be required, put them if you need to)
TYPE AND MEANING
TYPE A: Pronounced as a sequence of letters
TYPE B: Pronounced as a word
+ Example of an Acronym
NATO: /ˈneɪtəʊ/
TYPE B: It is a TYPE B Acronym because it is pronounced as a word.
MEANING: Stands For North-Atlantic-Treaty-Organization

Los acrónimos están en las redes, en el anexo que os dió Gonzálvez, en todas partes,
buscad y estudiadlos, muchos simplemente se han dado en clase o son ejemplos que
ya deberíais saber.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

G) Coinage or Word-Manufacturing

PROCESS
TYPE OF W.F
MEANING
REASON
+ Example of a Coinage: To Xerox
PROCESS: After Xerox, the photocopying company
TYPE: A word based on a Word-Manufacturing/Coinage process since a
previously non-existent verb has been coined from a brand name.
MEANING: To produce a copy or a document by this process
REASON: This happens by virtue of metonymy
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

H) Blending

INPUT, OUTPUT
MEANING
TYPE
+Example of Blending: Amphetamine
INPUT: "Alphametyl" (N) + "Phenethylamine" (N)
OUTPUT: "Amphetamine" (N)
MEANING: It is a chemical product or a drug
TYPE: A case of word formation by means of a blending process, since a
totally new word has merged from parts of two other words.
Pregunta Nº2 y 3: Word-Formation Analisis

H) Blending

INPUT, OUTPUT
MEANING
TYPE
+Example of Blending: Amphetamine
INPUT: "Alphametyl" (N) + "Phenethylamine" (N)
OUTPUT: "Amphetamine" (N)
MEANING: It is a chemical product or a drug
TYPE: A case of word formation by means of a blending process, since a
totally new word has merged from parts of two other words.
Pregunta Nº4:POSSIBLE EXERCISE ABOUT LEXICAL PHONOLOGY: EXPLAIN
HOW ADVOCANTS SF LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY WOULD EXPLAIN THE
FOLLOWING GRAMMATICALLITY CONTRAST. DO NOT FORGET TO INCLUDE
A PHONOLOGICAL TRANSCRIPTION AS EVIDENCE FOR YOU ANSWER

HOW WOULD ADVOCANTS OF LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY HANDLE THE

FOLLOWING WORDS? JUSTIFY YOUR ANSWERS WITH APPROPRIATE
PHONOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

La fonología corre a vuestro

cargo. Recordad los
fonemas que existen,
repasad en Word-
Reference. Lo que haga
falta, pero es importante en
este ejercicio.
Pregunta Nº4: Fonología
INPUT, OUTPUT (WITH PHONOLOGICAL TRANSCRIPTION)
CHANGES
EXPLANATION
COUNTER-EXAMPLE

Example:
*Natury Natural
INPUT: "Nature" /neɪtʃə/ (N) + "-al" (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: Natural /nætʃərəl/ (Adj)
There are changes in: /eɪ/ to /æ/ so, in Quantity and Quality
[REMEMBER: DIFFERENCE OF SOUNDS =/QUALITY/, SHORT TO LARGE OR VICE-
VERSA =/QUANTITY/]
EXPLANATION: The affixation of the suffix "-al" to "nature" is phonologically NON-
NEUTRAL. The existence of "natural" at Stratum 1 will block the creation of a correspond
word at Stratum 2.
COUNTER-EXAMPLE
* Cremal Creamy
INPUT: "Cream" /krɪm/ + "-y" (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: Creamy /krɪmɪ/
There is no change in Stress, Quantity or Quality, so it is phonologically NEUTRAL. The
existence of "creamy" at Stratum 2 will block the creation of a correspond word at Stratum 1.
[THE SCHWA COULD BE ELSEWHERE THE STRESS IS]
Pregunta Nº5: ARE THE FOLLOWING WORDS PROBLEMATIC FOR THE
STRUCTURALIST SCHOOL OF MORPHOLOGY? IF SO, HOW ARE THESE
PROBLEMS CIRCUNVENTED IN WORD-BASED MORPHOLOGY?

Always 3 words: An irregular (Past, Plural), a "-berry" word and a regular word (Trap)

-Were/ To service: Conversion by Zero Derivation

-Gooseberry: IF, and only IF the Morpheme "Goose" can be understood as the texture
of the berry, it will be Group 1, Morpheme + Morpheme, and it would be treated as an
Endocentric Compound. If a Native Speaker observe this word, it would be Group 3,
an Unique Morpheme + Morpheme that do not reoccur elsewhere.

-Microorganism: Compound, divisible in Micro and Organism, no problem.

-Books, Book + Plural, no problem.

- Were can also be Suppletion (From Is) or Allomorphy from the past (Was/Were)
Pregunta Nº5: ARE THE FOLLOWING WORDS PROBLEMATIC FOR THE
STRUCTURALIST SCHOOL OF MORPHOLOGY? IF SO, HOW ARE THESE
PROBLEMS CIRCUNVENTED IN WORD-BASED MORPHOLOGY?

Words as: Comfort > Discomfort and Uncomfortable are Grammatically Conditioned
(Also called Morphologically Conditioned)

As: Cooked /t/ or washed /Id/ are Phonologically Conditioned

As: Lice, Children or Oxen are Lexically Conditioned

List of Words: As a Reward (It is a Summary, we always have to do the protocol)

Curio: Clipping from Curiosity

Flu: Clipping from Influenza
Sitcom: Clipping from Situational Comedy
Psycho: Clipping from Psychopath
To Total: Conversion by Zero Derivation
Chunnel: Blending from Channel + Tunnel
Xerox: Coinage and can be used conversion by Zero derivation
GMT: Acronym, stands for Greenwich Mean Time
UTC: Universal Time Coordinated
Spy: Conversion by Zero Derivation
Netizen: Blending from Network + Citizen
Elect: Clipping from Election
Notspot: Coinage from a Place with no WiFi Service
PickPocket: Exocentric
Wedding-cake: Endocentric
Running-Shoes: Endocentric
Alarm-Clock: Appositional
L.A.D: Type B, as a word. Language Acquisition Device
U.G: Type A, as a sequence. Universal grammar
Radar: Type B, as a word. Radio Detection and Ranging
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

NATO: Acronym
TYPE B: Pronounced as a word
MEANING: Stands for North-Atlantic-Treaty-Organization

Lawnmower: Compound
INPUT: "Lawn" (N) + "Mower" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: Lawnmower (N)
TYPE: Endocentric: There is hyponymy relationship between the overall meaning of
the compound and the meaning of the head. In other words, Lawnmower is a mower
which cuts Lawn.
MEANING: A lawnmower is a kind of mower.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE: Something that cuts the lawn.
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

Gamekeeper: Compound
INPUT: "Game" (N) + Keeper (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: Gamekeeper (N)
TYPE: Endocentric: There is hyponymy between the overall meaning of the
compound and the meaning of the head. In other words, "Gamekeeper" is a kind of
Keeper.
MEANING: A Gamekeeper is a kind of Keeper who protects forests.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE: X Keeps the Game.
EXAMPLES: Goalkeeper, Zookeeper, Timekeeper.

Brutal: (Derivation by Suffixation)

INPUT: "Brute" (N) + "-al" (Class Changing Suffix) [Readjustment in the -e]
OUTPUT: "Brutal" (Adj)
GLOSS: Doing something in X way
Morphs: "brute" ( FREE MORPHEME) + "-al" (BOUND MORPHEME)
MORPHEMES: BRUTE + ADJECTIVE
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

Bountyhunter: (Compound) (And Derivation)

INPUT: "Hunt" (V) +"-er" (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Hunter" (N)
GLOSS: A person who realizes the action of X
Morphs: "hunt" (FREE MORPHEME) + "-er" (BOUND MORPHEME)
MORPHEMES: HUNTER + AGENT
INPUT: "Bounty" (N) + "Hunter" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: Bountyhunter (N)
TYPE: Endocentric: There is hyponymy between the overall meaning of the compound and the
meaning of the head. In other words, Bountyhunter is a kind of hunter.
MEANING: A Bountyhunter is a kind of hunter.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE: The hunter is after the bounty.
EXAMPLES: Headhunter, Pothunter, Foxhunter

Sci-Fi: Clipping and Compounding, but we can say that it is only clipping
INPUT: "Science" (N) + "Fiction" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Science-Fiction" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: Sci-Fi (N)
MEANING: A Genre for movies, music, comics, ect...
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is three
letters from science and two from fiction.
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

Amerindian: Blending
INPUT: "American" (Adj) + "Indian" (Adj) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Amerindian" (Adj)
MEANING: A person or object that is from America and India.
TYPE: A case of word-formation by means of a blending process, since a totally new word has
merged from parts of two other words.

Hazmat: Clipping
INPUT: "Hazardous" (Adj) + "Material" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Hazardous-Materials" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: Hazmat (N)
MEANING: Materials that are Hazard, in other words, with risk of death.
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is the
first three letters from both words.

Amphetamine: Blending
INPUT: "Alphametyl" (N) + "Phenethylamine" (N)
OUTPUT: "Amphetamine" (N)
MEANING: It is a chemical product or a drug
TYPE: A case of word formation by means of a blending process, since a totally new word has
merged from parts of two other words.
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise
AIDS: Acronym
TYPE B: Pronounced as a Word.
MEANING: Stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
[Also, HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus]

NASA: Acronym
TYPE B: It is pronounced as sequence of letters.
MEANING: Stands for National Aeronautic and Space Agency

JFK: Acronym
TYPE B: It is pronounced as a sequence of letters.
MEANING: Stands for John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the president and the airport after the president.

Brainwash: Compound
INPUT: "Brain" (N) + "Wash" (V) (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Brainwash" (V)
TYPE: Exocentric: There is no hyponymy between the overall meaning of the head and the
meaning of the compound. In other words, a brainwash is not a kind of wash, but a
manipulation.
MEANING: To manipulate someone
METAPHOR: There is a metaphor with the use of "Wash" because even if it is not a kind of wash,
it is referring to "Clean" other person's mind with one intention.
ARGUMENT STRUCTURE: X washes somebody's brain
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

USSR: Acronym
TYPE B: It is pronounced as a sequence of letters.
MEANING: Stands for Union of Soviet Socialist Republicans.

Pepsi: Clipping + Coinage

INPUT: "Pepsi" (N) + "Cola" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Pepsi-Cola" (N)
BASE: "Pepsi-Cola" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: Pepsi
MEANING: A cola drink called with the principal name of the trademark
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is the
first five letters.
Coinage
PROCESS: After Pepsi-Cola, a brand of Cola.
TYPE: A word based on a Coinage process since a previously non-existent name for a cola drink
has been coined from a brand name.
MEANING: The name of a cola drink
REASON: This happens by virtue of metonymy
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

CSI: Acronym
TYPE B: It is pronounced as a sequence of letters
MEANING: Stands for Crime Scene Investigation

Deli: Clipping
INPUT: "Delicatessen" (N)
OUTPUT: "Delicatessen" (N)
BASE: "Delicatessen" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: "Deli" (N)
MEANING: Something exquisite and rare to find
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is the
first four letters.

Dorm: Clipping
INPUT: "Dorm" (N) +"-ory" (N) (Class Maintaining Suffix) [Readjustment in it]
OUTPUT: "Dormitory" (N)
BASE: "Dormitory" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: "Dorm" (N)
MEANING: A place where someone sleeps
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is the
first four letters.
List of Complete Examples
-Word-Formation Exercise

Jee: Clipping from Jesus

INPUT: "Jesus" (N)
OUTPUT: "Jesus" (N)
BASE: "Jesus" (N)
DERIVATIVE FORM: "Jee" (N)
MEANING: The son of God
TYPE: It is a case of clipping since you delete the second part of the word and all you keep is the
first two letters and double the last one.

To Pilot: Conversion by Zero Derivation

INPUT: "Pilot" (N)
OUTPUT: "Pilot" (V) Derived
MEANING: Someone who pilots a plane (N)
The act of X (V)
TYPE: It is a case of Zero derivation since we don't have a splicit morph for a verb.
Examples: The pilot is a strange man
I never have piloted over the Himalaya

BBC: Acronym
TYPE B: It is pronounced as a sequence of letters.
MEANING: Stands for British Broadcasting Corporation
List of Complete Examples
-Lexical Morphology

OUTPUT: *Strategicy Strategic

INPUT: "Strategy" (N) /stræˈtɪʤɪ/ + "-ic" (Class Changing Suffix)
OUTPUT: "Strategic" (N) /'strəti:dʒɪk/
Change in Quantity, Quality and Stress.
The affixation of the suffix "-ic" to "Strategy" is phonologically NON-NEUTRAL. The
existence of "Strategic" at Stratum 1 will block the creation of a correspond word at
Stratum 2.
List of Complete Examples
-Lexical Morphology

OUTPUT: *Advertisiming Advertisement

INPUT: "Advertise" (V) /ədvəˈtaɪz/ + "-ment" (Class Maintaining suffix)
OUTPUT: "Advertisement" (N) /ədˈvɜ:tɪzmɪnt/
Change in stress, quantity and quality.
The affixation of the suffix "-ment" to "Advertise" is phonologically NON-NEUTRAL.
The existence of "Advertisement" at Stratum 1 will block the creation of a correspond
word at Stratum 2.

COUNTER-EXAMPLE:
OUTPUT: Running *Runment
INPUT: "Run" (V) /rʌn/ + "-ing" (Class Changing suffix)
OUTPUT: "Running" (N) / rʌnɪŋ/
There is no change in stress, quantity and quality.
The affixation of the suffix "-ing" to "Run" is phonologically NEUTRAL. The existence
of "Running" at Stratum 2 will block the creation of a correspond word at Stratum 1.
List of Complete Examples
-Lexical Morphology

OUTPUT: *Perishibility Perishable

INPUT: "Perish" (V) / perɪʃ/ + "-able" (Class Changing suffix)
OUTPUT: "Perishable" (N) / perɪʃəbəl /
There is no change in stress, quantity and quality.
The affixation of the suffix "-able" to "Perish" is phonologically NEUTRAL. The
existence of "Perishable" at Stratum 2 will block the creation of a correspond word at
Stratum 1.

COUNTER-EXAMPLE:
OUTPUT: *Despicableable Despicability
INPUT: "Despicable" (Adj) / dɪspɪ'kəbəl/ + "-ability" (Class Changing suffix)
OUTPUT: "Despicability" (N) /despɪkəbɪlətɪ/
There is a change in stress, quantity.
The affixation of the suffix "-ability" to "Despicable" is phonologically NON-
NEUTRAL. The existence of "Despicability" at Stratum 1 will block the creation of a
correspond word at Stratum 2.
List of Complete Examples
-Lexical Morphology

OUTPUT: *Intermigrant Inmigrant

INPUT: "Migrant" (N) / 'maɪgrənt/ + "In-" (Class Maintaining Preffix)
OUTPUT: "Inmigrant" (N) /' ɪnmaɪgrənt /
There is a change in stress.
The affixation of the prefix "In-" to "migrant" is phonologically NON-NEUTRAL. The
existence of "Inmigrant" at Stratum 1 will block the creation of a correspond word at
Stratum 2.

COUNTER-EXAMPLE:
OUTPUT: *Inview Interview
INPUT: "View" (N) /vju:/ + "Inter-" (Class Changing suffix)
OUTPUT: "Interview" (N) /ɪntəvju:/
There is no change in stress, quantity.
The affixation of the suffix "Inter-" to "View" is phonologically NEUTRAL. The
existence of "Interview" at Stratum 2 will block the creation of a correspond word at
Stratum 1.
-Trap Question (Possible Words)

Disapprove: MORPHEME + MORPHEME / NEGATIVE + APPROVE (No problem)

Series: Irregular plural, Problematic.
Deer: Irregular plural, Problematic.
Sang: Irregular past, Problematic.
A walk: No problematic.
Enlist: No problematic.
Objects: No problematic
Oxen: Problematic.
Aircraft: No problematic.
Baggage: Irregular plural.
Back to the
Bassics
Allomorphy

Phonological Conditioning

1 - Past /Id/ /d/ /t/

2 - Plural /z/ /s/ /Iz/
3- A/An / ə/ / ən/ /eI/

Phonological Conditioning: When the sound structure determines what allomorph to

be used.
-Regular past/Participle
-Plurals
-3rd Person Singular
- 'S Possession
Morphological/Grammatical Conditioning

When the following morpheme is responsible for the realization of the base.
Consume + tion: Consumption: Assimilation of -e-e but not a problem
Phenomenon + a: Singular to plural
Stratum + a: Singular to plural
Cactus + i: Singular to plural
Submit + tion: Submission > Assimilation, but not a problem
Permit + Tion: Permission > Assimilation but not a problem
Loaf, Elf, Wife, Knife, Thieve: Loaves, Elves, Wives, Knives, Thieves (Plural)
Lexical Conditioning

Brother: Brethren
Ox: Oxen
Child: Children
Man: Men
Woman: Women
Tricky Words Gallows: "" "" "" "" Cadalso
With p, b and m, the n becomes m like: Offspring: "" "" "" "" Retoño
Inpolite>Impolite / Enpower> Empower Species/Series: Plural irregular
With TWO exceptions: Unpopular and Bird> Flock: Bandada de pájaros
Inmigrant Fish: School: Banco de peces
Flee: Fled (Past) Huir Produce /Cosecha/ > To produce
Fling: Flung (Arrojar) (Conversion by Zero D.)
Inlay: Inlaid (Incrustar) Alight: Alit (Posarse) (Irregular past)
Slit: Slit (Rajar) Bid: Bade (Pujar)
Mown: Cortar, comes from Mow-ed-n Clothe: Clad (Vestirse)
Shed: Shed: Shed, Mudar la piel Dwell: Dwelt: (Rayar)
Rid, rid, rid: Lobrarse de Abide: Abode (Acatar)
Sown, Sow-ed-n, Sembrar Potatoes and Tomatoes (Irregular -es),
Stride, Strode, Striden: Andar a Zancadas other words ended in -o may end in -s
Vex, Vext, Vext: Enfadar a alguien Criterion> Criterioa
Axis> Axes (Plural) Phenomenon> Phenomena
Basis> Bases (Plural) Fungi> Fungus
Crisis> Crises (Plural) Appendix> Appendices
Thesis> Theses (Plural) Curriculum> Curricula
Barracks (Singular Neutro o Plural Irregular) Genus> Genera
Barracon
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