PLANE SURVEYING

Module-2

Dr. Vinay Kumar B M

Syllabus
 Background
• Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is
comparatively small and is fairly flat.

•  But when the area is large, undulated and crowded with many details,
chain surveying is not possible.

• In such an area, the method of traversing is adopted.

• In traversing , the frame work consist of connected lines.

• The length are measured by a chain or a tape and the direction measured
by angle measuring instruments.

• Hence in compass surveying direction of survey lines are determined with

a compass and the length of the lines are measured with a tape or a
chain.

• This process is known as compass traversing.

 Meridian

• True meridian: True meridian is the line

which passage through the true north and
south.

• The true meridian at any point can be

determinate by either observing the bearing
of the sun at 12 noon or by sun’s shadow.
• Magnetic meridian: The direction shown by a freely suspended needle
which is magnetized and balanced properly without influenced by other
factors is known as magnetic meridian.

• Arbitrary meridian: In case of small work or in places were true

meridian or magnetic meridian cannot be determined, then any direction
of prominent object is taken as a reference direction called as arbitrary
meridian.
 Bearings

“ The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with a

reference line(meridian)”.

There are four type of bearings:

• True Bearing: The true bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between the
true meridian and the survey line.

The true bearing is measured from the true north in the clockwise
direction.
• Magnetic Bearing: the magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle
which the line makes with the magnetic north.

• Grid Bearing: The grid bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which the
line makes with the grid meridian.

• Arbitrary Bearing: The arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal

angle which the line makes with the arbitrary meridian.
Bearing, Included angle and Deflection angle
 Designation of Bearings

The bearing are designated in the following two system:

1. Whole Circle Bearing System(W.C.B)

2. Quadrantal Bearing System(Q.B)

 Whole Circle Bearing System(W.C.B)

• The bearing of a line measured with

respect to magnetic meridian in clockwise
direction is called magnetic bearing and
its value varies between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.

• The quadrant start from north an

progress in a clockwise direction as the
first quadrant is 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ in clockwise
direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ , 3rd 180ᴼ to
270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is 4th one.
 Quadrantal Bearing System(Q.B)

• In this system, the bearing of a line is

measured eastward or westward from
north or south, whichever is nearer.

• Thus ,both north and south are used as

reference meridians and the directions can
be either clockwise or anti clockwise
depending upon the position of the line.
 Reduced bearing (RB )

• When the whole circle bearing is converted into Quadrantal bearing , it is

termed as “Reduced bearing”.

• Thus , the reduced bearing is similar to the Quadrantal bearing.

• Its values lies between 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ, but the quadrant should be mentioned
for proper designation
Conversion of WCB into RB
Conversion of RB into WCB
 Fore bearing and Back bearing

• The bearing of a line measured in the forward direction of the survey

lines is called the ‘fore bearing’(F.B.) of that line.

• The bearing of a line measured in direction backward to the direction of

the progress of survey is called the ‘back bearing’(B.B.) of the line.
 Back Bearing = Fore Bearing ± 180°

+ sign is applied when FB is < 180°

- sign is applied when FB is > 180°

• In the Quadrantal bearing (i.e. reduced bearing) system the FB and BB are
numerically equal but the quadrant are just opposite.

Example : if the bearing of AB is N 60° E, then its BB is S 60° W.

 Calculation of Angles from Bearings

• Knowing the bearing of two lines, the angle between the two can be
calculated:
In Quadrantal bearing system
 Calculation of bearings from Angles

If the included angles between two successive lines have been

measured, the bearings of the lines can be calculated provided the
bearing of any one line is also known.
What is Compass ?

“ A Compass is an instrument containing a magnetized pointer which shows

the direction of magnetic north and bearings from it”.
 Types of Compass

• Prismatic Compass

• Surveyor’s Compass
 Prismatic Compass
• Prismatic compass is the most
convenient and portable type of
compass which can be used as a
hand instrument or can be fitted on
tripod.
• Prismatic compass consist of a box of 85 to 110 mm in diameter. 

• In the center of the compass box, there is a pointed steel pivot.

• A magnetic needle of broad form is balanced over the pivot, and this is
attached to a light aluminum ring.

• The top of the pointed pivot is protected with agate cap.

• The aluminum ring is graduated in degrees and half degrees.

• The graduations are marked such that the zero is at the south, 90
degrees at the west, 180 degrees at the north and 270 degrees at the
east, i.e., the aluminum ring is graduated in a clockwise direction with the
zero at the south.
• The figures showing the readings on the aluminum ring are written
inverted, and a glass lid covers the top of the compass box.

•  The compass is provided with object or sight vane and the eye vane, that
are opposite to each other.

• The eye vane is fixed at the top of the prism and it is raised or lowered
to suit the eyesight of the observer by means of the focusing stud.
• A hinge is provided so that the prism may be folded over the edge of the
box when it is not in use.

• The object vane consists of a metal frame hinged to the box.

• In the center of this metal frame a horse hair or a tine wire or silk thread
is fixed for bisecting the object.

• When the prismatic compass is not in use the object vane may be folded
over the glass lid, covering the top of the box.
• A spring brake is provided inside the box to damp the oscillations of the
magnetic needle, i.e., to bring the magnetic needle to rest quickly before
taking a reading.

• The object vane may be provided with a hinged mirror which may be slided
to any position on the object vane, and the mirror can be made to incline on
any angle.
• Sun glasses are provided to sight luminous objects.

• They are interposed in the line of sight to reduce the strain on the eyes
of the observer.

• A metal lid covers the glass lid and the sighting vane when not in use.
 Use of Prismatic Compass

• This type of compass, being a very light and simple instrument, is

extensively used for preliminary surveys of roads, rough traverses,
etc., where time and accuracy is not the deciding factor.
 Temporary adjustments of compass

• Centering

• Leveling

• Focusing the prism

 Centering

•  It is the process of fixing the compass exactly over the station.

• Centering is usually done by adjusting the tripod legs.

• Also a plumb-bob is used to judge the accurate centering of instruments

over the station.
 Leveling

• The instrument has to be leveled either, if it is used as in hand or

mounted over a tripod.

• If it is used as in hand, the graduated disc should swing freely and

appears to be completely level in reference to the top edge of the case.

• If the tripod is used, they usually have a ball and socket arrangement for
leveling purpose.
 Focusing the prism

• Prism can be slide up or down for focusing to make the readings clear
and readable.
 Surveyor Compass

• The surveyor’s compass is mainly used in Mine Surveying.

 Construction of surveyor compass are similar to that of a prismatic compass
except for the following points:

• Prismatic compass consists of a reflecting prism along with the eye vane, the
surveyor’s compass consists of only a narrow vertical slit instead of a prism.

• The magnetic needle is of broad form in a prismatic compass whereas it is of

an edge-bar type in a surveyor compass.
• In a prismatic compass, the graduated circle is attached to the
magnetic needle, and both of them remain along the north-south line
when the compass box rotates with the sights,

• whereas in the surveyor compass the graduated circle is fixed to the

box and moves with the box while the magnetic needle remains
stationary along the north-south line
• In a prismatic compass, sighting of the object and taking the reading are
done simultaneously.

• whereas in a surveyor compass the object should be sighted first and

then the surveyor should go round the instrument to read the graduation
on the graduated ring corresponding to the north end of the needle.

• The readings are taken with the naked eye.

•  The graduations in a prismatic compass are started with a zero at the
south end in a clockwise direction.

• In a Surveyor Compass, the

ring is divided into four
quadrants and graduations are
made from 0 to 90 degrees in
each quadrant.
•  Prismatic compass may be held in hand for taking the reading, the
surveyor’s compass should be supported on a tripod.

• Least count of Surveyor Compass is 15′ minute.

Difference between Prismatic and surveyors Compass
 Magnetic Dip
• If the needle is perfectly balanced before
magnetisation, it does not remain in the
balanced position after it is magnetised.

• This is due to the magnetic influence of the

earth.

• The needle is found to be inclined towards

the pole.

• This inclination of the needle with the

horizontal is known as dip of the magnetic
needle.
 Magnetic Declination

“ Magnetic declination at a place is the

horizontal angle between the true meridian
and the magnetic meridian shown by the
needle at the time of observation”.
• If the magnetic meridian is to the right side( or eastern side) of the true
meridian, declination is said to be eastern or positive.

• If it is to be the left side (or western side) the declination is said to be

western or negative.
Determination of True bearing and Magnetic bearing
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3
Example-4
 Local Attraction
• A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle
which is uninfluenced by other attracting forces.

• However, sometimes, the magnetic needle may be attracted and

prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian when it is in
proximity to certain magnetic substances.

“ Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as the

above, which prevents the needle from pointing to the magnetic north in
a given locality”.
 Sources of local attraction

• Magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric current, steel

structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, metal buttons,
axes, chains, steel tapes etc., that are lying on the ground nearby.
 Detection of local attraction

• The local attraction at a particular place can be detected by observing

the fore and back bearings of each line and finding its difference.

• If the difference between fore and back bearing is 1800 , it may be

taken that both the stations are free from local attraction, provided
there are no observational and instrumental errors.
• If the difference is other than 1800 , the fore bearing should be
measured again to find out whether the discrepancy is due to avoidable
attraction from the articles on person, chains, tapes etc.

• If the difference still remains, the local attraction exists at one or both
the stations.
 Elimination of Local attraction

• If there is local attraction at a station.

• All the bearings measured at that place will be incorrect and the
amount of error will be equal in all the bearings.

• There are two methods for eliminating the effects of local attraction.
 First Method

• In this method, the bearings of the lines are calculated on the basis of the
bearing of that line that has a difference of 1800 in its fore and back bearings.

• The amount and direction of error due to local attraction at each of the
affected station is found.

• If there is no such line in which the two bearings differ by 1800, the
corrections should be made from the mean value of the bearing of that line in
which there is least discrepancy between the back sight and fore sight
readings.
• If the bearings are expressed in quadrantal system, the corrections
must be applied in proper direction.

• In 1st and 3rd quadrants, the numerical value of bearings increase in

clockwise direction while they increase in anti – clockwise direction in
2nd and 4th quadrants.

• Positive corrections are applied clockwise and negative corrections

counter – clockwise.
Example-1
Example-2
 Second Method

• It is based on the fact that though the bearings measured at a station

may be incorrect due to local attraction, the included angle calculated
from the bearings will be correct since the amount of error is the same
for all the bearings measured at the station.

• The included angles between the lines are calculated at all the stations.

• If the traverse is a close one, the sum of the internal included angles must
be (2n-4) right angles.
• If there is any discrepancy in this, observational and instrumental
errors also exist.

• Such error is distributed equally to all the angles.

• Proceeding with the line, the bearings of which differ by 1800 is

identified and the bearings of all other lines are calculated.
Example-1
Latitude and Departure of survey Line
• The latitude of the survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length
measured parallel to the meridian direction.

• The departure of the survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length
measured at right angles of the meridian direction.

• The latitude is the y component of the line and the departure is the x
component of the line.
• The latitude of the line is positive, when measured northward (upward)
and is termed as northing.

• The latitude is negative, when measured southward(downward) and is

termed as southing.

• The departure of the line is positive, when measured eastward and is

termed as easting.

• The departure is negative, when measured westward and is termed as

westing.
 Dependent and Independent Coordinates

• The latitude & departure co-ordinates of any point with reference to

the preceding point are equal to the latitude and departure of the line
joining the preceding point to the point under consideration. Such
ordinates are called as dependent ordinates.

• The total latitude & departure of any point with respect to a common
origin are known as independent ordinates.
 Omitted Measurements

• In order to have a check on field work and in order to balance a traverse,

the length and direction of each line is generally measured in the field.

• There are times, however, when it is not possible to take all measurements
due to obstacles or because of over-sight.

• Such omitted measurements of missing quantities can be calculated by

latitudes and departures provided the quantities required are not more
than two.
General cases of omitted measurements
Bearing or length or bearing and length of one side
omitted
Example-1