NAVIGATION

 is the art and science of directing the movement of a craft from one point
to another along a safe and efficient path. Navis means ship, Agere means
to drive. Today it represents Art and Science; Recording, Planning and
Controlling; Craft; Safe; Route; Time; Position; Experience and Decision.

BASIC NAVIGATIONAL TOOLS

 Magnetic Compass (Mariners Compass)  Chronometer
 Nautical Chart  Lighthouse
 Marine Sextant  Buoys
 Almanac

MAJOR NAVIGATIONAL AGENCIES

1. FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA),
(Washington, D.C.)
 operates navigational aids and air traffic control system for both
civil and military aircraft in the U.S. and its possible. It’s also
responsible for the certification of new aircraft.
NOTE:
A core mission of the Federal Aviation Administration is safety
oversight—the process of ensuring that airmen, airlines, aircraft,
manufacturers, and a host of others who are engaged in aviation
perform their functions safety and responsibly.

2. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO),

(Montreal, Canada)
 a UN agency that allocates standards and recommended
practices, including navigational aids, for all civil aviation.

3. FEDERAL COMMUNICATION COMMISSION (FCC),

(Washington, D.C.)
 the agency that licenses transmitters and operators in the U.S.
and abroad U.S. registered ships and aircraft.

4. INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (IATA),

(Montreal, Canada)
 the international association representing scheduled airlines.

5. PHILIPPINES' CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (CAAP)

[FORMERLY AIR TRANSPORTATION OFFICE]
 is an agency of the Philippine government under the
Department of Transportation and Communications responsible
for implementing policies on civil aviation to assure safe, economic

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 and efficient air travel. The agency also investigates aviation
accidents.
METHODS OF NAVIGATION
1. CELESTIAL/ASTRONOMICAL NAVIGATION
 It is the art and science of finding one's geographic position by
means of astronomical observations, particularly by measuring
altitudes of celestial objects – sun, moon, planets, or stars.
 It usually requires a chronometer, sextant, an almanac, a set of
sight reduction tables, and a chart of the region.

2. GEO–NAVIGATION
 Navigation by Pilotage or Visual Contact
 in this method, the navigator fixes his position on a map (or chart)
by observing known visible landmarks provided that there is good
visibility. It can be thru natural or man-made.
 ELECTRONIC PILOTAGE  if the aid of airborne RADAR is
used.
NOTE:
The RADAR used for this purpose is generally a microwave search
RADAR provided with a plan-position (PP) display.

 Navigation by Dead-Reckoning
 in this method, the position of the craft at any instant of time is
calculated from previously determined position, the speed of its
motion with respect to the earth along the direction of its motion
(track angle), and the time elapsed.
 INERTIAL NAVIGATION  a sophisticated extension of dead-
reckoning.

3. ELECTRONIC RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM

a method of position fixing using radio and electronic means. Types
are:
 Passive Radio Navigation  Ground Based Radio Navigation
 Active Radio Navigation  Space Based Radio Navigation

Some maritime radio navigation and communication system:

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In each case, the carrier frequency used has been chosen to satisfy two
main criteria, those of geographical range and the ability to carry the relevant
information.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

 These are system of intersecting lines on the map that helps the
navigators know their location at any given moment. Two fixed reference
points on the earth:
1.) North Pole 2.) South Pole
NOTE:
These are used to begin the system of latitude and longitude.

Other Main direction related to the earth's rotation:

1.) East is the direction toward which the earth spins.
2.) West is the direction from which the earth has spun.

LINES OF LATITUDE
 group of lines that circle the globe in an East-West direction.
LINES OF LONGITUDE
 group of lines that run in a North-South direction from pole to pole.

EQUATOR
 Imaginary circle that divides the earth midway between the poles

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
- Half of the earth that lies north of the equator.
- Any location in this hemisphere lies in the North
Latitude. Abbreviated as: N. Latitude, N. Lat. or N.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
- Half of the earth lying south of the equator.
- All locations there lie in a South Latitude. Abbreviated as S.
Latitude, S. Lat. or S.

EXAMPLE#1:
A ship has its chronometer reading of 0430 hrs, while the ship’s local time is
1042 hrs. What is the position of the ship in longitude?

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MERIDIANS
- Lines of longitude, parts of the great circles that pass thru the earth's poles.
- The name meridian comes from two Latin words, "medius" and "dies",
which means "middle of the day".

PRIME MERIDIAN
- Chosen as the 0° Longitude, Imaginary line that separates the Eastern and
Western Hemisphere.
- Half of a great circle and extends from North-pole to South-pole.

Lines of Longitude are numbered:

 East of the prime meridian from 0° to 180° east Longitude (abbreviated
as: E. Longitude, E Long., or simply E)
 West from 0° to 180° West longitude (abbreviated as: W. Longitude,
W. Long. or W.).

GREENWICH MERIDIAN
- referred to as the prime meridian. Chosen as 0° Longitude.
- Site of England's National Observatory (Royal Greenwich Observatory).

Travelers must change time by an entire day when they cross the 180°
meridian. 180° meridian is near the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It crosses
only a small land area in North Eastern Asia and some islands in the Central
and Southern Pacific.

NOTE:
Time keeping was an important reason for the selection of the Greenwich
meridian as 0° longitude.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

- to avoid differing dates in various areas, the nations of the world
established the International Date Line.
- is a special line across which dates change. It swerves from the 180°
meridian whenever the meridian crosses land.
NOTE:
Longitude is more difficult to determine than latitude because the sextant and
almanac alone do not yield enough information.
MANILA, PHILIPPINES:
14° 21’ N (latitude) 120° 35’ 24’’ E (longitude)

AXIS AND DIRECTION :

1. True North Axis (Geographic Axis)
 axis around which Earth rotates also called the North Pole.

2. Magnetic North Axis

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  the fluid motion of the Earth’s outer core generates magnetism
such that its magnetic field within the Earth creates a magnetic axis
which is an angle away from the geographic or true axis. (The
magnetic north pole is somewhere in Arctic Canada (78°N, 104°W)).

3. Compass North Axis

 the axis of reference of compass direction is called compass
meridian, the magnetic field of which is the sum total of the ship’s
magnetism and all other magnetism on board.

COMPASS ERROR :
1. Magnetic Variation (or Variation or Declination)
 an error of the compass indicated by the angle between the
meridian of true north and meridian of magnetic north.
FYI:
Both the strength and direction of the magnetic field will vary over the years,
this gradual change is called the secular variation of the magnetic field.
Therefore, variation changes not only with the location of a vessel on the
earth but also varies in time. The correction for magnetic variation for a
location is shown on the nearest nautical chart's compass rose.

EXAMPLE#2:
If we find a variation of 4° 15' W in 2009, with an indicated annual correction
of 0° 08' E. Hence, in 2011 this variation is estimated to be 3° 59', almost 4°
West. This means that if we sail 90° on the chart (the true course), the
compass would read 94°.
EXAMPLE#3:
Let's say the compass rose gives a variation of 2° 50' E in 2007, with a
correction of 0° 04' E per year. In 2009 this variation is estimated to be ____,
almost ____. Now, if we sail 90° on the chart, the compass would read ____.

CORRECTING FOR VARIATION

The overlayed compass roses show the difference between true north and
magnetic north when the magnetic variation is 10° W.
tc = cc + var
where:cc  compass course tc  true course var  variation
If we have steered a compass course of 200°, we have to plot a true course
of ____ in the chart if the variation is 3° East or a true course of _____ if the
variation is 10° West.

2. Magnetic Deviation (or Deviation)

 Magnetic deviation is the second correctable error. It is an error of
the compass indicated by the angle between the meridian of

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 magnetic north and the meridian of the compass north.
Deviation changes with the ship's heading, resulting in a deviation
table as shown. The vertical axis states the correction in degrees
West or East, where East is again positive.

The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten. Thus,
when you sail a compass course of 220°, the deviation is 4° W. (Note, that on
most modern sailing yachts the deviation is usually not larger than 3°).

CORRECTING FOR BOTH DEVIATION AND VARIATION:

cc + var + dev = tc
 Example A: The compass course is 330°, the deviation is +3° (table) and
the variation is +3° (chart);
330° cc + 3° var + 3° dev = ?° tc Answer: Giving a true course of 336°

 Example B: The compass course is 220°, the deviation is -4° (table) and the
variation is still +3° (chart).
220° cc + 3° var + -4° dev = ?° tc Answer: Giving a true course of 219°

 Example C: The compass course is still 220°, therefore the deviation is still
-4° (table) but let's use a variation of -10° this time.

 Example D: The true course from the chart is 305° and the variation is +3°
(chart), yet we don't know the deviation;
?° cc + 3° var + ?° dev = 305° tc

Luckily, we can rewrite this so this reads:

cc + dev = 305° tc – (+ 3° var) = 302°
So, we can tell our helms person to steer 300°, since with a cc of 300° we
have a deviation of +2°.

 Example E: The true course from the chart is 150° and we have a Western
variation of 7 degrees (-7°).

MAGNETIC COURSE (mc)

 is the heading after magnetic variation has been considered, but without
compensation for magnetic deviation.
tc - var = cc + dev = mc

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COURSES AND BEARING :
1. Course(Heading) [ direction of travel ]
 course is the angular distance of a ship’s direction of movement
on the surface of the earth, measured clockwise from a reference
north point (or three references – true, magnetic and compass north)
through 360 system on the arc of the horizon.

HORIZON
 line that separates earth from sky.
d = 13h( m ) (km) d = 1.5h( ft ) (mi)

EXAMPLE#4:
1. Standing on a ground with a height of 1.5 m., the horizon is at a
distance of:
2. Standing on a hill or tower of 150 m. height, the horizon is at a
distance of:

2. Bearing [ direction ]
is the angular distance of any terrestrial object from an observer
measured clockwise from the same three points of references
through 360 system of the compass, giving rise to the three
bearings in one direction.
a. Relative Bearing (RB)
 is the angular distance of an object measured clockwise through
360 from the ship’s bow (intended line of movement).
b. True Bearing (TB)
 is the angular distance of an object measured clockwise from the
true north. TB = H + RB
c. 4–Point Bearing
 are the eye approximation of relative bearing measured clockwise
or anti-clockwise from the ship’s bow, stern or beams.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
 The accurate measurement of time has always been fundamental to
navigation. Clocks were invented that would remain accurate throughout long
ocean voyages. They were called Chronometers. Progress has led to the
measurement of time using fundamental properties of the atom. This has
resulted in a redefinition of the second as being 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation (9,192,631,770 cycles of the Cesium resonance).
Ephemeris Time
 Time based on long-term observations of the annual revolution of the
earth around the sun. It is the uniform measure of time defined by the law of
dynamics.
Atomic Time
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 Time based on transitions in the atom. It uses the frequency of the Cesium
atomic clock. This agrees closely with Ephemeris second. Atomic second is
the unit in the international System of units (SI).
International Atomic Time
 Atomic time reference derived from averaging the atomic time standards
of several countries.
Universal Time
 Mean solar time on the Greenwich Meridian. Used in the application of
astronomy to navigation.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
 Atomic time maintained by the Royal Observatory and adjusted in steps
(leap seconds, so that it is synchronized with the UT1 within 0.9 second).
UTC is a high-precision Atomic Time Standard.
UTO
 Determined directly from the astronomical observation. It is non-uniform
due to irregular rotation of the earth.
UT1
 It is UTO corrected for the polar motion hence more uniform than UTO.
UT1 is the same as GMT.
UT2
 It is UT1 corrected for the mean seasonal variations, hence more uniform
than UT1.

The Measurement of time in electronic navigation is usually concerned with

the lapse of time between the occurrence of two events such as the time
between the transmitted and received pulses of an echo sounder or the time
between the reception of master and slave pulses in Loran C system.

Simplified illustration of measuring time lapse in electronic navigation system

PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM:
1) An integral source of time which is precise and stable over the
measurement interval.
2) A means of measuring the time lapse.
One method of maintaining a stable oscillation frequency is to utilize the
natural resonance of quartz crystal.

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TYPES OF ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM:
1. Hyperbolic Navigation System
2. Range-Range Navigation System
I. Hyperbolic Navigation System:
 This is a method of using the propagation velocity to determine the
distance and position.
• Propagation velocity
 velocity at which EM energy (radio waves) travel between their
source and the point of reception.
Types of Hyperbolic Navigation System:
1. Loran A and C 3. Decca Navigator
2. Omega

The inherent advantage of the hyperbolic system is the need to make only a
measurement of time lapse.

II. Range-Range (or circular) Navigation System :

 This differs from hyperbolic navigation in that instead of measuring time
difference, a measure is made of actual signal propagation time between the
transmitter and receiver. The resulting loci are therefore circles centered on
the signal transmitter (source) and with radii corresponding to the distances
which are equivalent to the measured propagation time.

Advantages:
1. Only two stations are required to determine the position.
2. It is an easier technique for processing several signals, since each can
be dealt within isolation, rather than having to consider the many possible
combination of paired stations.
Disadvantage:
The limitation of range-range navigation is the requirement to maintain
absolute time with a high degree of precision. The clock stability necessary
for the duration of an ocean passage would demand the use of a cesium
frequency standard.