UNIT III

DESTRUCTIVE AND
NON-DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
 Syllabus
 Study of destructive testing, Tensile test
 Engineering stress-strain curve, true stress-strain curve, types of
stress-strain curves, Numerical based on Evolution of properties,
compression test
 Different hardness tests-Vickers, Rockwell, Brinnel, Poldi, Micro
Hardness Test, Durometers, Impact test, fatigue test, creep test, Erichsen
Cupping Test.
 Non Destructive testing: Principles & procedure, advantages,
disadvantages and Industrial applications of NDT, such as Visual
Inspection, Liquid/dye penetrate test, Magnaflux test, Eddy current test,
Sonic & Ultrasonic testing and Radiography testing.
 WHY TESTING IS REQUIRED?
 Mechanical properties indicate the response of a metal or alloy to

elastic and plastic deformations under the applied forces.

 The success of metal forming operations is related to the mechanical

properties of the metals being formed

 Many finished products are accepted or rejected on the basis of their

mechanical properties.

 Evaluation of these properties is essential for proper selection of

materials for the given service requirements.

 To study the failure analysis.

 For research and development.

 TYPES OF TESTING
Mechanical Tests (Destructive Testing):
• In this test the material may be physically tested to destruction.
• Will normally specify a value for properties such as strength, hardness, toughness, etc.
• Destructive testing is changes the dimensions or physical and structural integrity of the
specimen.
• It is essentially destroyed during the test so it can‘t be reused again for it‘s specific
applications.
• e.g., Tensile, Compression, Shear and Rockwell Hardness
Non-destructive Tests (NDT):
• Non-Destructive testing does not affect the structural integrity of the sample.
• A measurement that does not effect the specimen in any way so it can be reused again for
it‘s specific applications.
• e.g. Visual Inspection, Liquid/dye penetrate test, Magnaflux test, Eddy current test
 TENSILE TEST
 The tensile test is a common test performed on metals, wood, plastics, and most other
materials.
 Tensile loads are those that tend to pull the specimen apart, putting the specimen in
tension. They can be performed on any specimen of known cross-sectional area and gage
length to which a uniform tensile load can be applied.
 Tensile tests are used to determine the mechanical properties such as yield strength,
tensile strength, ductility (based on the percent elongation and percent reduction in area),
modulus of elasticity etc.
 The results of tensile testing can be used to plot a stress-strain curve which illustrates the
tensile properties of the material.
 Stress (in pounds per square inch or Pascal's) is plotted on the vertical axis while strain
(inches per inch, millimeters per millimeter, or unit less) is plotted along the horizontal.
 ASTM standards for common tensile tests may be found in sections E8 (metals), D638
5
(plastics), D2343 (fibers), D897 (adhesives), D987 (paper), and D412 (rubber).
 Terminology

 Load - The force applied to a material during testing.

 Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test. 6
 Setup for Testing
 Principle of Tensile Test:
 A sample is subjected for a gradually increasing stress or load which is uniaxial but
in opposite direction.
 Due to this the sample gets first deform elastically and then plastically and finally
fractured into two pieces.
 The common machines used for tensile test are:
1. Universal Testing Machine 2. Hounsfield tensometer
3. Instron 4. MTS (Material Testing System)
 Extensometer:
• The elongation during testing is measured with respect to the gauge length (i. e.
fix length) using an extensometer.
• As the specimen elongates, the extensometer reading (elongation of the
specimen) is recorded, either real-time or at discrete time intervals.
Setup for Testing
 Sample Preparation and Dimensions
 A test specimen of either circular, square or rectangular cross section of a suitable

size is prepared from the material to be tested.

 Care should be taken to avoid sharp changes in section to reduce stress

concentration. This increases the chances of failures of specimen at low stress

values.

 A progressively tensile load applies on specimen until it fractures.

 The specimen is held by suitable means between the two heads/arms of a testing

machine.

 The center of specimen should be match with center of heads/arms.

 Gauge length is 5 times of specimen diameter.

 Gauge length is marked from the center of specimen to each side of sample.

 As per Indian Standard max gauge length is 180 mm.

Sample Preparation and Dimensions
Carried out as per ASTM E8
or IS 1608 and IS 2078
standards
Stress-Strain Test

specimen

machine
11
 Procedure
 Note the average diameter of the bar and mark gauge length to five times diameter.
 Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in the jaws of UTM and adjust the dial to read
zero load.
 Attach the extensometer and adjust to read zero.
 Increase the load gradually until the yield point reaches .This yield point is indicated by
the continuous rotation of pointer on extensometer dial without any increase in load.
 Record the load in Kg and corresponding elongation in microns at regular intervals of
100 kg of increasing load.
 After the yield point is crossed, remove the extensometer to avoid any damage to it.
 Note down the maximum load, breaking load, diameter at fracture and final gauge
length.
 Calculate engineering stress in Kg/mm2 and engineering strain.
 Plot the graph of stress v/s strain
 Shape Changes During Testing
Step 1: Original shape and size of the specimen with no load.
Step 2: Specimen undergoing uniform elongation.
Step 3: Point of maximum load and ultimate tensile strength.
Step 4: The onset of necking (plastic instability).
Step 5: Specimen fractures.
Step 6: Final length.
 Progression of a Fracture

Sequence of events in the necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a)

early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region;
(c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section
begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces,
known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
 Tensile Test Output
Primary Test Output:

 The primary output from a tensile test is the load vs. elongation

(or extension) curve of the specimen

 Load is recorded using a load cell and elongation is recorded

using an extensometer.

 This curve is then used to determine two types of stress-strain

curves:

1. Engineering stress-strain curve

2. True stress-strain curve

 Load vs Elongation
Load Vs. Elongation
12000

10000

8000
Load (lb)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Elongation (in.)
 Tensile Test
This test is widely used to determine
• Proportional Stress (P.S.)
• Elastic Limit or Elastic Stress (E.S.)
• Ultimate tensile stress (U.T.S.)
• Breaking stress or Fracture stress (B.S.)
• Yield stress (Y.S.)
• Resilience
• Toughness
• Stiffness
• Ductility
• Malleability
 ENGINEERING (i. e. NOMINAL/CONVENTIONAL)
STRESS STRAIN CURVE
 These curves are obtained from Load – Extension curves on the assumption that the
dimensions of sample does not change during testing.
 In fact, during testing of a sample, it‘s length increases and cross-sectional area
decreases, but still as a matter of convenience, it is assumed that they remain unchanged.
 Here stress and strain are defined relative to the original cross-sectional area and length
of the specimen.
 The engineering stress (E) at any point is defined as the ratio of the applied load (P) to
the original cross-sectional area (Ao).
Engineering stress (E) = Applied load (P)/Original area of cross section ( Ao)
 The engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the change in length (dl) to the
original length (lo).
Engineering strain (e) = Change in length (dl)/ Original Length (lo)
• Engineering stress-strain diagram, will be the

same as that of load-extension diagram, this is

due to the fact that if the parameters on X & Y

axis are divided by certain constants, the

original diagram remains unaffected.

• Due to this, only scales on X & Y axis will

change.

• Now, suppose we divide extension by original

gauge length (which is assume to be constant)

the property becomes strain and if we divide

load by original area (which is assume to be

constant) the property becomes stress.

• This clearly indicates that the load – extension

diagram and engineering stress – strain

diagram are same with change of scales on X

and Y axis.
 TRUE STRESS STRAIN CURVE
• These curves are plotted by using the values of true stress and true strain from

instant to instant during tensile testing.

• During the test, length of the sample increases and correspondingly the area of the

sample decreases.

• The value of true stress goes on increasing due to reduction in cross sectional area.

• The value of true strain goes on decreasing due to increase in length of the sample.
 True stress (T) = Instantaneous load (Pi) / Actual cross sectional area at that instant( Ai)

 The true strain (ε) is the sum of all engg. Strains from instant to instant

l𝑖 𝑑𝑙
True strain (ε) = (l1-lo/lo)+(l2-l1/l1)+(l3-l2/l2)+...... = lo 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (l𝑖/lo)

ε = ln (li/lo)= ln A0/Ai (by assuming volume remain constant)

True Stress and Strain
Relationship between Engineering strain
and True Strain
We know that, T = Instantaneous load (Pi) / Actual cross sectional area at that

instant( Ai)

𝑃 A0
= × (But, A0/ Ai = li/l0)
A0 Ai

𝑃 𝑙i
= ×
A0 lo
Where, li = length of the sample at the instant i.

Now, li = original length + change in length observed up to the instant i = lo + dl

and E = P/Ao

T = E × [(lo + dl)/lo] = E × (1 + dl/lo) = E × (1 + e)

We know that, strain (ε) = 𝑙𝑛 (l𝑖/lo) = 𝑙𝑛 l𝑜 + dl/lo = ln (1+e)

   e (1 e)
  ln(1 e)

The accuracy of these relationships depend on the accuracy with

which the volume constancy approximation rule holds good.

Condition for Necking :- 𝑑𝜎𝑇 =𝜎

𝑑𝜀 𝑇

The eqn. clearly indicates that necking occurs at a point where the
slope of the true stress-strain curve is equal to the true stress at that
point.
 WHY CORRECTION GRAPH?
• It has been observed that voids or cavities are formed during plastic deformation &

hence the volume does not remain constant as is assumed.

• Void formation becomes significant beyond UTS i.e. during necking & hence the

validity of these equations becomes poor after the neck formation in the specimen.

• Also beyond UTS, the deformations are localized in the neck region & hence area

estimated from true strain eqn. becomes higher than the actual area of the sample in

the neck region.

• Due to these reasons, a correction has to be applied for void & neck formation

beyond UTS and the true stress strain curve plotted by applying the above

corrections is called as corrected true stress-strain curve.

• If the curve plotted by normal relationships without any correction for the neck &

void formation, the curve is called as uncorrected true stress-strain curve.

EVALUATION OF PROPERTIES
1. Proportional Stress (P. S.) :- It is the highest value of the stress up to which stress
is proportional to strain.
 Above this stress, proportionality between stress and strain ceases and stress – strain
curve diverts from the linearity.
 This can be found out by extending the linear part of the curve and noting the stress
value at the diversion point as shown in figure.
2. Elastic Limit or Elastic Stress (E. S.) :- It is the highest value of the stress up to
which the deformations are elastic or temporary and beyond which they are plastic or
permanent.
 This stress is slightly higher than the proportional stress.
 This can not be accurately found by stress – strain curve.
 For accurate determination of this value the specimen should be loaded slightly
above the proportional stress and unloaded. This should be done several times with
slightly increasing load at every time till the sample does not show permanent
deformation.
3. Ultimate Tensile Stress (U. T. S.) :- It is the highest value of stress that the material
can bear or sustain without fracture. It is the end of uniform elongation and the start of
localized necking i.e. plastic instability.
4. Breaking Stress or Fracture Stress (B. S.):- It is the stress at fracture or failure of
the specimen.
5. Yield Stress
• It is the stress at which the material yields i.e. shows appreciable
plastic strain at almost constant stress without any strain hardening.
• This stress exists in some materials like low carbon steels and mild
steel. The nature of the stress strain curve shown in figure.
• There is a sharp break in curve when material pass from elastic to
plastic region.
• The stress corresponding to point 1 is called as upper yield stress
and that corresponding to point 2 is called as lower yield stress.
• Upper yield point :- Up to which material is in elastic region
• Lower yield point :- It is the start for plastic deformation.
• The lower yield stress almost remains unaffected where as upper yield stress is likely
to vary with the condition of a steel.
• Due to this, lower value of stress is used in the design of components for a higher
factor of safety.
6. Proof Stress
• It is very difficult to find the actual yield strength experimentally.
• Instead, we use a 0.2% offset yield strength called as Proof stress
• PS is defined as the stress at which material shows a specified amount of
Permanent Deformation or permanent set.
• Range of Specified amount of PD is 0.1 to 1.0%
• 0.2% offset yield strength is the point on the curve which is offset by a strain of
0.2% (0.002).
• The specified amount of plastic deformation or permanent set is marked on the
strain axis.
• Suppose the PS is to be calculated for 0.2% permanent set, a point is marked
such as Q on the strain axis corresponding to 0.2/100 = 0.0002, as shown in
figure.
• From point Q, a straight line is draw parallel to the initial linear part of the stress –
strain curve.
• If this line intersects the curve at point say P, then the stress corresponding to the
point P is denoted as proof stress.
• Proof Stress is reported along with the permanent set at which it found out.
• If the sample is loaded to this point and unloaded, it shows the specified amount of
plastic deformation.
7. Ductility:- It is the ability of a material to exhibit large amount of
plastic deformation prior to fracture under tensile loading conditions.
• It is also defined as ability of a material to be drawn into fine wire.
• It is expressed by % elongation = Final length (lf ) - Original length (lo )  100
Original legnth (lo )
 Variation of % elongation
with gauge length for
constant diameter

Variation of % elongation
with diameter for constant
gauge length
8. Malleability:- It is the ability of a material to exhibit large amount of plastic

deformation prior to fracture under compressive loading conditions.

• It is also defined as ability of a material to be rolled into thin sheets.

• Lead and gold are good example of this.

• Since, the test is tensile, malleability of a material can not be accurately

determined from the test.

• However, an approximate idea about malleability can be obtained from %

reduction in cross-sectional area of the specimen.

• % reduction in c/s area = [(Ao – Af)/Ao]×100 = [(Do^2 – Df^2)/Do^2]×100

where, Ao = original c/s area = Π/4 × (Do^2), Af = final c/s area = Π/4 ×

(Df^2), Do = original diameter of specimen and Df = final diameter of

specimen at the fracture end.

• For given material, the reduction in c/s area is independent of lo/Do for values
of lo/Do greater than about 2.
• For lower values of lo/Do, both values of elongation and reduction in c/s area
decreases due to the lateral restraint produced by the enlarge ends and hence in
all standards lo/Do adopted is more than 2.
9. Resilience & Modulus of Resilience
• It is the total energy absorbed by the material during its elastic deformation. It is
area up to elastic load in Load- Extension curve.
• Modulus of resilience is the total energy absorbed by the material during its elastic
deformation per unit volume. It is area up to elastic stress in Stress – strain curve.
 10. Toughness & Modulus of Toughness
• It is the total energy absorbed by the material prior to its fracture. Area up to
fracture in Load- Extension curve.
• Modulus of Toughness :- It is the total energy absorbed by the material prior
to its fracture per unit volume. It is area up to fracture in stress - strain curve.
11. Stiffness
• It is the resistance of a material for elastic deformation and is expressed by Young's Modulus of elasticity.
• It is calculated from True stress – strain curve.
• Young‘s Modulus (E) = True Stress (σ)/True Strain (ϵ)
• Both the values of σ and ϵ are from the elastic region.
• It is the slop of initial linear part of true stress – strain curve as shown in figure.
 12. Strain Hardening Coefficient or Exponent (n)
• In the plastic region, the true stress increases continuously. This implies
that the metal is becoming stronger as the strain increases. Hence, the
name ―Strain Hardening‖.
• This coefficient gives an idea about the ability of a material for hardening
due to straining or plastic deformation.
• The relationship between true stress and true strain i.e. the flow curve
can be expressed using the power law:

  K n

Where, K is called the strength coefficient

n the strain hardening exponent.
• The plastic portion of the true stress-strain curve (or flow stress curve)
plotted on a log-log scale gives the n value as the slope and intercept
of this line on Y axis gives log K.
log ()=log(K)+n*log(ε)
• For materials following the power law, the true strain at the UTS is
equal to n.

Strain Hardening &

Uniform strain
(Strain at
Necking): n=ε
13. Types of Fracture:- Figure shows the various types of fracture that are likely to occur in this test.
 Many of the details regarding the characteristics of a material can be grossly judged from the observation
of the fracture.
 E.g. – A brittle material fails without much plastic deformation and hence no neck is formed. This shows a
fracture almost perpendicular to the tensile axis (fig. a).
 A ductile material shows large reduction in diameter at the neck region and hence the fracture appears like
a cup and cone (fig. b).
 Presence of defect, segregation of non metallic inclusions or any other similar type of abnormality may
also get revealed by the observation of fracture
 TYPES OF
ENGINEERING
STRESS STRAIN
CURVES
1. Ductile Materials Without Yield Point:
 The curve shows a rising trend during plastic deformation because
of strain hardening.
 The curve drops beyond UTS because of necking.
 Difference between UTS & PS also UTS & BS is more due to
higher ductility of the material.
 Metals :- Cu, Ni, Cu-Ni alloys, Al etc.
2. Ductile Materials With Yield Point
 In this graph, yield point we get at the end of elastic limit
 Yield point phenomenon is exhibit by interstitial solid solution
alloys having BCC & FCC crystal structure.
 C, H, O, N & Boron are the interstitial solid solution.
 Metals :- Mild Steel, Low Carbon steel.
3. Brittle Materials

 The curves 1 & 3 are almost linear up to fracture it

indicates that there is very small amount of plastic

deformation. ( it is negligible).

 Due to this, diff. between P.S. & UTS also UTS & BS

is very small or negligible.

 B.S. is almost same as UTS because of no indication

of necking.

 Graph 2, is not showing the linear portion from

beginning.

 In this, case also almost all the deformation is elastic.

 Materials:- Grey Cast Iron, White Cast Iron, Concrete,

Ceramic etc.
4. Polymeric Materials
 The curve shows a rising trend very much similar to those of
metallic materials.
 This is due to crystallization of structure & not because of strain
hardening.
 Example :- Natural & Synthetic rubbers.
 Effect of Carbon on Engineering Stress
• The properties of a given steel mostly depends on Carbon content & alloying
element. But C content have effect on properties.
• In general, as the carbon increases the properties such as proportional stress,
elastic stress, UTS, Hardness, Wear resistance, Resilience & hardenability
will increased.
• Ductility, malleability, formability, machinability & toughness will decrease
• Steel with < 0.6% C shows yield point, whereas > 0.6% it doesn‘t show
yield pt.
• Young‘s modulus doesn‘t change with C & hence for all steels it remains the
same.
• 0.2, 0.5 & 0.8% C are in the normalized/annealed condition whereas1.2% C
in the fully hardened condition.
 COMPRESSION TEST
 Compression test is merely the opposite of the tension test with respect to
the direction of applied stress.
 The compression test can be done on the same machine on which the
tension test is done like universal testing machine or some other machine
which is designed specifically for the purpose.
 In general, brittle materials are good in compression than in tension and
therefore, they are used for compressive loads.
 During testing, fracture occurs in brittle materials so fracture point is
ultimate strength.
 No fracture occurs in ductile materials, hence ultimate strength is found out
for some arbitrary amount of deformation.
 Due to this, compression test is mainly used to test brittle materials such as
cast irons, concrete, stones, bricks and ceramic products.
Practical Difficulties
 Both faces of the specimen have to be perfectly parallel to
each other.
 There is always chance of bending of the specimen during
testing, it is very difficult to apply truly axial loads.
 Friction is always taking place in between the face of
specimen & heads of testing machine, so applied load is not
executed uniformly throughout the length. This results in the
more lateral expansion in the central region than the other
regions due to this barrel like shape get.
 L/D ratio should be 2, if it is less than it then buckling occurs
& if it is more than 2 then bending is occurs.
Specimen
 Shape : Circular, rectangle, square but circular section is
preferred for uniform application of load.
 Length
1. L/D ratio is between 1.5 to 10 for different materials.
2. If L/D ratio is more then bending occurs which
reduces the compressive strength.
3. If L/D ratio is less then frictional effects at the ends
become more important which increases the compressive
strength.
 Types of Fracture
 Brittle materials fracture by shear either along a diagonal plane, or
with a cone (for cylindrical specimen) or a pyramidal (for square
specimen) shaped fracture sometimes called as hourglass fracture.
 Cast iron usually fails along an inclined plane and concrete shows
the cone type of fracture.
 The resolved shear stress is max at 45° to the load axis & therefore
theoretically fracture should occur at this degree but due to internal
friction, non homogeneous composition & structure, friction at the
ends of the specimen fracture plane is between 50° to 60° to load
axis.
 Importance of L/D ratio
 If the specimen is so short that a normal failure plane can not develop

within it‘s length, then the strength is appreciably increased & other

types of failures such as crushing may occur.

 Ductile & plastic materials bulge laterally & take a barrel shape as they

are compressed with taking precaution that specimen does not bend or

buckle.

 Due to this the compressive stress continues to increase almost without

any limit as there is no failure of the material.

 As the L/D ratio goes on increasing the compressive strength decreases,

this is due to increased amount of bending stresses.

 HARDNESS TESTING
Various methods are used for the measurement of hardness & each method is based on
different principle.
Methods are as follows;
 Indentation Hardness :- It is the resistance offered by metals to indentation, which is
mainly a measure of plasticity & density.
 Rebound Hardness :- It is the resistance offered by metals to strike & rebound which
is principally a measure of elastic properties.
 Scratch Hardness :- It is the resistance offered by metals to scratching, which is
principally a measure of strength & plastic properties.
 Cutting Hardness :- It is the resistance of metals to various cutting operations.
 Abrasive Hardness :- It is the resistance of metals to wear subjected to sliding or
rotating motion.
 Indentation Hardness

• Brinell Hardness Test

• Poldi Hardness Test
• Vicker‘s Hardness Test
• Rockwell Hardness Test
• Micro Hardness Test
• Durometers
 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST (STANDARD TEST)
• It is conducted as per the ASTM – E10 or IS-1500 specifications.
• For testing of iron & steel, a load of 3000 kg applied for min. 10 sec on indenter
gradually.
• For testing of Non ferrous, a load of 500 kg applied for min. 30 sec on indenter
gradually.
• Ball indenter is made up of Hardened steel, High Carbon Steel or Tungsten Carbide
with 10 mm diameter.
• After full applications of load for suitable time, load taken out gradually.
• Impression observed under microscope & diameter measured.
• If impression is not circular due to uneven or nonparallel faces to the bottom face,
elliptical impression gets.
• For elliptical impression min. two measurements should be taken one for major axis &
one for minor axis. Mean of this readings used for calculation.
• If the difference between major & minor is more then these
readings to be discard & again readings to be taken with flat
surface.
• Brinell Hardness No. is the ratio of the applied load (kg) to the
impressed area in mm square.
• BHN = Applied Load ( P)
Area of Indentation (mm square)

2P
=
πD (D − D2 − d2 )
Where D= diameter of indenter,
d = Dia. of projected circular impression
 Schematic of the principle of
the Brinell indentation process

Brinell indentation with measuring scale in

millimeters
• h = depth of penetration due to application of load P
h = (D/2 – x)
• Again, from right angled triangle OCB,
• (D/2)2 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑑/2)2
• x = ( D2 − d2 )/2 put this value in above equation.

• h = (D/2) - [( D2 − d2 )/2] = (D − D2 − d2 )/2

• πDh = πD/2 × (D − D2 − d2 )
This is the area of indentation.
2P
• BHN =
πD (D− D2−d2 )

Where Applied Load in kg and Area of Indentation in mm square

 Hardness Testing Machine
• The indenter is pressed into
the metal
• Softer materials leave a
deeper indentation
Description of Machine
 The Brinell Hardness Tester consists of a loading system, a main screw
and a dial gauge.
 The loading system consisting of weights, leavers and a hydraulic
dashpot and a plunger arrangement is enclosed in the cast iron body of
the machine.
 The main screw is also protected from extraneous elements by a
rubber bellow.
 It carries the test table on its top to hold the specimen and is actuated
by a hand at the base.
 The machine is provided with ball indenters to transmit the test load on
to the specimen.
Test Procedure
 Clean the surface from any type of grease or dust.
 As the area of indentation is measured with the help of special
microscope the surface should be polished by 0 and 00 paper.
 Set the machine to the required stage of test load.
 Choose the indenter to be used and fasten it to the machine.
 Place the specimen on the test table and, apply a miner load of 10-
kg-f on it by turning the hand wheel and brining both the pointers
on the dial gauge to the ‗set‘ positions.
 Apply the major load (remaining part of the test load) on the
specimen by turning the loading lever backwards.
 Maintain the load on the specimen exactly for the specified time (10 - 15
second) and then released it by turning the loading lever forwards.
 Take out the specimen and measure the diameter of the indentation formed on it
by using the Brinell Microscope. After that by using above formula calculate
BHN.
Precautions:
 Apply the load slowly and gradually on the sample
 Distance between old impression and location for new impression should be 3D
(three times the ball diameter)
 After applying the specified load wait for 15 sec then remove the load.
 The thickness of the test piece must not be less than 8 times the depth of
impression.
 The surface o which the Brinell impression is to be made should be sufficiently
smooth and clean.
 Relationship between Brinell Hardness
no. & Ultimate tensile strength
• These relationships are based on experimental work.
– Plain carbon steels in normalized or annealed
condition:-
UTS (Kg/𝑚2 ) = 0.36 𝑋 𝐵𝐻𝑁
– Plain carbon steels in Hardened & Tempered
condition:-
UTS (Kg/𝑚2 ) = 0.32 𝑋 𝐵𝐻𝑁
– Gray cast irons
UTS (Kg/𝑚2 ) = 1.28 X 10−3 X (BHN)1.85
• Advantages
– It is suitable for certain materials in which hardness varies from point to point &
on an average the hardness is less.
– A large sized indenter is useful which covers more area of the material & allows
to measure average hardness.
– It is useful for measuring hardness of cast components, heterogeneous materials
like cast irons & porous powder metallurgy components.
• Drawbacks
– Because of large size dia. & high loads, impressions are higher, that impressions
leads to high stress concentration at that point.
– While testing hard materials, the ball indenter is likely to deform. This increases
the diameter of impression & gives lower hardness number
– It is recommended for materials having hardness no. less than 400 BHN
– Thin materials can not be tested because of large depth of penetration.
 For some materials like Pb, Sn, Mg etc, Ridging (or pilling up) effect
is observed. This defect denotes a low capacity for work hardening.
 Some materials Austenitic S. S. & Mn-steel, sinking effect is
observed, this defect denotes a high capacity for work hardening.
 The test is slow requires more time & the readings are subjected to
personal errors.
 POLDI HARDNESS TEST

• It works on the same principle as that of Brinell hardness test

• The instrument is small in size, consists of 4‖ hollow steel
tube, in which plunger is fitted.
• The top end of which is out of the tube.
• At the bottom of tube, a steel ball of 10 mm dia. is fitted.
• Above this ball a slot is provided for inserting a steel bar of
known hardness.
• This bar is called as standard bar. It‘s hardness is printed on it.
 Method of Testing on Material
• The standard bar inserted into the slot of the instrument, this bar touches the ball &

the plunger.

• The entire assembly is held with the left hand over specimen & blow of hammer

given on top of plunger.

• Due to this blow, two impressions are obtained simultaneously on std. bar & on

specimen.

• The diameter of both the impressions to be measured.

• Hardness of specimen is found out by following formula,

• Where, D= ball inter dia, dstd = impression dia. on std. bar, dsp =impression dia on

specimen bar, BHNstd = standard bar hardness, BHNsp = which is to be calculated

(specimen hardness).
• This relative hardness calculated by using Brinell principle is called as Poldi

hardness.

• Charts are provided for finding out the hardness value on basis on dsp & dstd for

the std. bar having 197 BHN.

• Charts are prepared for steels only show tensile strength values.

• Charts are not prepared for materials those doesn‘t shows tensile strength values

because the relationship between BHN & the corresponding tensile strength has

not yet been established with as much reliability as in the case of steels.

• If the std. bar used is different from which chart is prepared, correction factor

has to given for hardness value of chart.

• If we use 215 BHN as a std. bar then correction factor is 215/197. multiply the

hardness value coming from chart by this correction factor.

• The chart hardness values & calculated value does not exactly match. Because of a
correction has been applied for impact loads & material condition while reporting the
hardness no. in the charts. Therefore hardness no. coming from chart is more realistic.
• Some additional precautions than for Brinell should be taken for better accuracy.
– The tube should be perfectly vertical on the specimen to avoid elliptical impressions.
– Specimen should be kept on hard platform to avoid rebound.
– The hammer blow should be moderate.
• Advantages
– It is portable hence is highly suitable.
– As it is portable so it convenient to estimate approx. hardness of a large sized
component in the factory or field.
– Hardness tester in lab. is costly compared to Poldi Tester
– Also high skill operator required to table hardness tester
• Drawbacks: As per the Brinell Hardness test
 VICKER’S HARDENESS TEST
Principle: It is similar to the Brinell hardness test. Vickers hardness test

consists of making an impression on specimen. The hardness is expressed

by measuring the dimensions of the impression and using a ratio of load and

area.

Indenter:

o A square based diamond pyramid indenter is used instead of a ball

indenter. The pyramid indenter has an included angle of 1360 between

the opposite faces.

o 1360 is chosen because it corresponds to the most desirable ratio of

indentation diameter to ball diameter of 0.375‖ in Brinell hardness test.

Loads – the loads are usually in the range of 1 to 120 kg.

o Load applied gradually to avoid errors due to inertia effects.

o The time of load application & load duration can be controlled &

is between 10 to 30 sec.

o For case hardened components 1 and 2.5 kg loads are suitable

whereas for most of the other materials , loads from 10 to 40 kg

are suitable.

o For cast irons and cast components higher loads are desirable, if

an overall average hardness of a heterogeneous structure is to be

measured.
Diamond pyramid indenter used for the Vickers test and resulting
indentation in the workpiece.
 An impression of square shape made on the test surface

 Diagonals of the square impression are measured by a special measuring

microscope.

1.8544P
 Formula : VHN = P/A =
d2

Where, P = Load applied, d = Diameter of square impression

 The hardness no. is also called as Vicker’s Pyramid Number (VPN) or

Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH) or Diamond Pyramid Number (DPN)

 In this test, depth of penetration is approx. d/7

 The minimum thickness of test piece will depend on the hardness of metal & the

magnitude of the load applied.

 It is recommended that the thickness of piece should be at least 1.5 times of the

diagonal of the specimen.

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VHN & BHN
 Both are identical up to 300 nos.

 But after that BHN diverge & become

significant about 600 nos.

 This departure is due to deformation of ball

indenter at high hardness values

 Vicker‘s curve is almost linear due to

practically no distortion of the diamond

indenter at high hardness levels.

 Because of this, Vicker‘s test is suitable for

measuring hardness from very soft to very hard.

 Since the depth of indentation is shallow, thin

specimen can be tested.

Advantages:
 The impressions are small, because of that it does not damage or reduce the
life of component. Hence this test is suitable for finishing components.
 It does not deform during testing of hard materials.
 For any load of testing, the contact angle remains same i.e. 136°. Because of
pyramidal geometry of indenter.
 VPN/VHN is independent of load.
Disadvantages:
 Because of small size of indenter the test is not recommended to measure the
hardness of heterogeneous, cast component & porous powder metallurgy.
 The test demands good polish on the surface, to attain such a polish, more
time is required.
 The test is slow & is subject to personal errors.
 MICRO-HARDNESS TEST
 These instruments are designed in such a way that as low as 1 gm and as high
as 1000 gm load can be applied.
 Due to less loads, the impressions are extremely small and also shallow.
 This feature makes them highly indispensable for the measurement of hardness
of very thin sheet materials, plated layers, nitrided surfaces and phases.
 Tukon hardness testing instrument is one of the machine which is of the above
type.
• Two indenters are used for the Tukon hardness tester
1. The standard Vickers 1360 diamond pyramid
2. The diamond Knoop indenter.
• The Knoop indenter consists of a pyramidal shaped diamond cut to an included
transverse angle of 1300 and an included longitudinal angle of 172030'
 The projected impression is rhombic in shape
 Longer diagonal is 7 times shorter diagonal
 Depth of impression is 1/30 of the length of longer diagonal

Where Cp = Knoop indenter constant

Ap = area of projection
KHN = Knoop hardness number (Kg/mm^2)
l = length of longitudinal diagonal (mm)
Advantages:
Accurate
Useful for elongated and anisotropic constituents.
Requires load to be normal to surface plane parallel
surfaces.
Can be done on mounted specimens
Disadvantages:
Slow
Sensitive to surface condition
Subject to error in diagonal measurement
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Principle : Rockwell hardness testing is based upon principle of

indentation. Depth of penetration is the measure of hardness.
Indenters Used:
1] Brale indenter‘s i.e. diamond indenter in shape of cone and
included angle of 120 deg.
2] Hardened Steel ball indenters each with diameter (1/16"), (1/8"),
(1/4"), (1/2")
Load Applied: Load applied in two stages;
• First a constant Minor load: 10 kg
• Then Major load: 60, 100 or 150 kg
Procedure:

 The specimen is placed on the bottom platform.

 The proper scale of Rockwell hardness is selected, depending upon material of the specimen.

 For example : Scale A: 60 kg load and brale indenter, black dial to be referred.

Scale B: 100 kg load and (1/16") steel ball indenter, red dial to be referred.

Scale C: 150 kg load and brale indenter, black dial to be referred.

 The platform along with specimen is raised so that the surface of the specimen touches the indenter.

 By raising the platform slowly, a minor load of 10 kg is applied. This indicated on the small dial inside

the main dial by a small pointer pointing to the red dot. The large pointer indicates zero (0) of the main

dial. Since load is applied in the opposite direction, the large pointer moves in the clockwise direction.

 Then major load is applied by mean of lever provided on the right hand side of machine. Large pointer

moves in the anticlockwise direction and when it becomes steady after a rotation, major load is realized

without releasing the minor load. Due to this the elastic recovery in the deformed region occurs because

of which pointer moves in the clockwise direction and pointed to the number on the main dial.

 This number is read as Rockwell hardness number of the specimen. Thus hardness number is directly

read from the dial.

Various scales in Rockwell hardness test are given below:-

Type of Initial Major Pointer

Scale indentor load load Position Kind of material
(Dimension) (kgf) (kgf) on dial
Much harder such as
A Cone, 120o 10 50 0 carburized steel, cemented
carbides
Soft steels, copper, aluminum,
B Ball, 1.58mm 10 90 30
brass, grey cast iron.
C Cone, 120o 10 140 0 Hard steels, Ti, W, Va, etc

Precautions:
 The specimen should be clean properly.
 The surface of specimen should be flat.
 Take reading more carefully.
Dial

Position A
Position B
Advantages:

 Any type of material can be tested effectively i. e. From soft to hard by

selecting proper scale.

 A high polish is not required on the surface of the specimen.

 Calculations are not involved as hardness value is directly read on the dial.

 It doesn‘t requires skill operator.

 The test is very fast and accurate hardness is obtained

Disadvantages:

 Heterogeneous materials cannot be tested effectively because of small

impressions.

 Accuracy cannot be maintained for very thin specimens.

 DUROMETERS
 It is particularly used for measuring the hardness of plastics, rubbers & are of various types.

 Principle :- It works on the principle of measuring the hardness on the basis of measuring the

depth of penetration ( at constant load), & reported in terms of numbers from 0 to 100.

 The A-2 type Durometer is used for soft rubbers & non rigid plastics, while D-type durometer

is used for hard rubbers & plastics.

 0 number corresponds to a depth of 0.1 inch & 100 number corresponds to a depth of 0.001

inch.

 Indenters are conical in shape & are made of steel.

 When this instrument is pressed on the specimen surface under test, it gives hardness values

directly on the dial.

 The load applied on the indenter is very low & which is inversely proportional to the depth of

penetration.
 The sharpness of cone depends on the type of durometer. Type D durometer
has the sharpest indenter & the applied load is also more.
 Results obtained from one type of durometers can not be correlated with the
results of other types of durometers.
Advantages:
 It is very small portable unit.
 Hardness value is directly obtain on the dial.
 It is vey fast process
 Skill person is not required to measure the hardness
Disadvantages:
 Only suitable for non metallic materials.
 If the load applied are not constant, the hardness value may vary
accordingly.
 A Presser Foot, normally the bottom most surface of the instrument housing, machined to
be flat and perpendicular to the indentor and containing an orifice through which the
indentor protrudes.
 An indentor of varying designs, dependent upon the relative hardness and configuration
of the material being tested. The indentor protrudes through the presser foot at a specified
distance. The change in this distance, as it is applied to the test specimen, is translated
into a durometer hardness value.
 A Calibrated Spring which is, most often, mechanically attached to the indentor. The
calibrated spring provides specific resistance to the movement of the indentor. The force
required to cause indentor movement is proportional to the hardness value of the test
specimen (inversely proportional to the indentation into the test specimen).
 An Indicator which displays the hardness value achieved. This indicator may be a digital
display, usually via a LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer) which measures the
movement of the indentor. It may also be an analog display, mechanically attached to the
indentor assembly, making use of an indicating hand against a graduated dial.
 IMPACT TESTING
 It is essential in order to study the behaviour of materials under dynamic
loading.
Principle: Under certain situations a ductile material fails in a brittle manner in the
service and such a failure is characterized by low absorption of energy.
 The factors which contribute to the brittle failures are
1) Tri-axial state of stress 2) Low – temperature 3) High strain rate
 The brittle failure may result due to the any one, or from the combination of
these factors in sufficient magnitude.
 A tri-axial state of stress, which exists at the tip of defects in the component and
low service temperature are mostly responsible for brittle failure.
 These factors become more important at high rates of loading. Hence, the
susceptibility of materials for brittle failure under the existence of these factors
is determined by such tests, which apply fast loads like impact tests.
 EXPLANATION
 Tri-axial State of Stress : -
 Tri-axial state of stress is developed at the root of notch and hence
notched specimens are used in these tests.
 The tendency of brittle failure in the presence of notches is called notch
sensitivity and hence the notched impact test measure the notch
sensitivity of the material.
 Effect of Temperature : -
 The effect of temperature is accessed by testing the specimen at low
temperature.
 The temperature at which a ductile material fails in a brittle manner is
called Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature.
PENDULUM IMPACT MACHINE
Charpy Test Metal Specimen (ASTM E 23)
 Izod Test Metal Specimen (ASTM E 23)

Position of sample during Charpy (a) & Izod Test (b) as follows
 CHARPY IMPACT TEST
 It is widely used in United states.
 In this test, a certain mass is released from some distance above the impact
point which strikes the specimen
1
 The kinetic energy of the head at the moment of impact is 𝑚𝑣 2
2

 Which is equal to potential energy of the top or head before its release (mgh)
 From this it is clear that the drop height determines the velocity.
 The drop height & mass jointly determines the energy.
 Here head have 20.932Kg wt. (with arm), length of arm is 0.825 mtr.
 Pendulum or head is release from an angle of 140°. The drop ht. corresponds
to 1.457m
 So potential energy = mgh =300 joules
 As per the specifications made by ASTM- E23 or IS 1499, during the testing

arm is lifted by height ―h‖ and is allowed to hit over a specimen, its potential

energy is converted into kinetic energy and after hitting there be absorption

of some energy and resorting of energy with new height h‘.

Formula for toughness is given by

T = mg ( h — h‘)

 SPECIMEN PARAMETERS :-

1. Specimen Size : - 10 X 10 X55 ( in mm )

2. Pendulum Weight : - 20.932 Kgs.

3. Angle of release : - 140°

4. Position of notch : - At Center and opposite to striker.

5. Length of Arm : - 0.825 meter

 IZOD IMPACT TEST
 It is widely used in Great Britain.
 Here head have 21.79 Kg wt. (with arm), length of arm is 0.825 mtr.
 Pendulum or head is release from an angle of 85°21‘. The drop ht.
corresponds to 0.758m
 So potential energy= mgh =162 joules
 Specimen Parameters
1. Specimen Size : - 10 X 10 X 75 ( in mm )
2. Pendulum Weight : - 21.79 Kgs.
3. Angle of release : - 85°21‘
4. Position of notch : - At 28 mm from one side and facing to striker
5. Length of Arm : - 0.825 meter
Procedure: Operation:
 Select the test (Charpy / Izod).
 Select and fit the respective striker in the hammer, first tighten the
screws of the wedge and then of strikers.
 Fix the latching tube to corresponding position (for Charpy 140°
position and for Izod 90° position).
 Place a specimen on the support of the block.
 Bring the striker (hammer) closely to specimen and tough it lightly
with the specimen.
 Pointer when touched to its carrier should read 300 J line for Charpy
and 170J for Izod. Otherwise correct it by losing and tighten the screw
of the pointer carrier.
 Remove the specimen. Latch the hammer. Place the pointer as 300 J
for Charpy and170 J for Izod.
 Release the hammer. Hold back the releasing lever.
 The pointer will show the frictional losses. This reading should be less
than 1.5 joules for Charpy and 0.8 for Izod.
 Thus the machine is ready for the test.
Precautions
Stay away from the machine during the impact test.
The test piece has to be carefully kept so that area of impact is
minimized.
When the pendulum hammer is loaded at maximum position make
sure that it is latched.
Conducting the test:
a) Charpy Test:
 Place the specimen onto the support with notch facing backside of the striking direction.
 Using the setting gauge. Center the notch in between the anvils.
 Place the pointer to read 300 J. latch the hammer.
 Release the hammer. The pointer will indicate the amount of energy consumed by the
specimen.
b) Izod Test:
 Place the specimen onto the support with notch facing towards the direction of striker of
the striking direction.
 Using the setting gauge, center the notch to the reference level.
 Face the pointer to read 170 J. latches the hammer.
 Release the hammer. The pointer will indicate the amount of energy consumed by the
specimen for its rupture.
Advantages:
 The results indicate differences in condition of a metal or an alloy that are
not indicated by other tests such as tension & hardness tests.
 When carried out on specimens at low temp. have proved useful in
indicating whether or not adequate toughness is maintained at those temp.
Disadvantages:
 The results may not directly predict the ductile or brittle behaviour of a large
component.
 The results can not be easily expressed in terms of design requirements of
the component because the triaxial state of stress condition, at the root of
notches can not be measured.
 The notch impact test does not simulate shock loading in service & can not
be correlated with other mechanical tests.
 FACTORS AFFECTING IMPACT STRENGTH
1. Velocity : - This is the velocity of striking hammer.

 The velocity of 3 to 5 m/s does not affect the results.

 If it is more than critical velocity, impact resistance decreases sharply.

 Use of such velocities does not serve the purpose for testing because their

differentiation on the basis of test results can not be done.

 Therefore, practical velocities are usually kept below the critical velocity.

2. Specimen: - The energy absorption of the specimen decreases with decreasing either

its width or its thickness. This is due to decrease in the volume of the specimen.

 The decrease in size tends to decrease the degree of restraint. Due to this, tendency

to cause brittle fracture decreases & the energy absorbed increases.

 At low temp., when the standard specimen shows a brittle fracture, the decrease in

size of specimen may show increase in its impact resistance.

3. Notch effect: As the sharpness of V notch increases, the energy

of rupture decreases. This is due to the increase in stress

concentration.

4. Temperature:

 Below certain temperature, metal fails in brittle manner showing

less energy to failure.

 Similarly, above certain temperature in a ductile failure, which

requires more energy to failure.

 The intermediate temperature range, where mixed failure is

observed is called transition temperature range.

 FATIGUE TEST
 With frequent stress fluctuations, the material may fail at a stress far below its

static ultimate tensile strength.

 This failure is incidental & occurs without any warning.

 It results in a brittle fracture with almost no deformation at the fracture region &

the fracture surface is usually normal to the direction of the principal tensile

stress.

 Fracture is heterogeneous in appearance consisting of two regions, one smooth

& the other rough.

 Usually the progress of fracture is indicated by a series of rings called beach

marks in the smooth region, processing inward from the point of initiation of the

failures.
 This phenomenon known as fatigue failure is encountered in rotating

machine parts, springs, connecting rods, etc. which are subjected to loading

and vibrations.

 The following basic factors are necessary to cause fatigue failure;

1. Applied stress of sufficient magnitude. 2. Large variation or fluctuation in the

applied stress. 3. Sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress.

 Fatigue failure occurs due to the formation and growth of cracks. These

cracks are very fine and difficult to detect.

 They usually start from points from points of high stress concentration such

as corners and deep marks on the surface.

 Once a large area is occupied by cracks, the load bearing area gets reduced

and sudden failure occurs without any notice.

Stress Cycles are of following types;
A) Tension – Compression ( Reversed Stress)
B) Tension -Tension ( Repeated stress) C) Irregular or random.
 Fatigue Testing
 Wohler testing machine is used for fatigue testing. The specimen in the form
of cantilever & located at one end through a ball bearing.
 It is rotated by means of a high speed motor to which a counter is attached to
count the number of rotations.
 At any instant, the upper surface of the specimen is under tension & the
lower surface is under compression, with the neutral axis at the center.
 The number of cycles to cause failures will vary with the applied stress,
higher the stress, lower will be the cycles to cause failure and vice versa.
 For iron, steel & ferrous alloys, a stress is reached below which fracture
does not occur for infinite number of cycles. This value of stress is called
fatigue limit or endurance limit.
 It is defined as the max. stress that can be applied repeatedly for infinite number
of times without failure of the material.
 Endurance or fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be applied
repeatedly over a specified number of cycles without fracture ( usually 108
cycles).
 However for non-ferrous metals and alloys like Al, Cu etc. no such definite limit
exists and as the stress is decreased no. of cycles to failure progressively go on
increasing.
 Standard samples are prepared identical in all respect and tested one by one with
above testing machine at gradually decreasing stress level.
 Data from fatigue testing often are presented in an S-N diagram which is a plot
of the number of cycles required to cause failure in a specimen against the
amplitude of the cyclical stress developed.
Fatigue Test Setup
Wohler Testing Machine
 The fracture under repeated load occurs due to damage to the crystals & to
the intercrystalline regions produced by crystal deformation.
 When the crystalline regions are relatively soft & deformable, they are not
capable of restraining the slip within the crystalline regions even under very
low stress.
 This is the case with most of the non-ferrous metals & alloys.
 In ferrous metals & alloys, the intercrystalline regions are rigid enough to
prevent the spreading of the slip even under relatively high stresses, so that
their exists a definite endurance limit.
 Fatigue properties are frequently correlated with the tensile properties. The
ratio of the fatigue limit to the tensile strength is called the fatigue ratio.
 Fatigue ratio for steels is approximately 0.5 & for non ferrous alloys, it is
approximately 0.35
 Fracture Appearance
 The fatigue crack is nucleated at the stress concentration area.
 The rough granular region is due to the sudden fracture in reduced area
because of inability to bear the load. The roughness will depend on the
grain size, coarser the grains, more is the roughness.
 The smooth region is due to rubbing of the surfaces during cyclic
stressing.
 Concentric lines known as ripples or striations or beach marks are
observed in smooth region due to propagation of crack
 Spacing of ripples is relatively more if the variation in the stress
amplitude is more.
 Fatigue fractures are normally transgranular i. crack moves through the
grains
 Transcrystalline Fracture

The fatigue fracture surface showing

various regions
 Protection Method
The methods of increasing fatigue life are primarily based on preventing or
delaying the initiation of crack at the surface. These are as below :
A. Surface hardening:
 Shot peening: The surface is plastically deformed by blasting with hard steel
or cast iron balls. It is particularly adopted to mass produced parts of fairly
small size.
 Surface rolling: The surface is plastically deformed by using contoured
rollers. It is frequently used in critical regions such as fillets of crankshaft.
 Nitriding: Nitrogen is diffused into the surface of steel which forms alloy
nitrides. Alloy nitrides are extremely hard.
 Carburizing & hardening: Carbon is diffused into the surface of steel and
hardened by martensitic transformation.
B. Grain size: Fine grain size improves the fatigue life.
C. Surface finish: The crack initiation invariably occurs from
a site of stress concentration. Therefore, rough surface have
less fatigue life. Smooth surface finish increase fatigue life.
D. Proper design: Design of component should eliminate
sharp corners, recesses etc. i. e. it should avoid stress raisers.
E. Surface decarburization: Surface decarburization during
processing or heat treatment should be avoided.
F. Corrosion: surface should be protected from corrosion,
erosion or chemical attack.
 CREEP TEST
 Creep can be defined as the slow & progressive deformation of a material with time
under a constant stress at temp. approx. above 0.4 Tm (where Tm is the melting
point of the metal or alloy in degrees Kelvin)
 Most of the metals exhibit creep at high temp.
 Creep is thermally activated process and hence is a function of temp. & time.
 The creep behaviour of metals is important in determining their suitability for a
continuous high temp. service under stressed conditions.
 For examples, metals for jet engine components, gas & steam turbines & nuclear
reactors.
 Creep strength of a material is the highest stresses that the material can withstand for
a specified length of time without exceeding the specified deformation at a given
temp., it is also called as creep limit.
 Creep Test :- Testing Method
 It consists of subjecting the specimen at constant tensile stress at constant temp. &
measuring the extent of deformation or strain with the time.
 Even though, principle is simple, considerable laboratory equipment, & great care &
precision in performance
 The time of each test may be a matter of hours, weeks, months or even years.
 Creep is also determined in compression, shear & bending.
 The data is presented by plotting the creep curve as deformation versus time at
constant temp. & stress.
 Specimen shape :- Circular, square or rectangular in cross section.
 The strain generally lies between 0.1 to 1% and the period of testing does not exceed
10,000 hr.
 If the creep is continued until fracture occurs, the test is called as creep-rupture test.
Typical Creep Curve Showing Three Stages of Creep
 Creep Test
 When the load is applied at the beginning, the instantaneous elastic
deformation AB occurs.
 The elastic deformation is followed by primary or transient creep BC.
 Then by the secondary or steady state creep CD.
 Finally by tertiary or accelerated creep DE.
 The above three regions of the creep curve are essentially due to the
following two effects;
 Due to application of stress, strain hardening occurs in the
specimen which tries to decrease the deformations.
 Due to high, temperature annealing or softening of specimen
occurs which tries to increase the deformations
 At the beginning, strain hardening effect supersedes the softening effect and

hence during primary or transient creep, deformation is observed at a

decreasing rate.

 During the secondary or steady state creep, constant & minimum creep rate

is observed due to the equilibrium between the strain hardening effect & the

annealing effect.

 The tertiary or the accelerated creep occurs at a fast rate & actually

represents a process of progressive damage to the inter crystalline regions by

the formation of voids or heavy oxidation of metal leading to fracture of the

material

 Microstructural changes such as recrystallization or coarsening of precipitate

particles also contribute to the tertiary creep.

 Creep Fracture
 At low temp, grain boundaries are stronger than the grains & at high

temp., grains are stronger than the grain boundaries. The temp. at which

the strength of the grain boundary is equal to the strength of grains is

called Equicohesive Temperature.

 Crack always moves through weak regions and hence below

equicohesive temp. fracture is transgranular or transcrystalline i.e. it

moves through the grains.

 Above equicohesive temp. fracture is intergranular or intercrystalline i.e.

it moves along the grain boundaries.

 Creep is a high temp. process so creep fractures are always intergranular.

Intergranular fracture Transgranular fracture
 ERICHSEN CUPPING TEST
 Formability is defined as the ability of a sheet material to be formed into a
specific shape or configuration.
 This test used in industry for the determination of formability so also known as
formability test.
Procedure:
 The sheet is held between two ring shaped clamping dies.
 A hemispherical punch (20mm dia.) is forced against one side of the sheet until
fracture occurs or there is a sudden drop in the load.
 The height of dome produced is measured which gives measure of formability.
 The cup (dome) height increases approx. by 0.24 mm with every 0.1mm
increase in sheet thickness.
 The results are not consistent because of metal pull in from the clamped dies &
inconsistent lubrication, if lubricant is applied on the sheet metal to be tested.
Test Results:
 The visual examination of dome gives information regarding grain size,
anisotropy of sheet etc.
 A rough appearance of dome indicates a large grain size.
 Radial cracks indicate equal strength of the sheet in all directions i.e. sheet is
isotropic.
 Circumferential cracks indicate anisotropic properties of the sheet.
 If the cracks are in one direction, it indicates variation in ductility in
different directions.

Radial cracks Circumferential cracks

 Erichsen Standard Chart
 It shows typical values of expected depth of cup for various thicknesses of
metals. However, this does not indicate the suitability of the material for a
specific application or operation.
 NON
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
 DEFINITION OF NDT

The use of noninvasive techniques

to determine the integrity of a
material, component or structure.
or
Quantitatively measure some
characteristic of an object i.e.
Inspect or measure without doing
harm.
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

• TESTING OF MATERIALS WITHOUT CAUSING ANY HARM

TO THEIR EXTERNAL/INTERNAL STRUCTURE.
• DOES NOT DAMAGE/REDUCE SERVICE LIFE OF THE
COMPONENTS .
• DOES NOT DIRECTLY MEASURE THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES.
• USED TO CHECK THE PRESENCE OF SURFACE OR
INTERNAL DEFECTS WHICH MAY REDUCE THE LIFE OF A
COMPONENT
• SURFACE MORPHOLOGY REMAINS INTACT

• INTERNAL DEFECTS SUCH AS CAVITIES, BLOW

HOLES CAN BE DETECTED

• SEPERATION & REJECTION OF DEFECTIVE PARTS

• PART CAN BE PLACED IN SERVICE AFTER THE

TEST

• USEFUL FOR IN-PROCESS INSPECTION

• USEFUL FOR DETECTION OF DEFECTS FOR LARGE

SIZE COMPONENTS
 METHODS OF NDT

Visual
 When are NDT Methods Used?

 To assist in product development.

 To screen or sort incoming materials.
 To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes.
 To verify proper processing such as heat treating.
 To verify proper assembly.
 To inspect for in-service damage.
 What are Some Uses of NDT Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements
• Structure and Microstructure Characterization
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination
 NDT : POINTS TO STUDY

• PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

• PROCEDURE

• ADVANTAGES

• LIMITATIONS

• INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
 CLASSIFICATION OF NDTs
• Detection of surface flaws
 Visual Inspection
 Liquid / Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI/DPT)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI/MPT)
• Detection of internal flaws
 Eddy current Testing (ECT)*
 Sonic & Ultrasonic Testing (UST)
 Radiography Testing
* ECT NOT DIRECTLY USED FOR DEFECT DETECTION
 1. VISUAL INSPECTION

• Most simplest & basic method of inspection.

• Inspection of the components with naked eyes or
smaller magnifications
• Checking of cracks on surface and surface roughness by
moving fingers.
• Useful for inspection of small sized components
• Defect detection results may vary from person to person
 Visual Testing Equipments

Fig: Videoscope Fig: Advanced Videoscope Fig: Borescopes

Fig: Magnifying glass

150
Fig. Microscope
Advantages:

• Very cheap technique.

• Less time required for testing.

Disadvantages:

• A highly skilled and experienced person is required.

Applications:

Suitable for finding missing parts of machine,

corrosion testing of components etc.

 Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include fiberscopes,

bore scopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection unit

with zoom allows inspection of
large tanks and vessels, railroad
tank, cars, sewer lines etc.

Robotic crawlers permit

observation in hazardous or tight
areas, such as air ducts, reactors,
pipelines.
 2. MAGNETIC PARTICAL
TESTING/INSPECTION
(MAGNAFLUX)
• Principle of working: Detection of defects by formation of
magnetic poles at surface / subsurface defect sites.
Theory:
• If a magnet broken, new poles created.
• Iron powder clings to poles.
• For any defect present on surface / subsurface, powder clings
to the defect site (cracks, voids).
Magnetic Particle Inspection Method:

 Magnetic flux lines in a ferromagnetic or ferri-magnetic material

(resulting from the application of a magnetic field) are distorted around a

defect.

 Distortion causes magnetic flux lines to extend beyond the surface at the

location of the surface crack. This is known as ―field leakage‖.

 Field leakage attracts magnetic particles (Fe or Fe3O4) that are applied to

the surface.

 Subsurface cracks near the surface can also be detected (up to 2‘‘ deep).

 Applied magnetic field is preferably perpendicular to the length of the

defect.
 Basic Principle of MPT
Crack
Magnetic Flux Line Magnetic Flux Leakage

S N
N S N S

Fig.1: Magnetized Metal with no crack Fig.2: Magnetized Metal with crack

In the first figure the magnetized metal has no crack and there only two
poles that is north pole and south pole and in second figure the
magnetized metal has a crack and at the crack point there creates another
north and south pole for the magnetic flux leakage.
N S

N S N S
 If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be
attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet
but also at the poles at the edges of the crack.
 This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and
this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
The magnetic particles form a ridge
many times wider than the crack
itself, thus making the otherwise
invisible crack visible

Cracks just below the surface

can also be revealed
 Magnetization Procedure

Magnetization of the component is done either by using an external

magnetic Yoke coil or by passing an electric current through it.
Longitudinal Magnetization:
 When part is magnetize lengthwise, transverse cracks are easily detected.
 This is done by energizing a coil around bar.
 It is achieved by means of permanent magnet or electromagnet.
Circumferential Magnetization:
 When part is magnetize cross-wise by a circular magnetic field
lengthwise cracks are easily detected.
 This is done by sending an electric current through the object.
 Current may use AC or DC.
Longitudinal
Magnetization
 MPI: SUBSURFACE DEFECTS

• The detection of subsurface defects Depends on:

1. Strength of the magnetic field.
2. Distance of defect from surface.
3. Ratio of height of defect to thickness of part.
4. Width of defect.
 MPI: METHODS
• Dry Method: A special fine ferromagnetic powder applied on
surface by means of a handshaker, vibrating screen or by any
other suitable method so that the powder uniformly distributed
on the surface of the component (IS 10543)
• Wet Method: Ferromagnetic particles suspended in kerosene
or petroleum oil is applied by some suitable method such as
spraying, dipping or brushing (IS 12147)
• Magnaglo Method: Fluorescent magnetic particles used
 MPI: PROCEDURE

• Cleaning of the surface

• Magnetize the object
• Addition of magnetic particles by dry or wet method
• Observation & Inspection
• Interpretation
• Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to
demagnetize the component. Remanent magnetic fields can;
 Affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
 Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
 Can create a condition known as "ark blow" in the welding process. Arc blow
may causes the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
 Cause abrasive particle to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.
The demagnetization can be accomplished as below;
1. By subjecting the component to a continuously reversing and steadily decreasing
magnetic field. or
2. By slowly withdrawing the component through an open solenoid while the
alternating current is flowing.
Applications: All these methods are use to detect various kinds of flaws in
ferromagnetic component such as welding, castings and forgings of iron and steel.
 MPI: MAGNETIC POWDER
PARTICLES
• Pulverized iron oxide (Fe3O4) or carbonyl iron powder can
be used
• Colored or even fluorescent magnetic powder can be used
to increase visibility (Magnaglo Method)
• Powder can either be used dry or suspended in liquid
Advantages:
 No limitation on size and shape of component
 Can be done on final product
 Portable setup
 Semi-skilled operators can be used
 Low cost
 No danger as no radiation is used
 Both AC-DC current can be used.
Disadvantages:
 Not for non magnetic materials
 Time consuming compared to dye penetrant
 Demagnetization is necessary
 Not for interior cracks
 Result cannot be stored for further reference
 MPI: APPLICATIONS

Indication of a crack in a
saw blade

Indication of cracks in a
weldment
Examples of visible dry magnetic particle indications

After inspection picture - cracks

emanating from a hole
Before inspection picture - no cracks
emanating from a hole
Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic Particle Indications

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of

a cracks in a drive shaft

Magnetic particle
wet fluorescent
indication of a crack
in a bearing

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a

cracks at a fastener hole
 3. LIQUID / DYE
PENETRANT
TESTING /
INSPECTION
(LPT/LPI/DPT/DPI)
 Principle of Working

• Detection of invisible cracks, porosity by capillary

action of liquid dye penetrant on material surface

• Component of any material like ferrous, nonferrous,

plastic, glass or ceramic can be tested.

• Dye penetrant used.

The steps for inspection are as below (ASTM E 165 or IS 3658);

 Clean the surface. (Grease, oil or any other extraneous material such as scale must be removed by a

suitable solution)

 Dry the surface.

 Apply dye penetrant on the surface by dipping, spraying etc.

 Dwell time: allow penetrant to penetrate inside the discontinuities by surface tension. The time may be

anywhere between few seconds to several hours.

 Remove excess penetrant by soft and clean cotton.

 Apply the developer which pulls out the dye from flaws and the flaws are revealed by the colour of the

dye.

 Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any flaws

which may be present.

 Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove the

developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable

 Instead of a developer a special fine developing powder or talc powder can be sprinkled on the surface so

that the powder absorb the dye from flaws and the flaws are immediately revealed.
 Removal of
excess penetrant
DPT : PROCEDURE
Advantages
 This method can be used for any materials.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected
rapidly and at low cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes can be inspected.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
 Only surface defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
 Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler

At first the surface of the material that is to be tested is cleaned by a

liquid. The liquid is called cleaner.
177
Then a liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the
part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects. This liquid is called
penetrant. After five or ten minutes the excess penetrant is removed from the surface.
178
Then another liquid is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and
spread it on the surface where it can be seen. This liquid is called developer.
179
 Findings

After Dye Penetrant Testing

there are two surface cracks are
detected.

Two surface cracks

180
 4.ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
 Use of sound waves above audible range with a frequency of 1 to 5 MHz:

Ultrasonic

Principle of Working:

• Detection of internal defects is done by penetration of high frequency sound

waves into the metals. These waves reflected back from any flaws in their path.

• These reflected waves are further analysed for detection of crack.

 Piezoelectric materials produce US waves e.g. Quartz, Li2SO4 and polarized

ceramics such as BaTiO3 and PbZrO3 .

 Fluid couplant is used to remove any air gap between the probe and part

surface.
 Test Techniques – Through-Transmission
• Two transducers located on opposing sides of the test specimen are used.
• One transducer acts as a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
• Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a partial or total loss of sound being
transmitted and be indicated by a decrease in the received signal amplitude.
• The magnitude (the change in the sound pulse amplitude) of the interruption is used
to evaluate test results.
• Through transmission is useful in detecting discontinuities that are not good reflectors and
when signal strength is weak. It does not provide depth information.
• Through-transmission inspection is less sensitive to small defects than in pulse-echo
inspection.
• Through-transmission UT is most widely known as a method of inspection in automated
immersion testing for detection of laminar in steel or dis-bonding in composite materials where
two opposite and parallel surfaces can be used for scanning.
Defect Signal

CRO
CAVITY(DEFECT) SCREEN
 Digital display
showing received
sound through
material thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal due
to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.
 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo-Method
 A typical pulse-echo UT inspection system consists of several functional
units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer and a display device.
 A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage
electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high
frequency ultrasonic energy.
 The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the
form of waves.
 In Pulse Echo method single probe acts as sending & receiving transducer.
 In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the same
transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
 Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces of
the test article.
 The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which provides the
inspector information about the size and the location of features that reflect the
sound.
 For better contact of the transducer with metal surface couplant like thin oil or
glycerin is used.
 The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one side of the material
is possible and it allows the location of reflectors to be precisely determined.
Pulser/Receiver
Initial Piezoelectric
Pulse Transducer
Back Surface
Echo
Crack
Echo

Crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 Plate

Oscilloscope or Flaw
Detector Screen
 Digital display showing
signal generated from sound
reflecting off back surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector midway
through material, with lower
amplitude back surface reflector.
Advantages:
 Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested.
 Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
 Instant test results.
 Portable.
 Capable of being fully automated.
 Access to only one side necessary.
Limitations:
 Skilled person
 Extensive technical knowledge is required
 External power supply is required
 Defects very close to surface cannot be detected
 Smooth, dust and dirt free surface is required
 Couplant is important to transmit ultrasonic wave
Applications: Internal defects : cracks, porosity, inclusions etc.
 5. RADIOGRAPHY
 Radiography Testing (RT) or industrial radiography is a NDT
method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the
ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high
energy photons) to penetrate various materials.
 Radiographic Testing Method is nothing but to take the
shadow picture of an object onto a film by the passage of X-
ray or Gamma ray through it.
 It is the same as the medical radiography (X-ray). Only
difference in their wave length. 189
• Principle of Working: To detect internal defects of the materials,
by exposing them to x-rays / gamma ray radiations
• Sources: X-rays: X-ray Tube; Gamma Rays: Co-60, Iridium-192
• Materials absorb these radiations
• Defective regions such as cavities/voids absorb less amount of
radiations.
• Amount of radiations emerging from opposite side, recorded and

observed for defects

• Recording on radiographic film

• For X-ray, film: Exograph

• For Gamma ray, film: Gamma graph

 Essential Elements for Radiography
Testing
1. A source of penetrating radiation, such as an X-ray
machine.
2. The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment.
3. A recording or viewing device, usually photographic (X-
ray) film enclosed in a light tight holder.
4. A qualified radiographer trained to produce a satisfactory
exposure.
5. A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs. 191
 Radiography: X-ray
• X-rays are produced in X-Ray tube in which tungsten filament act as Cathode and
water cooled Cu act as anode.
• This combination is essential to produce sufficient intensity of X-rays.
• The set-up consist of high voltage transformer, one end of which is connected to the
filament and other to the ground.
• Filament (cathode) heated by current which emits electrons that are drawn to target
(anode), generating X-rays.
• To produce an X-ray radiograph, the film package is placed close to the surface of
the subject. The source of radiation is positioned on the other side of the subject
some distance away, so that the radiation passes through the subject and on to the
film.
• After the exposure period the film is removed, processed, dried and then viewed by
transmitted light on a special viewer.
Radiography: X-ray
 Radiography Testing Process
= less exposure = more exposure

Radioactive Source

Electrons
+ -
X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

X-ray film
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Top view of developed film 194

 Radiography: Gamma Ray
• Similar to X-ray technique.
• Gamma-rays are produced by radioactive decay of Radium and its salts and extensively
used for testing of casting and welded joints.
• Radium and its salts or isotope such as Cobalt – 60 decompose at a constant rate,
producing gamma rays of shorter wavelength.
• Cobalt – 60 is cheaper than others.
• A very simple apparatus is required for Gamma ray radiography in which cylindrical
Cobalt – 60 source with dimension 3 mm in diameter and 3 to 6 mm in length are used.
• The sources are sealed in an appropriate container or capsule.
• From the source, Gamma rays are emitted in all directions so a number of separate
castings having cassette containing film are disposed in a circle around the source that is
placed in a central position as shown in figure.
• Generally, the cassette containing film are fastened to the back of each component (here
castings).
 Radiography: Gamma Ray
Advantages:
• Gamma ray sources include portability and the ability to penetrate thick
materials in a relativity short time.
• Gamma - rays: high penetration power because of shorter wavelengths
• Large size components can be tested.
• Less scattering than X-rays.
• Radiations in all directions; many components can be inspected at a time.
• Equipment comparatively smaller.
Disadvantages:
• Shielding is required.
• Safety considerations.
Radiography: Gamma Ray
Advantages of Radiography:
Information is presented pictorially.
 A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place distant from the test.
Sensitivity declared on each film suitable for any material.
Thin as well as thick samples can be tested.
Fast and reliable.
Hidden flaws can be detected.
Disadvantages of Radiography:
Possible health hazard.
 Need to direct the beam accurately for two-dimensional defects.
 Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary
 Not suitable for automation.
 Not suitable for surface defects.
Higher initial investment.
Skilled operators required.
External power source is required. 198
 Areas of Application
• Can be used in any situation when one wishes to view the interior of an
object
• To check for internal faults and construction defects, e.g. faulty welding
• To ‗see‘ through what is inside an object.
• To perform measurements of size, e.g. thickness measurements of pipes

Standard:
ASTM
– ASTM E94-84a Radiographic Testing
– ASTM E1032-85 Radiographic Examination of Weldment.
– ASTM E1030-84 Radiographic Testing of Metallic Castings
 Radiography: Applications

Gas porosity or blow Sand inclusions and dross

holes. in castings
Radiographic Images
 PARAMETER X-RAY GAMMA RAY

WAVELENGTH Large Shorter

PENETRATION POWER Low High

SAMPLE THICKNESS Upto 62 mm More than 62 mm

COMPONENTS Only one at a time Many

EQUIPMENT Larger Portable

INTENSITY Very high Moderate

TIME Faster (seconds) Very slow (hours)

RESULTS FOR COMPONENTS

Better Poor
BELOW 50 mm
 6. EDDY
CURRENT
TESTING
 EDDY CURRENT
• Current can be induced in electric
conductor using magnetic field
• Right hand rule
• Electrical currents are generated in a
conductive material by an induced
alternating magnetic field.
• The electrical currents are called eddy
currents because these currents flow in
circles (eddies) at and just below the
surface of the material.
• Skin effect (200 Hz to 6 X 106 Hz)
 Working Principle
• An alternating current of 1kHz to 2 MHz
frequency is allowed to flow in a coil.
• When AC passes through a test coil, a
primary magnetic field is set up around the
coil
• AC primary field induces eddy current in the
test object held below the test coil
• A secondary magnetic field arises due to the
eddy current
• Change in impedance is calculated in eddy
current testing which is used to detect flaws
or defects.
 Factors Affecting Magnitude of Eddy
Current
• Magnitude and frequency of alternating current through
coil.
• Electrical conductivity
• Magnetic permeability
• Shape
• Relative position of coil and specimen
• Microstructure and hardness
• Amount and type of defects in specimen
 Eddy Current Testing: Procedure

• Differential coil method: coils connected in series

opposing each other
• Standard specimen surrounded by a coil
• Specimen under test surrounded by another coil
• When output from two coils is zero, specimen under
test is similar to standard
• Defect free component is chosen as standard specimen
 Types of Test Coils

• Absolute coils:
• Differential
coils:
– 2 coils
– Connected in
series
– Result is
recorded
• If 0 (identical)
• Non zero (not
identical)
 Eddy Current Testing: Applications

• To measure electrical conductivity, magnetic

permeability, grain size, hardness.
• To measure physical dimensions.
• To sort out dissimilar metals and detect their
chemical composition, microstructure.
• To measure coating thickness.
Advantages:
• Fast method
• Equipment is portable.
• Minimum part preparation is required.
• No contact of test probe with part.
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials.
Limitations:
• Only electrically conductive materials can be inspected
• Ferromagnetic material requires to be saturated before subjecting to ECT.
• Surface must be accessible to the probe.
• Skill and training required.
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
• Depth of penetration is limited.
 Destructive Tests Non-destructive Tests

Component may get damaged No Damage

Indirect Measurements so have to

Direct and reliable measurements
check reliability

Time consuming Less time consuming

Preparation of test specimen is

Very little preparation is required
costly

Cannot test component during Can be tested component during

operation operation

Quantitative results Qualitative results

COMMON APPLICATION OF NDT

• Inspection of Raw Products

• Inspection Following Secondary Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection
 Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions etc.
 Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating etc.