CHAPTER II

REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoritical Description
1. Definition of Reading
Reading is one of the skills that must be mastered by every
people in this world. Through reading people can get knowledge and a
lot of information. Many definition of reading can be found from a
variety of references. According to (Spratt et al., (2005: 21) in
Kurnianto 2016) Reading is an activity in which readers to respond to
make and sense of a text being read which is connected to their prior
knowledge The activity is done by the readers as they want to get
information and knowledge from the text. In this process, the readers
try to connect what they read in the form of written language to what
they have already known about the text. Making sense of a text is
done by understanding meaning of words, sentences, and even text.
On the other hand Reading is decoding and understanding
written texts. Decoding requires translating the symbols of writing
system (including Braille) into the spoken words which they represent.
Understanding is determined by the purposes for reading, the context,
the nature of the text, and the readers’ strategies and knowledge (Cline
et.al (2006: 2).
Penny UR (1996) in Syafniar (2014: 5) stated that reading
is translating written symbols into corresponding sounds. We may
know it is reading aloud. Furthermore, according to Strang reading is
not seeing words clearly, or just pronouncing printed words correctly,
but also reading requires us to think, feel and use imagination. For
example, when we read a novel, we have to feel how the character is,
and also imagine how setting is in the story.
 Grabe and Stoller (2002: 9) defined reading as the ability to
draw meaning from printed page and interpret this information
appropriately. He admitted that the definition about reading is still
simple, it needs elaboration to understand the true nature of reading.
Meanwhile Kozak (2011: 7) elaborated the reading as follow:
1) A skill which enables us to get message;
2) Recognizing the written words (written symbols);
3) Getting (understanding) the meaning;
4) Used to teach pronunciation;
5) Grasping information from texts.
From the explanation above we can conclude that reading is
given in teaching learning process. Reading also can be instrument to
assess pronunciation in teaching learning process as we can see in
point fourth. In addition, kozak stated that reading is complex activity
that involves both perception and thought. Reading consist of two
related process: word recognition and comprehension. Word
recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols
correspond to one;s spoken language. Comprehension is the process of
making sense of words, sentences, and connected text. Reader
typically make us of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical
knowledge, experience with the text and other strategies to help them
understand written text.
The researcher conclude that the reading is an activity of
getting meaning of the text in the printed form, and to get the meaning
we must have the background of knowledge.

2. Definition of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension skills are important for English
language learners, especially for students who learn English as a
foreign language because reading includes one of skill in learning
language. According to Cristine Nuttal (1982: 31) in Muslikhati (2015)
defines reading as the meaningful interpretative of printed or written
verbal symbols, it means that reading is a result of the interaction
between the perception of graphic symbols that represent language and
the reader’s language skill, cognitive skill and the knowledge of the
world in the process the reader tries to recreate the meaning intended
by the writer.
Reading comprehension can be defined as a thought
process through which readers become aware of idea, understand it in
terms of their experiential background and interpret it in relation to
their own needs and purpose (Kennedy, (1981: 192) in Atika 2017).
Reading with comprehension means understanding what has been
read. Comprehension involves understanding the vocabulary seeing the
relationship among words and concepts, organizing idea, recognizing
author’s purpose, making judgment and evaluating. Word important
factor in determining the degree of comprehension.
In summary, reading comprehension is an understanding a text
that is read of the process of constructing meaning from a text.
Comprehension is construction process, because it involves all of the
elements of the reading process. To create meaning from the text that
read, it is need a comprehension. According to Wolley (2011: 15)
“reading comprehension is the process of making meaning from text”.
The goal, therefore, is to gain an overall understanding of what is
described in the text rather than to obtain meaning from isolated
words or sentences.
In the process of reading, students need to comprehend the text.
That is because by comprehension, the readers can recognize the
author’s purpose wrote those texts and of course can interpret the
meaning of the texts. Meaning is thing or idea that a word or sentence
represent.
3. Level of Reading Comprehension
According to Heilman et.al (1981: 246) identifies the
following comprehension skiil:
1) Literal Level
This level is the simplest level. It mean that what the reader
needs to do is to reproduce the fact as they are related by the
writer. At this level, Questions are factual and detailed. The
skills needed for this level are nothing factual data, sequence,
chronology, and enumeration,. Sample phrases or question for
this level are as follow:
a. What is……………..
b. How old…………….
c. When………………..

The abilities which refer to the literal level are :

a. Knowledge of word meanings

b. Recalling of ideas directly stated or paraphrased in own
word
c. Understanding of grammatical clue-subject, verb,
pronoun, conjunction and so forth.
d. Recalling of main ideas expliciity stated
e. Knowledge of sequence of information presented in the
text.
2) Interpretative Level
This level requires the reader to go beyond the information
given by the writer. The reader is required to see the significant
of the data; to not various relationships such as cause effect and
relation of the part to the whole, to make comparison, to draw
conclusion and interest and to make generalizations.
Sample phrases or questions for this level are as follow:
a. Why ………………………………..
 b. What evidence……………………….
c. What you can conclude……………….

The abilities which refers to the interpretive level are:

a. Reasoning with the information presented to understand

the writer’s tone purpose and attitude
b. Inferring factual information, main ideas, comparison,
cause-effect relationships not explicity stated in the
text.
3) Critical Level
At this level, the students learn to evaluate and judge the
information and the writer’s use of language for guiding the
reader’s interpretation; nothing evidence of writer’s, his
qualifications, his point of view, intent and truthfulness
Sample phrases or questions for citical level are as follow:
a. Judge…………………………………
b. What would be the result of…………..
c. How would you describe……………...

The abilities which refers to the critical level are:

a. Reciting to information in a text indicating its meaning

to the reader.
b. Analyzing and evaluating the quality of written
information in terms of some standards.
4) Creative Level
This level requires the reader’s involvement with the
information presented as he uses it to formulate or rethinking
ideas his own. Question at this level might consist of open-
ended queries which require the reader to include his own
knowledge, view, and value.
Sample phrases or questions for this level are as follow:
 a. What would yo do if ……………..
b. Make up…………………………..
c. What does text tell you about……..

The abilities that refer to the creative level are:

a. Knowledge of emotional response of literary techniques

b. Knowledge of response of forms, style and structure
In short, literal level involves acquiring information
that is directly stated. Interpretive level involves “reading
between lines” of making inference. Critical level involves
evaluating of written material. Creative involves formulating
and n rethinking ideas. From the description above, it can be
stated that each level requires different abilities or skills.
Interpretive level requires higher skill than literal and so forth.

4. Barrett’s Taxonomy in Reading Comprehension Question

Theories of reading comprehension questions are
considered important to distinguish different level of understanding of
the text. According to Arthur and Blair who argue that Barrett
taxonomy aims to classify the test question for reading. Each these
reading comprehension levels also has links to the National
Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2002) Learning Outcomes for Reading
and Viewing and Thinking and Reasoning and to the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) due to be implemented in which
the type of questions attach on examination to help develop their
comprehension abilities.
Dealing with taxonomy, there are different opinions toward
Barrett taxonomy. According to Clymer has mentioned that 5 levels of
comprehension questions such as literal comprehension,
reorganization, inference, evaluation and appreciation. Not with
standing there are many comprehension taxonomies used for
educations purposes. However, the popular ones are bloom taxonomy
and barrett taxonomy. For bloom taxonomy can applied in other skill
and designing questions all subjects. Thus, bloom taxonomy is not
purposefully used for reading. In contrast, barrett’s taxonomy is
intended to classify the reading comprehension questions and
purposefully made for reading. It is also supported by Umasuli who
states that Barrett’s taxonomy is more detailed than revised bloom’s
taxonomy in that each level contains between 4 and 8 sub categories.
Moreover, the taxonomy also used by the Department of Basic
Education in Pretoria to set Home Language Examination in which it
aims to assess questions that measure reading comprehension. It
proves as good parameter to classify and designed reading
comprehension questions.
In addition barrett’s taxonomy had been well known as
taxonomy that mainly used for reading comprehension question and
also used when developing instructional activities, identifying and
specifying reading comprehension instruction. As educators prepare
students to what extent their understanding of the text must be done
through using comprehension taxonomy which offers classification of
questions.
In respect with this research, the researcher applies 5 levels
of Barrett’s taxonomy in analyzing reading comprehension questions.
The are described as follow:
1. Literal
It is first level in which students must recognize idea,
information and happenings explicitly statement in which demand
students to produce memory explicitly statement from the text.
Thus, questions deal with information explicitly stated in the text.
Besides, the common questions used to illicit this type are who,
what, when, where questions. Not with standing, this level also
 consists of 6 types of questions and the description of each type of
questions is follow:
a. Recognition for detail
The type of questions ask about detail of the text such as 4W
(who, where, when, what). Thus, it refers to ask the name of
character, place and incident happening in the text.
b. Recognition for main ideas
The type of question ask about the main idea of paragraph
c. Recall of sequence
The type of question asks about order of incident which is
happening in the text
d. Recall of comparison
The type of questions asks about similarities or differences
amoung character, place or time.
e. Recall of cause and effect
The type of questions asks about cause and effect of the event
happened
f. Recall of character traits
The type of questions ask about traits of character based on
statement in the text. In brief, the questions are “how did she
converse with, do you think, what will happen next”
2. Reorganization
Reorganization requires the students to analyze, synthesize,
and/or organize ideas or information explicitly stated in the selection.
To produce the desired through product, the reader may utilize the
statements of author verbatim or heor she may paraphrase or translate
the author’s statement. Reorganization tasks are :
a. Classifying
In this instance student is required to place people, things, places,
and or/events into categories. (when pupils asked to recognize or
recall certain kinds of details, relationship, or traits, they are in
 effect classifying, but at lower level of the taxonomy. The key of
this level is that things must be sorted into a category or a class).
b. Outlining
The student is requested to organize the selection in outline from
using direct statements or paraphrased statements from the
selection.
c. Summarizing
The students is asked to condense the selection using direct or
paraphrased statements from the selection. (this level is interpreted
as also being applicable when less than the entire selection is
condensed).
d. Synthesizing
In this instance, the students is requested to consolidate explicit
ideas or information from more than one source. (the pupil is
required to put together information from more than one place.
More is required than just a collecting of information for this
information must become fused so that information from more than
one source provides a single answer to a question.
While the taxonomy refers to a single selection, quite often in order
answer a questions, information obtained from a previous selection
or selections must be utilized. The intent the taxonomy, despite its
reistrictive reference to the selection, is not only the reading
comprehension question from review units, lessons, exercise, but
also many other reading comprehension questions).
3. Inference
The second level of this taxonomy and it tends to ask about
implicit statement based on the text. Then, the text should be
conjectured demonstrated by student when he uses synthesis and
personal knowledge. Thus, it demands students to read and go beyond
information written in the text. For inference level, there are eight
types of questions:
 a. Inferring supporting detail
The type of questions asks about which is not written explicit in the
text.
b. Inferring main idea
It asks about main ideas, theme, moral story which are not
explicitly written in the text
c. Inferring sequence
The sequence of events might have happened
d. Inferring comparison
It asks about similarity and difference of character which are not
explicitly stated in the text
e. Inferring cause and effect
It asks about what motivates the character have and why they
interact with others
f. Inferring character traits
It asks about character which is not explicitly stated in the text
g. Inferring predicting outcome
It asks about outcome that might happen from initial portion of the
text
h. Inferring figurative language
It asks about literal meaning which the author’s figurative use of
language. For example if the author writes “raining cats and dogs
or tall as mountain”. It does not mean the students translate the
words literally
4. Evaluation or Critical
It is more difficult than previous level due to students are
required make judgment of the content of the passage. Regardless of
the inference, it does not only depend primarily on student’s reactions
to what they have read but also to reflect a global understanding of the
text. Besides, his level consists of 5 questions types, they are:
a. Judgment of reality of fantasy
 It means that the question types call of judgment by the readers
based on their experience
b. Judgment of factor opinion
It tends to discuss whether the information stated by author in the
text based on fact or not
c. Judgment of adequancy
It refers to whether the author’s treatment of a subject is accurate
and complete when it is compared to other source on the subject
d. Judgment of appropriateness
It asks students to determine whether certain selection are relevant
and can be used to resolve an issue
e. Judgment of desirability
It asks about student to judge whether the character’s action in the
text is correct or wrong, good or bad somewhere it is based on
student’s experience
5. Appreciation
It relates with student’s awareness of literacy techniques,
from, style and structure employed by the author to stimulate
emotional responses in their readers. Moreover, it consists of 4 types
such as:
a. Emotional response
The students are required to verbalize her/his feeling about the
selection in terms of interesting, boredom, fear, amusement, etc.
Thus, it is concerned with the emotional impact of the reader and
generally it asks student to determine what the author did in the
plot in the text that elicit emotional responses such as happiness of
fear
b. Identification with character
Teacher’s question will elicit responses from the reader which
demonstrate her/his sympathy for, empathy with characters and
ideas portrayed by the author
 c. Reaction
It refers to respond author’s selection relates with word influence
on student’s feeling
d. Imagery
It asks students about the author techniques with the
purpose of enable student to see, smell, taste, feel things through
reading
In addition, Barrett also asserted that good reading
comprehension questions on task had divided into 3 categories as
follow:
1. Ideal
It means that the reading passage which followed by several
reading comprehension questions of higher order thinking skill
(HOTS) and lower thinking skill (LOTS) in balance number.
Higher order thinking skill here consists of evaluation and
appreciation level of Barrett. Meanwhile, lower order thinking
skill includes of literal and inference
2. Moderate
If the reading comprehension passage is followed by reading
comprehension question of HOTS (evaluation and
appreciation) and LOTS (Literal and Inferential) however those
are not in balance number. For example HOTS is higher than
LOTS or LOTS is higher than HOTS
3. Bad
It is considered bad if reading comprehension passage is
followed by reading comprehension questions of either higher
order thinking skill or lower order thinking skill

6. Process of Reading
According to Simanjuntak (1988: 7) there are three models
of the reading process. They are:
1) Bottom-up Model
Eskey in Simanjuntak (1988: 7) stated that the bottom-up model of
the reading process is that “Reading is a precise process involving
exact, detailed, sequential perceptions and identification of letters,
words, spelling patterns and larger language units”. This model
assumes that a reader process by moving his eyes from left to right
across the page, first taking in letters, combining these from words,
the combining the words to form the phrases, clauses, and sentence
of the text.
2) Top-down Model
The top-down model of the reading process deals with the general
notion of reading as the reconstruction of meaning based on a
skillful sampling of the text, and such specific notions as the use of
linguistic redundancy, the crucial role of prior knowledge in
prediction, and the necessity for reading at a reasonable rate in
larger, more meaningful chunks of text. This model involves an
interaction between thought and language. Efficient reading does
not result from precise perceptions and identification of all
elements, but from in selecting the fewest, most productive cues
necessary to produce guesses. According to Carell and Eisterhold
in Simanjuntak (1988: 7) stated that top-down processing occurs as
they system makes general predictions based on higher level,
general schemata and then searches the input of information. From
the above explanation, it is clear that top-down model, the process
of comprehension deals with the background knowledge to predict
the meaning of the text. It means that reader will read a text by
reading the sentences, then tries to find information by guessing
the meaning.
3) Interactive Model
According to Simanjuntak (1988: 7) says that the interactive model
of the reading process deals with a particular type of cognitive
 behavior, which is based on certain kinds of knowledge which
form a part of the readers cognitive structure.

7. Type of Reading
According to Brown (2004: 189) stated that there are four
types of reading, those are:
a. Perceptive
This type of reading is elementary level of reading. The task
include the components such as letters, words, punctuation, and
graphic symbols. The task designed for this level are such as
reading aloud, multiple choice and picture-cued word.
b. Selective
The function of this type of reading is to ascertain recognition of
lexical, grammatical, or discourse features of language. The task
used are for instance picture-cued tasks, matching, and multiple
choices.
c. Interactive
It stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more
in which the reader must interact with the text. Typical genres for
interactive reading are anecdotes, short narratives and descriptions,
excerpts from longer texts, questioner, memos, announcements,
directions, recipes, etc.
d. Extensive
This category applies to text more than a page, including
professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories and
reports. The purpose of extensive task commonly is to tap into
learner’s global understanding of a text, as opposed to asking test-
takers to pay more attention on small details.
B. Language Testing
a. Definiton of Test
In conducting an effective Teaching Learning Process
(TLP), there are some matters that should be concerned. They are the
teacher, curriculum, syllabus, method, facility, material, class
atmosphere, test, in etc. test is one of the matters that will be focused
in this study.
There are several definitions of the test in the academic
book or research. According to Tinambunan (1988: 3), a test is a set of
questions, each of which has a correct answer, that examines usually
answer orally or in writing. Thoha (1996) stated that test is a
measurement tool that organized by questions, command, and
directions for the test to get response or answer appropriate by that
directions. According to Arifin (2002: 118) test is a technique or way
consisting of some questions, statements, or tasks that are delivered to
students in term of measuring their performance or behavior.
Moreover, Brown (2003: 3) defined test as a method of measuring a
person’s ability knowledge or performance in a given information.
Based on definitions mentioned above, the researcher
concluded that test is a method or equipment contained of questions,
commands and directions in which each of those has a correct answer
in order to gain data of test taker’s ability, knowledge and performance
in a particular given domain.

b. Purposes of Test
According to Lado (1960), the purpose of language testing
is to test control of the problem of learning a new language.
Furthermore, Mardhapi (in Fathony, 2017: 11) classified the purposes
of test as follows:
1) Understanding the level of student’s knowledge
2) Measure the development and growth of the students
 3) Diagnostic learning’s difficulties of students
4) Understanding the output of teaching process
5) Understanding the output of learning process
6) Understanding the curriculum’s reach
7) Encourage the students on study
8) Encourage the teachers to teach better

c. Types of Test
1) Types of test based on the use of measuring the students’ ability
According to Arikunto (2005:33), test is viewed from its
use in measuring the students’ ability. They are:
a) Diagnostic test
Diagnostic test is a kind of test used to identify students’
weakness in learning. Thus by knowing weakness of students,
teachers are able to give a proper treatment to develop their
learning. In addition, using diagnostic test can also help students
to be conscious about their weakness so that they can improve
their learning better.
b) Formative test
Formative test is a test that is conducted after one unit or one
lesson finished given by the teacher. So, the teacher gives a test
after one chapter or unit of lesson have been taught. By
conducting formative test, teachers can acknowledge how far
students’ understanding toward the material given. Then,
teachers can decide what they should do in the next material.
c) Summative test
Summative test is a test that is conducted after all units are
finished given by the teacher. Summative test is very related to
formative test because it is included unit of formative test
material. This test is conducted at the end of semester.
Summative test is used to determine whether students’ succes in
 education, because the material of the test is all of the units that
have been discussed throughout one semester.

d. Types of Test Item

Djiwandono (2011: 64) divided the types of test item into
two major categories, those are objective and subjectives.
1) Objective test
The test can be called objective if the answers of the test have only
one correct answer as a key of the test item. In this test, students
must choose the correct answer from some choices which provided
by the teacher. Heaton (1988: 25) state that objective test ia a form
that questioning which has correct single answer. According to
Arifin (2009), there are four kinds of objective test that most
common use:
a) True-False
Louis and Marilyn (1978: 425) stated that True False is simply a
declarative statement which the students must judge as true or
false. Besides, Brown and Hudson, in their book :requires
students to respond to the language by selecting one of two
choices, for instance, between true or false or between correct or
incorrect.
Examples:
T F A whale is mammals animal
C I The students learns English diligently
b) Multiple Choice
The multiple choice is the most popular type of test that widely
used in many kinds of different subject test. it consists of two
parts: (1) the steam, which state the prolem, and (2) list of
option, one of them is to be selected as the correct answer (Louis
and Marilyn, 1978:425).
Example:
 John : Can I borrow your pen, please?
Kyle :........., but I only have one
a. No problem c. I’m sorry
b. Sure d. Yes, you can
c) Completion
The completion item is a written statement which requires the
test to supply the correct word or short phrase in responses to an
incomplete sentences, a question or a word association.
Complete the following text with the correct answer!
Attention please,
We invite you to participate in our school’s first (1)............ Each
class should be (2)............. by at least one group consisting of
five students. Remember, you should enroll your group to Ms.
Fatma before January (3)............ The contest will be held on the
January the twenty eighth. For (4)............, please read the
pamflet attached on the (5)...........
a. Further information
b. Drama contest
c. Twentieth
d. Represented
e. Announcement board
d) Matching
The matching item commonly appears in a two column format
although variations on this format can be used. The two columns
of a matching item are commonly called the premises and the
responses. Matching items involves students to develop their
understanding about the relationship among the items.
Mardapi (in Fathony, 2017: 12) said that form matching or
pairing are consist of a premise, a list answers possibility, and a
directions to match the each of premises with the one of
possibility answer.
 Example:
Match professions on the collumn A to their work on column B
A B
1. Nurse a. He/She arrests the criminals
2. Teacher b. He/She take care patient
3. Police c. He/She teaches the students
4. ... d. ...

2) Subjective test
Subjective test is the test that the scoring is subjective only, it is
impossible that the scoring can be objective. In subjective test, the
students have to answer based on their knowledge which they got
using their words to their writing. The teacher will score the test
based on students’ answer and of course the scoring will depend on
the teacher’s perspective.
The characteristic of the questions usually begin with: why,
how, conclude, mention, explain, describe, etc. The students’ answer
will not only focus on whether it is true or false, but it depends of
complete or incomplete the answer is. By conducting subjective test,
teacher can measure and determine how far and deep students’
mastery over material given by teacher.
There are four kinds of subjective test, they are:
a) Essay test
Essay test is a form of question that demand of students’
answer in front of description of their own language (Suwandi,
2009: 47). In the type of this test, rather than choice the correct
answer, the students supply their answer themselves. The
students are given freedom to express and answer the question,
which can be in the form of descriptive or argumentative.
Example:
 What is your opinion about home schooling? Please explain
your opinion briefly!
b) Test using question word
This test consists of questions which stated with question
word.
Example:
Which one should Andy choose?
c) Short answer test
The test is consisting of items which design used question
word, generally used Wh Question words.
Examples:
When is Ana birthday?
Where will the students go on June eighth?

C. Text Type/Genre
According to Anderson & Anderson (1997: 1) in Atika: 2017, based on
generic structure and language feature dominantly used, texts are divided
into several types. They are narrative, recount, descriptive, report,
explanation, analytical, exposition, hortatory exposition, procedure
discussion, review, anecdote, spoof, and news item. These variation are
known as genre.
1. Narrative
The purpose is to amuse or entertain the readers and to tell a story.
Generic structures are orientation, complication, resolution and
reorientation. Dominant language features are past tense, action verb
and chronological arranged.
2. Recount
The purpose is to retell something that happened in the past and to tell
a series of past event. Generic structure are orientation, events and re-
 orientation. Language features usually are past tense, action verb and
adjective.
3. Descriptive
The purpose is to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
Dominant generic structure are identification and description.
Language features are simple present tense, action verb, adverb and
special technical terms.
4. Report
The purpose is to present information about something. Generic
structures are general identification and description. Language features
are introducing group or general aspect, using conditional logical
connection and using simple present tense.
5. Explanation
The purpose is to explain the process involved in the information or
working of natural or socio-cultural phenomenon. Generic structure are
general statement, explanation and closing. Dominant language
features are using simple present tense, action verb, passive voice,
noun phrase, adverbial phrase, technical terms, general and abstract
noun and conjunction of time and cause-effect.
6. Analytical Exposition
The purpose is to reveal the readers that something is the important
case. Generic structure are thesis, argument and reorientation or
conclusion. Language features are using modals, action verb, thinking
verbs, adverbs, adjective, technical terms, general and abstract noun
and connectives transition.
7. Hortatory Exposition
The purpose is to persuade the readers that something should or should
not be the case or be done. Generic structure are thesis, arguments and
recommendation. Dominant language features are using simple present
tense, modals, action verbs, thinking verbs, adverbs, adjective,
technical terms, general and abstract noun and connectives/transition.
8. Procedure
The procedure is to help readers how to do or make something
completely. Generic structure are goal/aim, materials and steps.
Dominant language features are using simple present tense,
imperatives sentence, adverb and technical terms.
9. Discussion
The purpose is to present information and opinions about issues in
more one side of an issue. Generic structure are issue, argument for
and against, and conclusion. dominant language features are using
simple present tense, use of relating verb/ to be, thinking verb, general
and abstract noun, conjunction transition, modality and adverb of
manner.

10. Review
The purpose is to critique or evaluate an art work or event for a public
audience. Dominant generic structures orientation, evaluation,
interpretative recount, evaluation and evaluate summation. Dominant
language features are focus on specific participants, using objective,
long and complex clauses and methapor.
11. Anecdote
The purpose is to share with others an account of an unusual or
amusing incident. Generic structures are abstract, orientation, crisis,
reaction and coda. Language features are using exclamations,
rhetorical question or intensifiers, material process and temporal
conjunctions.
12. Spoof
The purpose is to tell an event a humorous twist and entertain the
readers. Generic structure are orientation, events and twist. Dominant
language features are using past tense, action verb, adverb and
chronologically arranged.
13. New Item
 The purpose is to inform readers about event of the day which are
considered newsworthy or important. Dominant generic structures are
short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline, using
action verb, saying verbs and adverbs of time, place and manner.
In this study, the researcher will be analyze the genre that should be
taught to the eight year of Junior High School based on syllabus
curriculum, namely; narrative, descriptive and recount.

D.Textbook
1. Definition of Textbook
Textbook is the most frequently used of all printed educational
materials. In such case, textbooks are only used as the supplementary
material. However, the teachers select textbooks and use them in their
classes (Ur, 1991). In other words, in some situation, textbook is used
selectively and it is used to as supplementary materials in the English
course program. Therefore, it is important to clarify the definition on
what it is called as a textbook.
Textbook is a book giving instruction in a subject, used especially
in schools, etc. according to Thomson, “the textbook is a stimulus or
instrument for teaching and learning. Mudzakir (2014) stated that a
textbook is complemented with student work. As he mentioned in his
journal, textbook along with many other names is commonly used by
educational institution or school and is usually provided with exercise
and teaching materials.
The standard of students works in a textbook or course book usually
suitable with students knowledge competence, as Cunningsworth
describe, that a published textbook has commonly passed several
qualification test from publisher in a controlled pilot studies before it is
released to public. In line with Cunningworth’s statement above,
Gebhard implied that a minimum an exercise in EFL/ESL textbook
 created by publishing companies, government agencies, curriculum
development teams at the school labels, and classroom teacher.
Based on the definitions above, it is important for teachers to use a
textbook when they teach a particular subject in order to help them
when they conduct teaching and learning activities as well as to reach
educational purposes.

2. The Functional of Textbook

A good textbook is very crucial for both teacher and student. For
teacher, it serves as guide for each lesson. Textbook for language
learning consists of several chapters. Each chapter will discuss
different type and level of language skill. This will help both student
and teacher focus on materials they will teach or learn. Textbook not
only can provided general ideas for teacher to develop activities
suitable for every topic, but also give brief view for student on what
they should expect for next learning session and at the same time serve
as their reference for practices.
Richard stated that in certain situation, textbook is a form of teacher
training as they give guidelines for ideas and plans on teaching format
that teacher can use. As for students textbook provides as source of
contact with the language they learning apart from teacher’s input
As a resource in achieving aims and objectives that have been set in
terms of learners need, Cunningsworth listed few roles textbook can
serve as in ELT;
a. A resource for presentation material (spoken and written)
b. A source of activities for learner practice and communicative
interaction
c. A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, etc.
d. A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom language activities
 e. A syllabus (where it reflects learning objectives which have
already been determined)
f. A resource for self-directed or self-access work
g. A support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in
confidence
It can be concluded that a textbook can help both teacher and
learner to reach their aims and adjectives in language learning, but
to the extent where the textbook serve them to reach the goals. “it
is generally accepted that the role of course book is to be at the
service of teachers and learners but not to be their master.

3. The important of Textbook

According to Fauziati (2010: 208), the important of textbook are:
a. Without textbook, learners think their learning is not taken
seriously.
b. In many situations, a tetxtbook can serve as a syllabus
c. It provides ready made teaching text and learning task.
d. It is cheap way of providing learning materials.
e. Without it, learner will be out of focus and teacher dependent
f. For novice teachers a textbook means security guidance and
support.

4. Textbook Evaluation Criteria

Cunningsworth (1995) stated that adopting new textbooks and finding
strengthsand weakness are the main reason for textbook evaluation. If
textbooks have any weak points, they will be strengthened after the
evaluation by using the supplementary materials to fulfill the missing
points. The evaluation mostly relates to a set of criteria which can be
applied with different textbooks, and it is useful for teacher in
developing materials and understanding the nature of textbook.
Cunningsworth also proposed the following criteria for textbook
evaluation. First, the should correspond with learner’s needs and match
the aims and objectives of the language-learning program. Aims and
objectives can represent learner’s need in language content and
communicative abilities and should determine which material are used.
It is essential that textbooks help learners in developing and taking
them to their goals efficiently. Therefore, textbook content should
correspond to learner’s needs in terms of language items, skills and
communicative strategies.
Second, they should reflect the uses (present or future) which learners
will make of the language. The chosen textbooks will help to equip
learners to use language effectively for their own purposes. The course
should have a cler view of what learners need to learn and practice for
the use language in personal, professional, academic, and other
relevant situations. The most proper textbooks for learner will reflect
the language content, language skill and pattern of language that
learners need.
Third, they should take into account of learner’s needs and should
facilitate their learning process, without dogmatically imposing a rigid
method. Textbooks assist learners to select items to be learned, for
example, grammar, functions, and skills, and divide them into units.
Then, they order the items from familiar to unfamiliar and easy to
more difficult. Textbooks also gather some learning styles and
strategies which allow learners to choose their best and most suitable
style of learning. Interesting textbooks with varied topics, well
presented, and lively can create motivation in teachers and learners.
Teachers can also motivate learners by encouraging and helping them
to realize how much progresss they have made.
Finally, they should have a clear roles as a support for learning. Like
teachers, the mediate between the target language and the learner.
Textbook supports learners in many ways, especially the models of
English which suit learners’ competence by providing exercises and
activities to promote the use of English. Textbooks also support
teacher by giving a ready-made presentation material for a variety of
topics, reading texts, listening passages, or dialogues accompanied
with exercises and activities.
According to Tomlison (2003), an agreement of opinion on featueres
of language learning materials is useful in textbook evaluation. Based
on Tomlison’s conception of effective language teaching
materials,”good textbooks should help learners feel at ease and attract
learner’s curiosity, interest and attention. The layout of a textbooks
presentatation, tasks, activities, text and illustrations should be learner
friendly so that they feel comfortable when learning and seeing
textbooks”(pp. 21-22)
Not only is the physical appereance important, but the content should
exposes learners to aunthentic language use, Tomlison (2003). That is
to say, textbooks which are written in aunthentic language or in what
native speakers use are more interesting, motivating and challenging.
The contexts of textbooks should be relevant and useful for what
learners need and what they want to learn to bring learners’ confidence
by providing activities and exercises they can cope with and providing
them with a chance to use the target language. Therefore, learners can
interact with others learners when learning by using target language to
achieve communicative purposes.
Tasks and activities should cover a range of learning style since
learners have different styles in learning and should maximize learning
potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional activities
to stimulate the right and left brain activities.
In fact, there are many criteria that can be used in evaluating
textbooks, Cunningworths (1995) state that “different criteria will be
applied in different circumtances and the set of checklist should be
 made by using several checklist based on one’s concerns priorities”
(p.2).

5. Rubric Assessment for Textbook

BSNP itself has released an evaluation process in Pusbukur in
form of a rubric assessment to evaluate the properness and also the
suitability of a textbook. The rubric assessment from BSNP is
designed to qualitatively describe and assess any content related
items and materials in a textbook then quantitatively coding it.
According to Puskurbuk, these are instruments in evaluating a
curriculum 2013 textbook:
a. Feasibility of Content.

This feasibility of content is a group of assessment about the

content of the textbook. The feasibility content includes three
measurements which are compatibility of materials with (KI)
and (KD), the accuracy of materials, and the last supporting
materials.

1. The Compatibility of materials with (KI) and (KD)

In this criteria of feasibility of content which is compatible
with KI and KD the criteria was divided into two sub criteria
which is Completeness and In-Depth.

a. Completeness (Kelengkapan Materi)

In completeness criteria, textbook is expected to expose students
to understand and produce both interpersonal and interactional
conversation whether in spoken or written to help them interact
in contextual and themed situations along with many other
characteristic, religious and aesthetic values included.
b. In-Depth (Kedalaman Materi)
 In this criteria, textbook are expected to fulfill several point of
In- Depth or (kedalaman materi). The first is exposure or
(pajanan) which means that the textbook are expected to expose
student with as many kinds of text that relevant with students’
daily life in order to help them get used to any kinds of texts as
possible. Then, text retention (retensi pembentukan teks) means
that textbook should guide students in understanding the social
function, structure of text, and linguistic features. The last is
Production (produksi) textbook which should be able to guide
students in every step in producing both verbal and written text.

2. The accuracy of the materials.

In this criteria of feasibility of content which is the

accuracy of the materials, the criteria was divided into three sub
criteria which is Social function, Generic structure and Linguistic
feature.

a. Social Function (Fungsi sosial)

In this criterion, the text provided in the textbook or the exercises
given from the textbook that have been done by the students
are expected to have values in social function in its relation
with students daily life either in interpersonal or interactional.
b. Generic Structure (Unsur dan Struktur Makna)
In this criteria, the text provided in the textbook or the exercises
given from the textbook that have been done by the students
are expected to give the students an insight and ideas to think
systematically in doing exercise or producing it in daily life.
c. Linguistic Feature (Fitur Linguistik)
In this criteria, the text provided in the textbook or the exercises
given from the textbook that have been done by the students
are expected to be understandable and fulfill the norm and
 characteristic values of a good communications in students
daily life.

3. Supporting materials.
In this criteria of feasibility of content which is supporting
materials, the criteria was divided into three sub criteria which are
Up-to-Datedness, Development of life skills and Development of
Diversity Insight.

a. Up-to-Datedness
In this criteria, every item in supporting the materials and
exercise provided within the textbook (Tables, Pictures, Texts,
References) should be taken from a relevance and newest sources
available.
b. Development of Life Skills
In this criterion, every text and communicative exercise and task
available within textbook should motivate students toward a
good personalities that concern about social, academic and
vocational life.

a. Diversity Insight
In this criterion, every text and communicative exercise and task
available within textbook should motivate students toward a good
citizen that concern, understand and appreciate the multicultural
diversity.

b. Feasibility of Language.

This feasibility of language is a group of assessment about the

content of the textbook. The feasibility language included three
measurements are the compatibility with student’s development,
communicative and the coherency and the integrity of idea.
1. The compatibility with student’s
development.
In this criterion of feasibility of language which is
compatible with student’s development was divided into two sub
criteria which are Compatibility with students’ intellectual level and
Compatibility with student emotional level.

a. Compatibility with student Intellectual level.

In this criterion, any kinds of language used both in exercise and
describing concept of teaching of tables, pictures or abstract
illustrations should be matched with student’s intellectual level
(can be imaginatively understandable for students).
b. Compatibility with student Emotional level.
In this criterion, any kinds of language used either in exercising
and describing concept of teaching of tables, pictures or abstract
illustrations should be matched with student’s emotional level
from local to global context.

2. Communicative.
In this criterion of feasibility of language which is
Communicative, the criterion was divided into two sub criteria
which are Readability of message and The Accuracy of language
uses.

a. Readability of message
In this criterion, any kinds of language used both in exercise and
describing concept of teaching used as effectively as
possible and minimizing ambiguities of message so students
will be motivated in learning.
b. Accuracy of Language uses
In this criterion, any kinds of language used both in exercise and
describing concept of teaching used as effectively as
 possible and consistent in language uses so students will be
motivated in learning.
3. The Coherency and the Integrity of idea
In this criteria of feasibility of language which is the
coherency and the integrity of idea, the criteria was divided into two
sub criteria which are Coherency of the Chapter and Coherency of
the paragraph.
a. Coherency of Paragraph.
In this criterion, the language delivering of text, picture and
illustration of paragraph in the textbook displayed in a well
arranged and systematical manner in order to create a coherent
and cohesive paragraph.
b. Coherency of Chapter.
In this criterion, the language delivering of text, picture and
illustration between each chapter are close in understanding from
one to another. Therefore, it would create a logic and
systematical arrangement.

c. Feasibility of Presentation.

This feasibility of presentation is a group of assessment about

the presentation of the textbook. The feasibility presentation included
three measurements are Technique of presentation, Learning
Presentation and Completeness of Presentation.

1. Technique of presentation.

In this criteria of feasibility of presentation which is

technique of presentation, the criteria was divided into two sub
criteria which are Systematic and Chapter Equilibrium.

a. Systematic
In this criterion, textbook are expected to be systematic in
delivering a chapter, starting with introduction, body and after
 that closing in order for students to be encouraged in learning
from the book.
b. Chapter Equilibrium
In this criterion, textbook are expected to deliver the content of a
chapter as equal as possible started from the number of pages,
exercise generated within every chapter and also illustration that
equal within every content of chapter.

2. Learning presentation.

In this criteria of feasibility of presentation which is

technique of presentation, the criteria was divided into four sub
criteria which are Learner Center, Developing of Initiative,
Creativity, and learners' critical thinking, The Development of
self-Reliance students and the last The Development of Learners'
ability to evaluate themselves.

a. Learner Center
In this criterion, textbook are expected to make students as the
subject of learning so that autonomous learning will occurs. The
materials and exercises are supposed to be attractive and
interactive at the same time.
b. Developing of Initiative, Creativity, and learners' critical thinking
In this criterion, textbook are expected make students to be
motivated and creative so when they use the textbook they will
be skeptical about “how, why, where, when etc”. It will make
students to be comprehensively motivated to learn more.
c. The Development of self-Reliance students
In this criterion, textbook are expected to make students curious
and autonomous on what they learn, expecting them to analyze
what they learn so than they will encouraged toward
discovering new things and knowledge.
 d. The Development of Learners' ability to evaluate themselves
In this criterion, textbook are expected to encourage students to
evaluate themselves, to see how far they have learned from a
chapter, and to review the lesson learned from a chapter. It will
encourage them to develop their understanding toward the
relevance with every exercises or text within textbook.

3. Completeness of presentation.

In this criteria of feasibility of presentation which is

Completeness of presentation, the criteria was divided into three sub
criteria which are Introduction part, Content part and Closing part.

a. Introduction part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
introduction part of a textbook which consists of the Preface and
table of content of the textbook.
b. Content part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
content part which consists of introduction, illustrations (tables,
picture etc), summary along with self reflection, and the last is
exercises.
c. Closing part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
closing part which consists of Glossary, References and Indexes.

The rubric assessment from BSNP is a whole book

analysis. This rubric assessment assesses the accurateness and
appropriateness of a content of textbook in delivering teaching
materials, the technique of presenting, the relation of every
chapter and social benefits from a textbook.

E. Previous Related Study

 Firstly, the journal by Elan Fitria et al (2014) entitled “An
Analysis of Reading Comprehension Questions in Textbook “English Texts
in Use and Look Ahead” for Senior High School Grade X”. This research
aimed at assessing of the forms of reading comprehension questions
provided in textbooks, the level comprehension questions covered in
textbooks, and the relationship between forms and levels of question in
textbook “English Text in Use and Look Ahead” for senior high school
grade X. the data are about forms and levels of questions that analyze based
on theory Widdowson and Barrette’s Taxonomy. The data of this research
are all the questions in each sub/topic of textbooks of “English Texts in Use
and Look Ahead”. There are 389 reading questions as the data those are
consists of 244 questions in “English Text in Use” and 145 in “Look
Ahead”. In order to have the readability in the result of the analysis, three
evaluators were employed to evaluate the reading questions of textbooks.
The similarities of this research is from one of theory used by Barrette’s
taxonomy. And the differences are form the other theory used by
Widdowson, from object of the research and data analysis of the research.
Secondly, the researcher arranged by Dian Novita entitled “An
Analysis of Reading Comprehension Questions Made by English Teacher at
SMAN 2 Sidoarjo based on Barrett’s Taxonomy. This research aimed to
analyze the reading comprehension questions on final test made by English
teacher reflect criteria of Barrette’s taxonomy and what level dominant
found it. The result of this study showed the lower level (literal and
inference) dominated than the higher level (evaluation and appreciation).
There were 40 literal question types (29%), 87 were inferential question
types (64%), 8 were evaluation (6%) and 2 were appreciation level of
questions (1%). The similarities of this research on the theory Barrette’s
taxonomy. And the differences are the object analysis this research used
English textbook to analyze reading comprehension question. In her
research analysis reading comprehension question by made English teacher.
 Thirdly, the research arranged by Candra (2014) entitled
“The Classification of Reading Comprehension Questions in the Senior
High School Textbook Entitled “English” Using Barrette’s taxonomy. The
objectives of the study are to find out: 1) The levels of reading
comprehension based on Barrette’s taxonomy in the English textbook
entitled “English”, and 2) The percentage of the occurrence of each of the
levels of reading comprehension questions based on Barrette’s taxonomy in
the English textbook entitled “English”. The similarities of this research is
from the analysis of reading comprehension questions question based on
Barrette’s taxonomy theory. And the differences are the object of the
research and the data analysis of the research.