Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
energía eólica, solar, mareomotriz, geotérmica, biomasa e hidráulicas hasta los 20 MW. (mini
hidráulicas)
The p-n Juction
As long as a solar cell is exposed to photons with energies above the band-gap energy,
hole-electron pairs will be created. The problem is, of course that those electrons can fall right
back into a hole, causing both charge carriers to disappear. To avoid that recombination, electrons
in the conduction band must continuously be swept away from holes. In PVs this is accomplished
by creating a built-in electric field with the semiconductor itself that pushes electrons in one
direction and holes in the other. To create the electric field, two regions are established with the
crystal. On one side of the dividing line separating the regions, pure(intrinsic) silicon is purposely
contaminated with very small amounts of a trivalent element from column III of the periodic chart;
on the other side, pentavalent atoms from column V are added.
Low band gap gives more current with less voltage while high band gap results in less
current and higher voltage. Since power is the product of current and voltage, there must
be some middle-ground band gap, usually estimated to be between 1.2eV and 1.8eV,
which will result in the highest power and efficiency.
q∗Vd
k∗T
Id=Io (e −1)
Id is the diode current in the direction of the arrow (A, Vd is th voltage across the diode
terminals from the p-side to the n-side (V), Io is the reverse saturation current (A), q is the
electron charge (1,602 * 10^-19 C), k is Boltzmann’s constant (1,381 * 10^-23 J/K), and T
is the junction temperature (K).
q∗Vd
Id=Io (e k∗T∗ A −1)
While Shockley diode equation is appropriate for our purposes, it should be noted that in
some circumstances it is modified with an “ideality factor” A, which accounts for different
mechanisms responsible for moving carriers across the junction.
,where the ideality factor A is 1 if the transport process is purely diffusion, and A=2
if is primarily recombination in the depletion region.
Another quantity that is often used to characterize module performance is the fill
factor (FF). The fill factor is the ratio of the power at the maximum power point to the
product of Voc and Isc, so FF can be visualized as the ratio of two rectangular areas, as is
suggested in Fig. 8.35. Fill factors around 70%-75% for crystalline silicon solar modules
are typical, while for multijunction amorphous- Si modules, it is closer to 50-60%
Blocking diodes
Bypass diodes help current go around a shaded or malfunctioning module within a
string. This not only improves the string performance, but also prevents hot spots from
developing in individual shaded cells. When strings of modules are wired in parallel, a
similar problem may arise when one of the strings is not performing well. Instead of
supplying current to the rest of array, a malfunction or shaded string can withdraw current
from the rest of the array.
By placing blocking diodes (also called isolation diodes) at the top of each
string, the reverse current drawn by a shaded string can be prevented.
Solar radiation
Radiation originating from the sun, in the 0.3 to 3 um wavelength spectrum.
Solar spectrum
Distribution of solar radiation intensity as a function of wavelength or frequency
Global radiation
The sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation (i.e aggregate radiation originating
from the Sun), arriving at a level surface.
Global irradiance (G).
Power density (power/area) of the global radiation arriving at a plane [W/m2]
Irradiation (H)
Energy density (energy/area) of the global radiation arriving at a plane within a
certain time interval, calculated by integration of irradiance G over this time interval.
Common time intervals are: one year (a), one month (mt), one day (d) or one hour (h)
[kWh/m2] ; [MJ/m2]
Pyranometer
Instrument for measuring global radiation (global irradiance G) on a level surface
over the whole wavelength range between approx. 0.3 and 3 um. Based on the
thermoelectric principle, pyranometers are highly accurate but expensive instruments that
are mainly used by wheather
PV Terminology
Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
Silicon that has solidified into atoms arranged in a crystal lattice, i.e crystals.
Moncrystalline silicon (sc-Si, mono-c-Si)
Silicon that has solidified into a single large crystal. Production of this substance in
very energy intensive and pulling of the single crystal is time consuming.
Polycristalline or multicristalline silicon (mc-Si)
Silicon that has solidified into many small crystals (crystallites) in any orientation.
Energy consumption for production is significantly lower than for monocrystalline silicon.
Polycrystalline and multicrystalline are often used as synonyms, although in some cases a
distinction is made between the raw material (polycrystalline silicon) and the material used
for producing solar cells after the silicon is cast into ingots and sliced into wafers.
Solar cell
Semiconductor diode with a large barrier layer exposed to light, which generates
electrical energy directly when sunlight strikes it.
Solar module
A number of galvanically connected solar cells (usually connected in series)
arranged in a casing to protect against environmental influences.
Solar panel
A unit consisting of several mechanically joined solar modules (often pre-wired)
that are delivered pre-assembled and are used for configuring larger solar generators. In
technical jargon, solar panel is often incorrectly used as a synonym for solar module.
Solar generator (array)
A series of solar panels or solar modules that are arranged on a mounting rack and
wired to each other (including the mounting rack)
Solar generator field (array field)
An arrangement of several interconnected solar generators, which together feed a
PV system.
PV system, PV installation
Aggregate components used for direct conversion of the energy contained in solar
radiation into electrical energy.
Grid
Open-circuit voltage Voc: output voltage of a solar cell or solar module in open-circuit
condition (no current), at a specific irradiance G and cell temperature.
Short-circuot current Isc: current in a short-circuited solar cell or solar module, i.e with
output voltage 0 V, at a specific irradiance G and cell temperature.
Standard test conditions(STC): usual test conditions, as
Irradiancia
Eficiencia
TECNOLOGÍA ACTUAL
Cilindro cerrado
Reflectores Fresnel
Disco Stirling
Calor-eléctrico
Hacer sims comsol
generador de impulsos
control reactivo
inversor pv
Statcom
Inversor de superficie 31
Monte Carlo
DINÁMICA TORSIONAL
Convertidor intermitente
Potencia de pulso
13 serán DVR
.- The OSI model framework specifically and clearly defines the functions
or services that have to be provided at each of the seven layers (or
LEVELS).
.- The actual functions within each layer are probided by ENTITIES which
are abstract devices, such as programs, functions , or protocols, that
implement the services for a particular layer on a single machine. A
layer may habe more than one entity- for example a protocol entity and
a management entity.
Entities in adjacent layers interact through the common upper and lower
boundaries by passing physical information through service access
points (SAPs) A SAP could be compared to a predefined 'postbox ' where
one layer would collect data from the previous layer.
Typically, each layer in the transmitting site, with the exception of the
lowest, adds header information, or protocol control information (PCI), to
the data before passing it through the interface between adjacent
layers.
The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower
layer offers to the upper one. The headers are used to establish the P2P
sessions across the sites and some layer implementations use the
headers to invoke functions and services at the N+1 or N_1 adjacent
layer.
At the tx, the user invokes the system by passing data, primitive names
and control info. physically to the highest layer of the protocol stack. The
system then passes the data physically down through the seven layers,
adding headers (and possibly trailers), and invoking functions in
accordance with the rules of the protocol. At each level, this combined
data and header ''packet' is termed a PROTOCOL DATA UNIT or PDU. At
the receiving site, the opposite occurs with the headers being stripped
from the data as it is passed up through the layers.
These header and control messages invoke services and a P2P logical
interaction of entities across the sites. Generally, layers in the same site
communicate with parameters passed through primitives, and peer
layers across sites communicate with the use of the PCI, or header.
Transport layer
.- Provides services for the session layer above it, and uses the network
layer below it to find a route between source and destination. The
transport layer is crucial in many ways, because it sits between the
upper layers (which are strongly application-dependent) and the lower
ones (which are network-based).
The layers below the transport layer are collectively known as the
SUBNET LAYERS. Depending on how well (or not) they perform their
function, the transport layer has to interfere less (or more) in order to
maintain a reliable connection.
TP1 (transfer protocol class 1): it assumes a type B subnet; that is, one
that may be unreliable. To deal with this, TP1 provides its own error
detection, along with, along with facilities for getting the sender to
retransmit any erroneous
The network layer is the third lowest layer, or the uppermost subnet
layer. It is responsible for the following tasks:
.- connectionless or
.- connection-oriented communication
The data is processed and transmitted using the data link layer
below the network layer. Responsibility for guaranteeing proper
delivery of the PACKETS lies with the transport layer, which uses
network layer services
5.
.- The IEEE (802.x) networking working groups have refined the data link
layer into two sub layers:
The LCC sub layer must provide an interface for the network layer
protocols, and control the logical COM. With its peer at the receiving
side. The MAC sub layer must provide access to a particular physical
encoding and transport scheme.
.- Lowest layer in the OSI reference model. This layer gets data packets
from the data link layer above it, and converts the contents of the
packets into a series of electrical signals that represent 0 and 1 values in
a digital transmission. These signals are sent across a tx medium to the
phy layer at the receiving end. At the destination, the phy layer converts
the electrical signals into a series of bit values. The values are grouped
into packets and passed up to the data link layer.
Application
Provision of network services TO the user's application programas. Note: the user's
actual application programs do NOT reside here.
Presentation
Maps the data representations into an external data format tha will enable correct
interpretation of receipt. The mapping can also possibly include ENCRYPTION
and/or COMPRESSION of data
Session
Control of the communications between the users. This includes the grouping
together of messages and the coordination of DATA TRANSFER between grouped
layers. It also affects checkpoint for (transparente) recovery of aborted sessions.
Transport
Network
.- routing of data
.- network addressing
Data link
Responsible for sending a frame of data from one system to another. Attempts to
ensure that errors in the received bit stream are not passed up into the rest of the
protocol stack. Error correcton and detection techniques are used here.
Physical
Defines the electrical and mechanical connections at the physical level, or the
communication channel itself. Functional responsiblities include modulation,
multiplexing and signal generation.
VOCABULARIO
Wrapper (Empaquetador)
Tipo de embalaje, como una hoja plana de papel, celofán o plástico para envolver un
objeto
Computación
Funcion wrapper: una función cuyo principal propósito es llamar a otra función.
Biblioteca wrapper:
.- Adapter, donde algunos códigos de programación permiten que ciertas clases trabajen
juntas,
Clase wrapper, término de computación que se refiere a una clase Java en P.O.O
trim: <v> recortar; ajustar; podar; adornar; orientar; equilibrar; guarnecer; componer;
orientarse; arreglar y ordenar;disponer; trepar