K
k: 1. Kilo-, the SI prefix for 10 3 . 2. Resistivity-contrast
factor 共q.v.兲. 3. A unit vector in the z-direction. 4. See
k-type section. 5. Wavenumber ␬, 共q.v.兲
K: 1. A seismic wave that has traveled through the Earth’s
outer core as a P-wave. 2. Kelvin 共q.v.兲
␬: 共kap’ ⳵兲 Kappa. 1. The ‘‘angular’’ wavenumber, 2␲
times the wavenumber. Where a distinction is made, the
wavenumber k is the number of waves per unit dis-
tance, the reciprocal of wavelength:
wavenumber⫽1/␭⫽k⫽ ␬ /2 ␲ ⫽ f /V,
where ␭⫽wavelength, f ⫽frequency, and V
⫽velocity. Thus ␬ is to wavenumber in the spatial
sense as angular frequency ␻ is to frequency f in the
time sense. Confusingly, both ␬ and k are often called
wavenumber, i.e., some authors use ␬ ⫽1/␭ instead of
the above. 2. Seismic usage often implies apparent
wavenumber k a ⫽1/␭ a , ␭ a being the apparent wave-
length and V a the apparent velocity. If this definition is
used, k a varies with the angle between the raypath and
the line of measure 共the line of the spread, usually兲.
Kalman filter: 共kal’ man兲 A recursive filtering scheme
applicable to linear systems, including time varying,
nonstationary, and multichannel ones. A system is
described by a model of first-order difference equations
involving orthogonal state variables. The errors in mea-
surements and the exciting disturbances are assumed to
be Gaussian. In the non-Gaussian case, one can use an
extended Kalman filter. The filter estimates the state
variables based on prior measurements and the state-
variable model, and incorporates the most recent mea-
surements. The Kalman filter can be used as a recursive
predictor. Kalman filtering is used in real-time reduc-
tion of integrated satellite-navigation data and in some
seismic-filtering schemes, especially deconvolution.
See Bayless and Brigham 共1970兲 and Mendel and
Kormylo 共1978兲. Named for Rudolph Emil Kalman
共1930-兲, Hungarian-American mathematician.
Kangi characters: 共kan’ jē兲 Japanese word symbols.
kappa „␬…: See ␬.
kappa meter: An instrument for measuring magnetic sus-
ceptibility. Tradename of ABEM Stockholm.
Karhunen-Loeve transform: A method of multichannel
filtering, similar to singular-value decomposition 共q.v.兲.
See Jones and Levy 共1987兲.
karst: Surface limestones that have undergone much dis-
solution by meteoric waters.
kataseism: Earth movement toward the focus of an earth-
quake. Antonym: anaseism.
K.B: Kelly Bushing 共q.v.兲.
K-band: Radar band (10.0⫺36.0 GHz) that is sensi-
tive to vegetation, used in remote sensing and Doppler-
radar. See Figure R-1.
K-capture: A nuclear transmutation wherein an electron
from the inner K orbit is taken into the nucleus to
change a proton into a neutron. The effect is to decrease
the atomic number by one, creating a different element.
199
keel structure: The root 共real or apparent兲 of an alloctho-
nous salt body that extends below the main salt body.
kelly: The unit that transfers rotary motion to drill pipe.
See drill rig.
Kelly bushing „K.B.…: The journal box insert in the rotary
table of a drilling rig through which the kelly passes.
See drill rig. Its upper surface is commonly the refer-
ence datum for well logs and other measurements in a
well bore.
kelvin „K…: 共kel’ vin兲 The SI temperature unit referenced
to absolute zero 共0 K兲 with intervals equal to the degree
celsius 共formerly called centigrade兲; 273.15 K
⫽0 °C. Note ‘‘degree’’ or the degree symbol ‘‘ⴰ’’ is not
used with K and that kelvin is not capitalized; see
Appendix A. Named for Baron William Thomson
Kelvin 共1824 –1907兲, English physicist.
Kelvin material: A material in which the stress depends
both on the strain and the rate-of-change of strain.
Kelvin’s circulation theorem: If the initial motion of a
perfect fluid is irrotational, it will remain so provided
that the only external force acting on it is derivable
from a potential.
Kepler coordinates: 共kep’ l⳵r兲 The quantities that
describe the elliptical orbit of a satellite with respect to
the celestial sphere. Navigation satellites often broad-
cast their Kepler coordinates and ephemeral informa-
tion which allows the calculation of their location at
any given instant 共see Figure K-1兲. Named for Johann
Kepler 共1571–1630兲, German astronomer.
Kepler’s laws: First law: Every planet follows an ellipti-
cal path with the Sun at one focus. Second law: A line
from the center of the Sun to the center of a planet
sweeps the same area in the same time; hence the planet
travels fastest when closest to the Sun. Third law: The
square of the period of revolution of a planet is propor-
tional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.
kernel function: 1. For any linear transform,
F共 ␰ 兲⫽ 冕 ⫺⬁
⬁
K 共 x, ␰ 兲 f 共 x 兲 dx,
K(x, ␰ ) is the ‘‘kernel.’’ 2. A mathematical function of
resistivity and depth that can be calculated from appar-
ent resistivity data, from which one tries to derive the
resistivity stratification. Koefoed 共1965, 568 –591兲
derives the kernel function for Schlumberger-
configuration data and Paul 共1968, 159–162兲 for
Wenner-configuration data. The derivation of resistivity
stratification from the kernel is shown by Pekeris
共1940兲 and Vozoff 共1956兲. The electric potential V at
the surface of a horizontally layered earth because of a
dc point-source that is also located at the surface was
expressed by Stefanesco in 1930 as a Hankel integral:
冕
V⫽C/r⫹2C K 共 ␭ 兲 J o 共 ␭r 兲 d␭.
key bed 200 k-factor

where r is the distance from the point source to the
observation point, J o (␭r) is a Bessel function, ␭ is a
phantom variable of integration, C is a constant, and
K(␭) is the kernel function. Also called Stefanesco
function.
key bed: A reflection with sufficient distinguishing char-
acteristics to make it easily identifiable for use in cor-
relations.
key punch: An electromechanical device for encoding
data on punched cards, as for input to a computer.
keyseat: Where a borehole changes direction so that the
drilling pipe rubs the side of the borehole, the effect is
to wear a groove in the borehole wall. The drill pipe
may fit in this groove but the groove may be smaller
than the couplings between units of drill pipe, making it
difficult to pull the drill pipe.
k-factor: 1. A velocity factor used in static corrections;
see Figure S-22. 2. The relationship between instrument

FIG. K-1. Kepler „astronomic… coordinates and satellite ephemeral information. ⌼ is the first line of Aires or the
vernal equinox.
kick
units and relative-gravity units.
kick: 1. Onset of a transient wave, also called break 共q.v.兲.
2. Sudden pressure change 共usually expulsion of drill-
ing fluid from the borehole兲. Can be caused by 共a兲
lowering of fluid in the borehole, 共b兲 too-rapid pulling
of drillstem or large-diameter tools, 共c兲 loss of circula-
tion in vuggy, fractured formations, or 共d兲 insufficient
mud weight because of entering an overpressured zone,
decrease in density, or dilution of drilling fluid. 3.
Sudden change in drilling-fluid pressure caused by gas
entering the drilling-fluid from a porous formation.
kick sorter: Gamma-ray spectrometer 共q.v.兲.
kill: 1. To set a trace 共or portion of a trace兲 equal to zero.
2. To suppress fluid flow from a well.
kill a well: 1. In drilling, to bring under control a well that
is threatening to blow out by taking suitable preventa-
tive measures 共e.g., to shut in the well with the blowout
preventers, increase the weight of the drilling mud,
etc.兲. 2. In production, to stop a well from producing oil
or gas so that reconditioning of the well can proceed.
kilometer „km…: 共kil’ ō mē t⳵r is SI preferred, but kil om’
⳵ t⳵r is more common兲 1000 meters.
kimberlite pipe: A more-or-less vertical ultramafic intru-
sion that originates about 150 km deep and often is only
a few hundred meters in diameter. Sometimes contains
diamonds.
K-index: A measure of the average intensity of magnetic
disturbances in time, such as magnetic storms, but
excluding diurnal and lunar time variations.
kinematic: 共kin, ⳵ mat’ ik兲 Involving motion, sometimes
in contrast to dynamic, which involves force. Kinemat-
ics is the study of motion exclusive of mass and force.
Seismically it implies time and velocity effects.
kinematic inversion: Solution of traveltime observations
for velocity.
kinematic restoration: A balanced section 共q.v.兲 for
which there is a sequence of intermediate stages
between undeformed and deformed states that are kine-
matically reasonable. Ideally the reconstruction should
be three-dimensional.
kinematic similarity: The ratio of times in physical mod-
eling. See modeling theory.
kinetic: Relating to motion. For example, kinetic energy is
energy because of motion.
King Hubbert curves: See Hubbert curves.
Kirchhoff diffraction equation: 共kerkh’ hof兲 A form of
Kirchhoff’s equation 共q.v.兲 expressing the wave ampli-
tude at a point P that is several wavelengths from a
diffracting aperture; see Figure K-2.
Kirchhoff’s equation: 1. An integral form of the wave
equation expressing the wave function ␺ p at the point P
as the sum of wave contributions from the surround-
ings. Wave contributions have to allow for the travel-
time from the sources to P, that is, what the source does
at an earlier time ␶ ⫽(t⫺r/V) affects P at time t,
where r is the distance from the source to P and V is the
velocity. The earlier time ␶ is called retarded time. ␺ p
is expressed as an integral over the volume surrounding
P 共to accommodate sources within the volume兲 plus an
integral over the surface surrounding the volume 共to
accommodate sources from outside兲. In source-free
space in terms of the values of ␺ and its derivative on a
surrounding surface S at the preceding time (t
⫺r/V):
201 kitchen, hydrocarbon
␺ p ⫽ 共 1/4 ␲ 兲 冕冕 兵 关 ␺ 兴 ⳵共 1/r 兲 /⳵n
⫺ 共 1/Vr 兲 ⳵r/⳵n 关 ⳵␺ /⳵t 兴 ⫺ 共 1/r 兲关 ⳵␺ /⳵n 兴 其 ds.
The terms in brackets are evaluated at the retarded time
␶ ⫽(t⫺r/V); r is the distance from P to points on the
surface S, and n is a unit vector normal to S. The
Kirchhoff integral equation used in migration can be
written
冕
␺ 共 x,z,t 兲 ⫽ 共 z/ ␲ 兲 关 1/r 3
⫺ 共 2/Vr 2 兲共 ⳵/⳵t 兲 ␺ 共 x ⬘ ,0,t⫹ ␶ 兲兴 dx ⬘ ,
where x ⬘ is position at z⫽0, ␶ is the two-way time
2r/V, and r is the distance from x ⬘ to x. For r much
longer than a wavelength this simplifies to the
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld approximation,
冕
␺ p 共 x,T,t 兲 ⫽⫺ 共 2T/ ␲ V 2 兲 共 1/T2 兲
⫻ 共 ⳵/⳵t 兲 ␺ 共 x ⬘ ,0,t⫹T 兲 dx ⬘ ,
where T⫽2z/V⫽vertical traveltime. This expresses
migration by integration along a diffraction curve. 2.
The radiation law that the ratio of emissivity to absorp-
tance depends only on the wavelength and temperature,
or that it is the same for all bodies as for an ideal
blackbody for any wavelength at the given temperature.
Kirchhoff’s law: First law: The vector sum of all cur-
rents into any junction point is zero. Second law: The
vector sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.
Kirchhoff’s laws apply to three-dimensional materials
such as earth as well as to conventional electrical cir-
cuits. Named for Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 共1824 –
1887兲, German physicist.
Kirchhoff migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 by integrating
along diffraction curves, in effect integrating with the
Kirchhoff equation 共q.v.兲 and placing the results at the
crests of the diffraction curves. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 327–329兲.
kiss: Two curves or surfaces touching each other; oscula-
tion. Also called a kiss singularity.
kitchen, hydrocarbon: See hydrocarbon:kitchen.
FIG. K-2. The Kirchhoff diffraction equation expresses
the wave amplitude at a point P that is several wave-
lengths from a diffracting aperture in the plane B. If a
and b are the angles between the normal to B, the ampli-
tude ␾ at P can be expressed as an integral over
the aperture area, ␴ : ␾ P ⫽⫺(1/2␭) 兰兰 (1/rs)(cos ␣
⫺cos ␤)exp[j(r⫹s)/␭]d␴ .
␬-␬ domain
␬-␬ domain: A wavefield in which the independent vari-
ables are wavenumber in the x-direction and wavenum-
ber in the z-direction 共depth兲. Similar to the f, k domain
except with the frequency variable replaced by ␬ V/2 ␲
where V⫽velocity.
Klauder wavelet: 共klau’ d⳵r兲 The autocorrelation of a
vibroseis sweep. The vibroseis 共q.v.兲 process of inject-
ing a sweep of frequencies into the ground and then
correlating with the sweep pattern to yield a seismic
record is equivalent to convolving the reflectivity with
the autocorrelation of the vibroseis sweep, so that the
Klauder wavelet is in effect the seismic source wave-
form for correlated vibroseis records. It is not restricted
to linear sweeps because a nonlinear sweep can be
thought of as the superposition of linear sweeps. Named
for John Rider Klauder 共1932–兲, American mathemati-
cian.
knick point: An abrupt change in the gradient of a gen-
erally smooth stream profile. The stream cuts headward,
moving the knick point upstream.
knot: One nautical mile/hour⫽1.1508 statute mile/
hour⫽1.852 km/hr⫽101.27 ft/min⫽0.5144 m/s.
Knott’s equations: 共notz兲 Equations governing the parti-
tion of energy between reflected and refracted plane P-
and S-waves at a plane interface, as a function of the
velocities, elastic constants, and densities in the two
media and of the incident angle. See Sheriff and Geldart
共1995, 287–288兲 and Zoeppritz’s equations, with which
they are equivalent. Named for Cargill Gilston Knott
共1856 –1922兲, Scottish seismologist.
knowledge-base: 1. The collection of facts, assumptions,
and beliefs that are used in conjunction with a database
to achieve a diagnosis, solution, or interpretation. 2.
Expert system 共q.v.兲.
Koefoed method: A 2D method of estimating the depth of
a magnetic source based on the horizontal distance
between points 1/2 and 3/4 of the maximum anomaly
value.
Koenigsberger ratio „Q…: 共kā’ nigs ber, g⳵r兲 The ratio of
the remanent magnetization to the induced magnetiza-
tion 共product of susceptibility and the Earth’s magnetic
field strength兲. A large Q indicates that the magnetic
material will tend to maintain significant remanent
magnetization and indicates small mineral grain size.
See Hood 共1964兲.
Krey wave: 共krā兲 Channel wave involving a Rayleigh-
wave type of particle motion in a low-velocity layer
between two higher velocity half-spaces, sometimes
called a pseudo-Rayleigh wave. Named for Theodore
202 K-wave
C. Krey 共1910–兲, German geophysicist.
kriging: A geostatistical method of interpolating spatial
data between locations at which values are known,
using a linear combination of weights to the known data
based on a model of spatial correlation. Usually
involves estimating values based on measurements in
boreholes. Kriging tends to produce average values. In
simple kriging, the global mean is constant over the
entire area; it is generally based on all the control
points. In ordinary kriging, the local mean varies and
is re-estimated based on the points in the moving neigh-
borhood. See also cokriging. Named for Daniel. G.
Krige, South African mining engineer. See David
共1987兲.
Kronecker delta ( ␦ i j ) : 共krō’ nek ⳵r del’ t⳵兲 In the math-
ematics of discrete systems,
␦ i j ⫽1, i⫽ j⫽0, i⫽ j;
It has the property ⌺ ␦ i j f j ⫽ f i . Sometimes specified as
the matrix
冏 冏
1 0 0
␦ i jk ⫽ 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
Analogous to the Dirac delta function 共or impulse, q.v.兲
in the mathematics of continuous systems. Named for
Leopold Kronecker 共1823–1891兲, German mathemati-
cian.
KÕT event: The massive extinction of species that
occurred at the end of the Cretaceous, start of the
Tertiary periods, often attributed to a meteor impact at
Chicxulub, Yucatan, Mexico.
K-type section: A three-layer resistivity model 共q.v.兲 in
which the middle layer is more resistive than the layers
above or below it. See Figure T-7.
kurtosis: 共kur tō’ sis兲 A measure of the sharpness of a
population distribution. If x 10 , x 25 , x 75 , and x 90 are the
values for which 10, 25, 75, and 90% of the population
is smaller, respectively, then
kurtosis⫽ 共 x 75 ⫺x 25 兲 /2 共 x 90 ⫺x 10 兲 .
From the Greek word for ‘‘curvature.’’
k-vane: A depressor paravane used to pull down a side-
scan sonar or other underwater towed device. Also
called k-wing. Tradename of Klein Associates.
K-wave: A P-wave in the Earth’s outer core. Compare
I-wave.