Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Module 1
Qn. What are the various field of Application of Cryogenics? (10 Marks)
Space (4 marks)
Rocket Propulsion
UDMH,MMH(SI<300)
Cryogenic engines are powered by cryogenic propellants
Liquid Hydrogen is used as a fuel to propel the rocket.
Liquid Oxygen is used as an oxidizer.
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Internal surgery
Advantages of Cryo surgery (4 marks)
Lower chances of infection
Smaller or no incision
Shorter or no hospital stay
Better cosmetic quality
Cell Preservation(4 marks)
Cells and tissues can be kept indefinitely in a state of suspended
animation by storing in liquid nitrogen; but cell death takes place
during freezing and thawing.
The mechanism of cell death is fully understood, but related to
formation of extracellular/ intercellular ice crystals, migration of
water across the cell membrane and to changes in the salt
concentration in the intracellular fluid.
Systems are developed to preserve blood cells, plasma cells,
human organs and animal organs at cryogenic temperatures.
Still some cells can be frozen and thawed with high viability rate by:
Following a strict temperature – time protocol.
Adding certain chemicals like glycerol .
Applications (4 marks)
Human erythrocytes and platelets
Bull sperms
Cattle and other livestock embryos
Eye cornea and skin
Many bacteria and fungi
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(4 marks)
Gas Industry (4 marks)
Advantages
Extremely clean vacuum
High pumping speed
Moderate cost
Applications
Manufacture of electronic chips
SQUIDS & other SC devices
Space simulations chambers
The Ultimate and Yield strengths of the material largely depend on the
movement of dislocations.
At lower temperatures, the internal energy of atoms is low.
As a result, the atoms of the material vibrate less vigorously with less
thermal agitation.
When these agitations are low, the movement of dislocations is hampered.
It requires a very large stress to tear the dislocations from their
equilibrium positions.
Therefore, materials exhibit high yield and ultimate strengths at low
temperatures.
These failures can happen even if the stress applied is much lower than
the ultimate stress values
Fatigue strength of a material is the stress at which the specimen fails
after a certain number of cycles.
IMPACT STRENGTH(4marks)
Charpy and Izod tests are used to measure the resistance of a
material to impact loading.The energy absorbed when the material
is fractured suddenly by a force is the measure of impact
strength.In both these tests, the difference in the height attained
by the hammer pendulum after the impact (loss in potential
energy), determines the impact strength of specimen.
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HARDNESS (4 marks)
Hardness is the measure of depth of the standard indentation made on
the surface of the specimen by a standard indenter.
Common hardness tests inlcude
Brinell test
Vickers test
Rockwell test
Hardness is directly proportional to the ultimate stress of a material.
Hence, it follows the same trend, i.e. increases as the temperature is
decreased.
ELASTIC MODULI (4 marks)
The three commonly used elastic moduli are
• Young’s Modulus
• Shear Modulus
• Bulk Modulus
With the decrease in temperature, the disturbing vibrations and
thermal agitation of molecules decrease
These will increase the inter-atomic forces and thereby, reducing
the strain at low temperatures
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TENSILE STRENGTH(PLASTICS)
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THERMAL EXPANSION/CONTRACTION
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLIDS
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
THERMAL EXPANSION (4marks)
Reduction (contraction) in the dimensions of a material occur when cooled to low
temperatures.
Einstein treated the solid as a system of simple harmonic oscillators. It was assumed
that, all the oscillators are of same frequency.
Debye treated solid as an infinite elastic continuum and considered all the possible
standing waves in the material.
A parabolic frequency distribution was derived for the atoms vibrating in lattice.
He presented a model to compute lattice heat capacity per mole, which accounts for
all the vibration frequencies of all the lattice points.
The Debye model gives the following expression for the lattice heat capacity per
mole.
x is a dimensionless variable.
θD is called as Debye Characteristic Temperature.
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of D(0) =4π4/5.
The variation is a cubic equation in absolute temperature at very low temperatures.
Calculation of Cv (4 marks)
In a cryostat, the solid members made of a metal or a non metal conduct heat
from high temperature to low temperature.
For these members, the thermal conductivity, kT, should be as low as possible to
minimize the heat loss.
On the other hand, for achieving best heat
transfer of cold generated, copper can be
used as a medium due to its very high
thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity, kT, is the property of
a material which indicates its ability to
conduct heat.
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Qn. What are the Electric & Magnetic Properties of material at cryogenic
temperature? (10 marks)
Liquid Methane
It boils at 111.7 K.
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Liquid Neon
Liquid Argon
Liquid Air
Hydrogen
If the nuclear spins are in opposite direction for both the protons,
it is Para Hydrogen.
With the decrease in the temperature, the Ortho hydrogen is converted to the Para
hydrogen. At 300K Ortho 75% and Para 25%.At 20K Ortho 0.179% and Para
99.821%.Para form is a low energy form and therefore heat is liberated during
conversion. Conversion of ortho to para form of hydrogen is an exothermic reaction.
This conversion is a very slow process. In order to make this conversion faster,
catalysts are added.
Qn. What are the general properties of Helium at Cryo temp? (10 marks)
Helium
In the two fluid model, the liquid is assumed to be composed of two fluids,
normal and super fluid.
Mathematically,
ρ = ρn + ρs
ρ - total density
ρn - normal density
ρs – super fluid density.
Temperature dependence of density
below lambda point.
o Thermomechanical Effect
o Mechanocaloric Effect
o Fountain Effect
o Rollin Film Effect
Consider a flask filled with super fluid helium (LHe – II) and a heating coil
placed inside a differential container.
When the heat is applied to the fluid in the inner container, the concentration
of normal fluid increases.
The Super fluid component tends to move towards this region to equalize the
concentration.
Super fluid being less viscous can flow rapidly through the narrow channel.
Normal fluid being more viscous, its flow is impeded by the channel
resistance.
As a result, due to the induced pressure difference, a pressure head called as
Thermo Mechanical Pressure Head is developed.
This head is proportionate to the temperature rise of >T in the fluid.
Normal fluid, being more viscous cannot flow through the fine powder.
The inflow of super fluid builds up with time and finally squirts out
through the fine capillary opening at the top.
If only the super fluid component in Second sound oscillates, then it is called as
Third sound.
This wave motion appears as an oscillation in the thickness of the film. The
velocity of propagation of Third sound is around 0.5 m/s.
Another form of sound called as Zero sound has been detected recently.
The research is on to study its characteristics.
For a given
pressure Liquid He - 3 is more colder than Liquid He – 4.
LHe - 3 (like LHe - 4) remains liquid under its vapor pressure up to
absolute zero.
It must be compressed to 28.9 bar at 0.32 K to solidify.
Helium – 3 has no temperature and pressure at which solid- liquid –
vapor can coexist.
It means that it has no triple point.
Liquid He - 3 undergoes a different type of super fluid transition at
approximately 3.2 mK.
MODULE 2
Qn. What are the Symbols used in Liquefaction Cycle Schematics (6 marks)
Compressor
Expander
Heat Exchanger
Liquid Container
The changes in Heat (Q) and Work (W) are net zero for this
expansion device.
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The changes in the velocities and datum levels are very small and can be neglected.
Mass flows are equal at inlet and outlet sections.
Mathematically,
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Isentropic expansion results in cooling irrespective of its initial state, unlike the J – T
expansion.
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In the refrigeration systems, the Carnot COP is often used as a benchmark to compare the
Performances.
On the similar lines, there is a need to compare different liquefaction systems.
In liquefaction systems, an ideal cycle is used as a benchmark to compare the performances.
Different ratios and functions are defined to give a qualitative and quantitative information
of different liquefaction systems.
salt will be cooled. This process is used to achieve temperature near absolute zero.
Paramagnetic salts like gadolinium sulphate are used.
Similar to liquids, gases can also be expanded from high pressure to low pressure
either by using a turbine (isentropic expansion) or a throttling device (isenthalpic process).
Similar to throttling of liquids, the throttling of gases is also an isenthalpic process. Since the
enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only, during an isenthalpic process, the
temperature of the ideal gas remains constant. In case of real gases, whether the temperature
decreases or increases during the isenthalpic throttling process depends on a property of the
gas called Joule-Thomson coefficient, μJT, given by:
The magnitude of μJT is a measure of deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour.
From the definition of μJT, the temperature of a real gas falls during isenthalpic expansion if
μJT is positive, and it increases when μJT is
negative. Figure shows the process of
isenthalpic expansion on temperature-
pressure coordinates.
Qn
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Cascade Refrigeration System uses two cycles namely the high temperature or high
pressure and the other as low temperature or the low pressure and hence the work of low
pressure cycle is to cool the high pressure cycle whereas the work of the high pressure cycle
is to cool the sink and bring the temperature of the sink down. Both the cycles work
according to the vapour compression refrigeration cycle. Very Low temperatures can be
achieved with the help of cascade refrigeration system without comprising the coefficient
of performance of the refrigerator.
Whereas in the mean time in the second cycle the high temperature refrigerant is pressurized
by passing the refrigerant through the compressor in the cycle and then it is passed through to
the heat exchanger where some part of the heat energy is gained and the refrigerant is heated
and then it is passed through the condenser where it is cooled.