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Chapter 6 Gravitation

Introduction
1. All objects with mass attract each other with a gravitational force. The magnitude of the force
between any two objects depends on their masses and the distance between the two objects1.

6.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Learning Outcomes:
(a) state Newton's law of universal gravitation and use the formulae

Figure 6- 1: R is the radius of the object m1

1. Newton's Law of universal gravitation
Newton's Law of universal gravitation states that the force of attraction between two objects is
directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart.
m1m2
F
r2
m1m2
F  G where G is the universal gravitational constant .
r2
2. A ‘-‘ sign is mathematical way describing attraction force and G = 6.67 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Note:
a) Gravitational forces are very weak unless it is for objects with enormous mass such as
planets and stars.

1 In this topic it is crucial to understand that the “object” will subject to a sphere. The important properties of
the sphere are a) the mass and b)the radius.

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b) Gravitational force is a mutual attraction. We attract the Earth with the same force that
the Earth attracts us.
c) Newton's Law of universal gravitation is an example of an inverse square law. The force
decreases in proportional to the square of the distance.
1
So when the distance is 2r, the force is F
4
1
when the distance is 3r, the force is F
9

Example 6- 1
Why is it that the gravitational force of earth causes the object to be accelerated to earth but not
otherwise ?

Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= where M is the mass of the earth and m is the mass of the object.
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Attractive force of earth on object is 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 2
𝑟
𝐹 𝐺𝑀
Acceleration of object towards earth is 𝑎 = = 2
𝑚 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
Attractive force of object on earth is 𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎′ = 𝑟2
𝐹 𝐺𝑚
Acceleration of earth towards object is 𝑎′ = = 2
𝑀 𝑟
Since M>>m, the value a’ is very small and can be neglected

6.2 Gravitational Field

Learning Outcome:
(a) explain the meaning of gravitational field;
(b) define gravitational field strength as force of gravity per unit mass;
GM
(c) use the equation g  for a gravitational field
r2

Introduction : A Field Theory

1. It may not be immediately obvious how Newtonian field theory different from Newton’s original
theory, but there is a very important distinction.
2. The field exist in space and exerts a force on things where they are. Newton’s original theory of
gravity involved action at a distance .This involves forces being exerted by one object on another
with NO PHYSICAL connection between them.

Representing The Gravitational Field

1. The most important properties of this field are :
(a) Gravitational Field strength(GFS),E(g) - which describing about the strength and
direction at each point in space.

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(b) Gravitational Potential (GP), V- which describe how the mass change in their
potential energy when it is moved in the gravitational field.
2. A gravitational field strength,E(g) represents a region where a body having a mass
experiences gravitational force.
Gravitational field strength, g is defined as the force of gravity per unit mass.
F GM
Gravitational field strength, g  E   2
m r
Where M is the mass of object and r is the radius between the object M and the test
mass,m. Unit: N kg-1 and it is a vector quantity.
3. The idea of field line point is the direction a free body would begin to accelerate if released.
All the gravitational field line of the field is come from the infinity and end on masses. It’s seem that
not necessary to draw the line, but it’s so important to describe how the field look like.

Figure 6- 2. Gravitational field always pointing toward the centre of the earth and perpendicular with the
surface.

Example 6- 2
What is the gravitational field strength acting on an object with mass m placed on the surface of the
earth? Taking the mass of earth as M and the radius of earth as R.

Figure 6- 3

Solution :
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹=
𝑅2
𝐹 𝐺𝑀
𝐸= = 2
𝑚 𝑅

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Relationship Between g and r.

In this case, it is imagine that the Earth is only a sphere that is do not rotate.

Figure 6- 4. The radius of the Earth, R.

The r can be divided into three region :
(i) r  REarth (ii) r  REarth (iii) r  REarth

(i) g when it is on the Earth

1. A body of mass m at a place on the earth's surface where the acceleration of free fall is
experiences a force F = mg (i.e. its weight).
2. Assuming the earth has mass M and radius R, we can also calculate the same force using,
Newton's law of gravitation.
m1m 2 GMm
So, F  G 2
 2
r R
GMm
Therefore, mg   2
R
GM
Then g   2 . The R is constant
R

(ii) Variation of g with height (rR)

Figure 6- 5
1. The gravitational force on the test mass, m a distance r from the center of a spherical symmetric
mass M (Earth) is:

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GMm
F (the negative sign indicatessttraction)
r2
F
g' 
m
GM
 2
r
From above g’ is inversely proportional to the r2.

(iii) Relation Between g and depth (r R)

Figure 6- 6
1.Imagine a test mass m placed at a distance x from the centre of the sphere where x less than the
outer sphere radius r. The spherical shell of matter outside x will have no effect on m, so the force
Fx at radius x is due entirely to the inner sphere:
GM m
FX   2X (the negative sign indicatessttraction)
x
FX
g' 
m
GM
  2X
x
Mx is the mass of sphere of radius x, but the Mx is given by :
4
M X  x 3 
3
then
4
g'   Gr
3
Conclusion from above g’ is directly proportional to the r.

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Graph relation between g and r

Figure 6- 7

Example 6- 3
The mass of a star is 2.0 x 1030 kg and its radius is 1.5 x 106 m. Find the gravitational field strength
at:
(a) The surface
(b) 1.0 x 106 m above the surface of the star [G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2]
Solution:

𝐺𝑀
a) At the surface, g=
𝑅2

6.67 × 10−11 × 2.0 × 1030

=
(1.5 × 106 )2

= 5.93 × 107 Nkg−1

𝐺𝑀
b) At 1.0 ×106 m above the surface, g= (𝑅+ℎ)2

6.67 × 10−11 × 2.0 × 1030

=
(1.5 × 106 + 1.0 × 106 )2
= 2.13 × 107 Nkg−1

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Variation of g with Latitude,

Figure 6- 8
1. The acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength on the surface of the Earth is
not the same at different points on the Earth's surface because
• the Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is an ellipsoid as shown in Figure below.
• of the rotation of the Earth about its axis.
2. The radius of the Earth at the equator R, is greater than the distance of the poles from the centre
of the Earth R,. Since g is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. the value of g at the
equator is less than the value of g at the poles.

Figure 6- 9

3. To explain the effect of rotation of the Earth about its axis on the value of g on the Earth's
surface, we shall assume that the Earth is a perfect sphere of radius R.

Figure 6- 10

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4. Figure 6-11 (a) shows a body of mass, m at a point P on latitude -north. The gravitational force
of the Earth on the body is mg along PO towards the centre of the Earth.
5. As the Earth rotates about its axis with an angular velocity of , the body moves in a circle of
radius R cos . The centripetal force m(R cos )2 is provided by the component of mg in the
direction PT. The other component of mg is mg’ along the direction PS, where g’ is the acceleration
due to gravity at latitude -north.
6. The free body diagram is shown in figure 6-9 (b). and applying the cosine rule for triangle PQS

7. at the north pole : g '  g and at the equator g '  g  R

2

6.3 Gravitational Potential

Learning Outcome:
(a) define the potential at a point in a gravitational field;
GM
(b) derive and use the formula V  
r
GMm
(c) use the formula for potential energy U  
r
GMm
(d) show that U  mgr  mgh is a special case of U   for situations near to the
r
surface of the Earth
dV
(e) use the relationship g  
dr
(f) explain, with graphical illustrations, the variations of gravitational field strength and gravitational
potential with distance from the surface of the Earth;

1. When the masses are moved in a gravitational field, their potential energy in the field changes.
Gravitational Potential explained the way of their potential energy changes.
The gravitational potential V at a point in a gravitational field is the gravitational potential
energy (GPE),U per unit mass at that point

The gravitational potential V at any point

GPE (U )
V
m
Unit: J kg-1 and it is a scalar quantity.

2. Gravitational Potential,V at a point in gravitational field written in M and r2.

2
Here r is the distance that is begin from the centre of the Earth to infinity. The magnitude of V maximum is
only on the surface of the Earth, this happen because the mass of the Earth M, is covered around its radius R

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GPE (U ) FG r  GMm  r GM
V    2   
m m  r m r

Figure 6- 11
3. Gravitational potential different, V is the difference in gravitational potential between two
points in a gravitational field and is equal to work done, W, per unit mass in moving it between two
points.
U W
V  Vrfinal  Vrinitial  
m m
this lead to
 W  mV
Note: Gravitational potential is defined as V= 0 at infinity. Since gravitational potential increases as
height increases, V must have negative values when it is lower than infinity.

Equipotential Surface

1. Gravitational Potential, V always perpendicular

with Gravitational Field Strength, g.
2. Near Earth’s surface, the potential changes by
9.8 Jkg-1 for every meter of height gained. So the
potential gradient near the surface of the Earth is
constant, and equal to 9.8 J kg-1m-1. But when it’s
further from the Earth surface the potential gradient
become less and less. The potential gradient is the
change of potential per metre.

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Figure 6- 12
3. A mass m being moved out of a gravitational field, as shown in the figure above. To move the
mass by a small distance r in the opposite direction to the gravitational force Fgrav on it, its P.E
must be increased by an equal and opposite force F. so we can write as :
Change of P.E
V 
mass, m
F r

m
V
F  m
r
Here F is the gravitional force with "-" (attraction Force)
V
 Fgrav  m
r
rearrange the equation
Fgrav V

m r
dV
Now let the r  0 we can write its as g  
dr
Energy in gravitational field of Earth
1. When we first learn about the gravitational potential Energy, we understand that the energy is
given by U  mgh where h is the distance from the surface of the Earth. Here also mg is the force
that is directed toward the centre of the Earth and it is a constant value.

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Figure 6- 13
2. The gravitational potential energy(GPE), U, the energy stored(J) as a result of a body’s
position in gravitational field.
Unit: J and it is a scalar quantity.
3. From figure 6-16 we can write the gravitational potential energy in term of mass and distance as:
r2

W   Fdr
r1
r2
dr
 GmE m 
r1
r2
GmE m GmE m
 
r2 r1
4. From the equation above we can write the gravitational potential energy as:
GmE m
U
r

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Figure 6- 14: The graph of U verses r, where r is from the surface of the Earth.
5. Total potential energy of two masses and three masses system

6.4 Satellite Motion in Circular Orbits3

Learning Outcome :
(a) solve problems involving satellites moving in a circular orbit in a gravitational field;
(b) explain the concept of weightlessness

Satellite
A satellite is an object orbiting around a larger body by gravitational attraction.
e.g. The moon is a natural satellite of earth.
The earth is a natural satellite of sun.
There are also artificial satellites launched for the purpose of monitoring the weather, space
observation and global communications.

Synchronous Satellite (Geostationary Satellite)

A synchronous satellite is a stationary above a point on the surface of the Earth. The satellite
orbiting the earth with a period of revolution that is equal to the period of revolution of the earth

3 Do remember that the motion in circular need to have axis located at the centre of mass, orbiting around it.

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Figure 6- 15
The motion of Satellite in Circular
Let’s M is the mass of the Earth and m is the mass of the satellite, the satellite linear velocity is v,
and its angular velocity is,.
Linear velocity and period of satellite in a fixed orbit
To keep a satellite in circular orbit, the centripetal force needed is being supplied by the
gravitational force.
v 2 GMm
So m  2
r r
GM
v2 
r
GM
v
r
gR 2
v2  since GM=gR2
r
If the satellite is close to earth, then r  R
Therefore v2 = gR
The period of satellite T is given by
v 2 GMm
m  2
r r
GMm
mr  2  2
r
2 GMm
m ( )2  3
T r
4 2
T2  r3
GM
2 r
T 2  r 3 or T 
v
Energy of a satellite
 Kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy of satellite

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1 2
Kinetic energy = mv
2
1 GM
= m
2 r
1 GMm
Kinetic energy =
2 r
GMm
Potential energy =
r
The total energy possess by the satellite at certain height.
Total energy = Potential energy + kinetic energy
GMm 1 GMm
= +
r 2 r
1 GMm
=
2 r
Example 6- 4
A satellite orbits the earth with period of rotation 2 hours. Given that the mass of the earth 6.0 x 1024
kg and the radius of the earth is 6.4 x 106 m. Calculate:
(a) The height where the satellite is orbiting.
(b) The speed of the satellite. [G = 6.67x10-11 N m2 kg-2]
Solution:
a)
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑣2
= 𝑚 =
𝑟2 𝑟
𝐺𝑀 𝑣 2
=
𝑟2 𝑟

𝐺𝑀 1 2𝜋𝑟 2
= ( )
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑇
𝐺𝑀𝑇 2
𝑟3 =
4𝜋 2
−11
6.67 × 10 × 6 × 1024 × (2 × 3600)2
=
4𝜋 2
20
= 5.26 × 10 𝑚
Then 𝑟 = 8.07 × 106 𝑚
The satellite is orbiting at a height of (8.07 − 6.40) × 106 𝑚 = 1.67 × 106 𝑚

The speed of the satellite

2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
2𝜋 × 8.07 × 106
=
2 × 3600
= 7.04 × 103 𝑚 𝑠 −1
Planetary System

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Figure 6- 16. The Planets orbiting a star or a system of stars

1. A planetary system is a set of gravitatioanlly bound non-stellar objects in orbit around a star or
star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system,
although such systems may also consist of bodies such as dwarf planets, asteroids, natural
satellites, meteoroids, comets, planetesimals and circumstellar disks.
2. The Sun together with its planetary system, which includes Earth, is known as the Solar System

6.5 Escape velocity

Learning Outcome :
2GM
(a) derive and use the equation for escape velocity v e  and v e  2gr
r

1. Escape velocity is the velocity required by an object on the surface of the planet in order to
escape from the planet to infinity. The object will not be pulled back by gravity.

Figure 6- 17. Escape velocity and parking orbit velocity

2. Take the earth for example, the gravitational potential energy on the surface of the earth is
GMm
 and the gravitational potential energy at infinity is 0.
r
So, the energy required to send an object to infinity is
GMm GMm
0 – ( )=
r r
3. This energy is being supplied by the kinetic energy So,

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1 2 GMm
mv =
2 r
4. Therefore, the escape velocity
2GM 2gR 2
v 
R R

v  2gR
Example 6- 5
What is the escape velocity from the surface of the sun?
[Mass of the sun = 2.0 x 1030 kg, radius of the sun = 7.0 x 108 m, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2]
solution
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√
𝑅

2 × 6.67 × 10−11 × 2.0 × 1030

=√
7.0 × 108
= 6.17 × 105 𝑚 𝑠 −1
Chapter 06 Gravitation Summary
No Item Formulae

1. Gravitational Law

2. Gravitational Force

3. Gravitatinal Field Strength

4. Gravitational Potential

5. Satelite linear velocity

6. Satelite potential energy

7. Satelite kinetic energy

8. Total satelite energy

9. Satelite escape velocity

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