INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

CONSTRUCTION OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOL BUILDING,

NANGLOI
IN

PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT (PWD), DELHI

Submitted by
MANIK RAJPUT
10114210016
In Partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

SRM University, Haryana
JUNE’2017

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who supported me

throughout the course of this project. I am thankful for their aspiring guidance,
invaluably constructive criticism and friendly advice during the project work. I am
sincerely grateful to them for sharing their truthful and illuminating views on a
number of issues related to the project.

I express my warm thanks to prof. Nitin Dahiya (Assistant Professor and Head,
civil) for their support and other faculties of college for their guidance.

I would also like to thank to the engineer Mr. Naushad Khan from the company
[PWD] and all the people who provided me with the facilities being required and
conductive conditions for my project.

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 PREFACE

My training included these basic and some important engineering needs in the
industry. This report is detail description of overview of PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT (PWD). This Project gave me an opportunity to implement the
principles and knowledge practically. The experience that one gets is wonderful
because practical knowledge is as much important as theoretical knowledge. A
Project helps a student in getting acquainted with the manner in which his knowledge
is being practically used and this is normally different from what one has learnt from
books. Hence, when one switches from the process of learning to that of
implementation his knowledge, he finds an abrupt change. This is exactly why
project during the B.Tech. Curriculum becomes more important. Imagine large
drives used in Site, they are really effective and helpful. Also imagine if we could
control different machine and equipment at site or industry by using other devices.

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 SRM University, Haryana
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
JUNE, 2017

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

It is hereby certified that "MANIK RAJPUT" Registration No. 10114210016 of SRM University,
Haryana has undergone industrial training from 20th JUNE, 2017 to 21st JULY, 2017 at (PWD)
to fulfill the requirements for the award of degree of B.Tech (Civil). He worked on the project on
construction of a government school building during the training under my guidance.

__________________________
Nitin Dahiya
(Assistant Professor and Head)
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
SRM University, Haryana

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1 1. Introduction 9
1.1 About the company
1.2 About the project
1.2.1 Site data
1.2.2 Materials

2 2. Authority and responsibilities 16

2.1 Site engineer
2.2 Supervisors
2.3 Client
2.4 Safety engineer
2.5 Site planning

3 3. About building 17
3.1 Classification of building
3.1.1 According to their occupancy
3.1.2 According to type of construction

4 4. Life cycle of a civil engineering project 20

4.1 Good practicing at a construction site
4.2 Basic steps involved in construction practices

5 5. Salient features of the project site 30

5.1 Location of the site
5.2 View of the site

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6 6. Construction features 32
6.1 Excavation1
6.2 Layout
6.3 Foundation
6.4 Column casting
6.4.1 Key in the column
6.5 Shuttering casting and scaffolding
6.6 Expansion joint
6.7 Concreting
6.8 De-shuttering
6.9 Brickwork
6.9.1 Brickwork check list
6.9.2 Bricks used on the site
6.9.2.1 Concrete blocks bricks
6.9.2.2 Normal bricks
6.10 Water proofing
6.11 De-watering floor
6.12 Cement concrete flooring
6.13 Stone flooring
6.14 Ceiling
6.15 White wash
6.16 Gypsum plaster
6.17 Wet stone cladding
6.18 Internal painting
6.19 External painting
6.20 Railing painting
6.21 Binding materials used

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 6.21.1 Chicken wire mesh
6.21.2 Drainage pipes

7 7. Tests in laboratory 60
7.1 Compression testing machine
7.2 Slump cone test
7.3 Sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates

8 8. Selection of concrete 65
8.1 Concreting
8.2 Specially design concrete
8.3 Concrete mix design
8.4 Factors affecting choice of mix proportion
8.4.1 Compressive strength
8.4.2 Workability
8.4.3 Durability
8.4.4 Maximum size of aggregates
8.4.5 Grading & types of aggregates
8.6 Equality control
8.4.7 Mix proportion designation
8.5 Strength test of concrete
8.6 Composition of concrete
8.7 Concrete production

9. 9. Footings 81
9.1 Types of footings

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10 10. Safety measures and campaign 88
10.1 Inspection and quality control
10.2 Removal of formwork

11 11. Experience 92
11.1 Problems faced during training
11.2 Overall benefits of training
11.2.1 Improving practical skills
11.2.2 Upgrading the theoretical knowledge
11.2.3 Upgrading the communication skills
11.2.4 Improving team playing skills
11.2.5 Improving leadership skills
11.3 Work ethics and related issues

12 12. Conclusion 97

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 ABOUT THE COMPANY

The Public Works Department of India, commonly referred to as the PWD, is a government
owned authority in charge of public sector works. The Public Works Department, under
the Ministry of Urban Development, builds and maintains public buildings. PWD came into
existence in July 1854 when Lord Dalhousie established a central agency for execution of public
works and set up Ajmer Provincial Division. It has now grown into a comprehensive construction
management department, which provides services from project concept to completion, and
maintenance management.

It is headed by the Director General (DG) who is also the Principal Technical Advisor to the
Government of India. The incumbent DG is Mr. Abhay Sinha. The regions and sub-regions are
headed by Special DGs and Additional DGs respectively, while the zones in all state capitals
(except a few) are headed by Chief Engineers. Now A Days, a new post of Chief Project Manager
(CPM) has been created to head major prestigious projects of PWD. CPMs are equivalent to the
rank of Chief Engineers in PWD. With country wide presence, the strength of PWD is its ability
to undertake construction of Complex Projects even in difficult terrains and maintenance in post
construction stage.
It is the prime engineering department of Government of union of India and its specifications and
manuals are followed by local public works departments and engineering wing of other
departments.
CPWD consists of three wings in execution field:
1) B&R (Buildings and Roads)
2) E&M (Electrical and Mechanical)
3) Horticulture

The recruitment as entry level for middle management is made through Architecture Services
Examination and Engineering Services Examination conducted by Union Public Service
Commission. Only top candidates in ESE get a chance to join PWD strictly on merit basis. During
probation period, the selected candidates undergo rigorous training of 35 weeks at National PWD
Academy situated in Ghaziabad (U.P). Which transforms them into competent
Architects/Engineers cum bureaucrats. During the normal career progression one rises to Chief
Architect/Engineer, then to Additional Director General and further to Special Director General.
There is one post of Director General, PWD who also acts as technical advisor to the Government
of India.

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 The job in PWD is challenging yet rewarding. With pan India presence, PWD has been
involved in construction of strategically important mega projects all over the country including
border areas. PWD is well known for quality construction and timely completion of projects
following which it has huge list of successful projects and departments as well as clients which it
has served.

1.2 ABOUT THE PROJECT

1.2.1 Site Data-

 Project name: Construction of a school building for Kendriya Vidyalaya, Nangloi

 Project location: Nangloi
 Company: Public Works Department, Delhi
 Structural consultants: (AGCON ENGINEERS PVT. LTD.)
 Total area: 1861.1872 CU.M
 Estimated cost: Rs.153265473
 Earthquake zone: Zone IV
 Tendered amount: Rs.136577928
 Type of footing: Isolated and combined
 Concrete grade: Ready mix concrete (43/53)
 Pcc: M10
 Foundation: M25
 Column: M25
 Beam: M30
 Retaining wall: M25
 Floor: M15
 Washing room floor: M25 (BECAUSE OF DRAINAGE)

1.2.2 Materials-

a.) Steel reinforcement bars:

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack,
allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibres,
glass fibre, or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads.

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Steel reinforcement rods are produced in steel plants. Moreover, the reinforcing bars or rods are
commercially available in some specific diameters. Normally, steel bars up to 12 mm in diameter
are designated as bars which can be coiled for transportation. Bars more than 12 mm in diameter
are termed as rods and they are transported in standard lengths.

Like concrete, steel also has several types or grades. The four types of steel used in concrete
structures as specified in cl. 5.6 of IS 456 are given below:

 Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS 432 (Part 1)
 High yield strength deformed (HYSD) steel bars conforming to IS 1786
 Hard-drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566
 Structural steel conforming to Grade A of IS 2062.

Mild steel bars had been progressively replaced by HYSD bars and subsequently TMT bars are
promoted in our country. The implications of adopting different kinds of blended cement and
reinforcing steel should be examined before adopting.
Different types of steel reinforcement bars are used according to load bearing capacity such as:-

 16mm to 20mm for beam

 16mm to 32mm for column
 12mm to 20mm for foundation

Note: The steel reinforcement bars are used Fe-500 TMT of “SAIL STEEL COMPANY”.

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 Fig. 1

CEMENT:-

Fig. 2

Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminates and aluminoferrite. It

is obtained by blending predetermined proportions limestone clay and other minerals in small
quantities which is pulverized and heated at high temperature around 1500 degree centigrade to
produce ‘clinker’. The clinker is then ground with small quantities of gypsum to produce a fine
powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When mixed with water, sand and stone, it
combines slowly with the water to form a hard mass called concrete.

Cement is a hygroscopic material meaning that it absorbs moisture in presence of moisture

it undergoes chemical reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement remains in good condition
as long as it does not come in contact with moisture. If cement is more than three months old then
it should be tested for its strength before being taken into use. The Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) has classified OPC in three different grades.
The classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of cement-sand mortar
cubes of face area 50 cm2 composed of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with

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a water-cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are (i) 33 grade (ii) 43 grade
(iii) 53 grade. The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand
mortar in N/mm2 at 28days, as tested by above mentioned procedure. Only Portland pozolona
cement complying with the requirements of IS 1489 shall be used otherwise as mentioned in the
work. The cement shall be obtained directly from the manufacturers by the owner and issued to
contractor. The cement shall be delivered to the site in the thoroughly dry condition in sealed bags.
The cement shall be unloaded under cover by the contractor at his cost and shall be stored in the
perfectly water tight and well ventilated godown accommodating sufficient cement at any time to
ensure continuity of work.

The flooring of the godown shall be raised not less than 150mm from the surrounding
ground. Each consignment shall be recorded by the contractor and stacked separately therein to
permit easy access for inspection. The cement shall be utilized from the store in the same order in
which it is received at the site. The cement temporarily stacked for day to day work near the
concrete mixers adjacent to actual place of pour shall also be adequately protected with tarpaulin
over a raised platform and to the satisfaction of the owner.

Note: The cement used is of 43 grade and of “ULTRA TECH” company.

BRICKS:-

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

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The bricks used are of 2nd class.

ADMIXTURES:-

Chemical admixtures
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use,
admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time
of batching/mixing.
The common types of admixtures are as follows.

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. However, use of

chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so
that nitrates may be favored.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours where
partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. Typical retarders are sugar,
sucrose, glucose, citric acid, and tartaric acid.
 Air entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage
during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However, entrained air entails a trade off
with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease compressive strength 5%.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed
more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is lignosulfonate.
Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining
workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this use. Such treatment
improves its strength and durability characteristics.
 Super plasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that
have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is practical
with traditional plasticizers. Compounds used as superplasticizers include sulfonated
naphthalene formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated melamine formaldehyde condensate,
acetone formaldehyde condensate and polycarboxylate ethers.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically a type
of polymer).
 Pumping aids improve pump ability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and bleeding.

Mineral admixtures and blended cements

There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These
very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete

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(mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements). Products which
incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and other useful materials with pozzolanic
properties into the mix, are being tested and used. This development is due to cement production
being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions, as well
as lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes.
• Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace
Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of
coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent
hydraulic properties.
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of steel
production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has latent
hydraulic properties.
• Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume
is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher
surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to
increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of super
plasticizers for workability.
• High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and
durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray
or black in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the
preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important.

WATER:-
Water used had ph. value of 6.5 to 8.0.

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 2. AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBLITIES

2.1 SITE ENGINEER

To perform all site related activities in accordance with guideline provided project manager.

2.2 SUPERVISORS
To supervise and carry out the entire site related construction activities as per the instruction given
by the project manager and site engineer.

2.3 CLIENT
Client is the authority witch regular check the quality of construction and takes the samples
of material which are used.

2.4 SAFETY ENGINEER

Which gives the instruction to all the workers and engineers from physical safety point of view.

2.5 SITE PLANNING

Some important points which are important to us:-

1. Boundary of plot.
2. Shape of size :( as square, triangular, rectangular).
1. Exterior house dimension.
2. Set back leave and front back leave.
3. Name and width of existing street.
4. Elevation of center line.
5. Elevation of corners of plot.
6. No of plots, block and name of adjusting property.
7. Direction of traveling winds and north direction.
8. Generally we take the north direction because the pole star are existing in the north
direction.
9. Size and location detail of gas line underground draining water main, ventilating pipes.
10. Location of fire hydrant should be mark.

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 3. ABOUT BUILDING

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING

 According to their occupancy.
 According to type of construction.

3.1.1 According to their occupancy-

According to N.B.C of India 1970, Buildings are classified as:

1. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS.
2. EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS.
3. INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS.
4. ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS.
5. BUSINISS BUILDINGS.
6. MERCENTILE BUILDINGS.
7. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS.
8. STORAGE BUILDINGS.
9. HAZARDEOUS BUILDINGS.

1. GROUP A: RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

These are those buildings in which sleeping accommodation isprovided for normal residential
purposes, with or without cooking or dining or both facilities.

2. GROUP B: EDUCTIONAL BUILDINGS

All those buildings, which are meant for education room, a Nursery schools to University for more
than 8 hours per week. These buildings provide facilities like classrooms, staff cabins, laboratories,
administrative blocks, library, and play fields.

3. GROUP C: INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS

These Groups include any buildings or part thereof, which is used for the purposes such as medical,
health, recovering health after illness, care of infant or aged persons etc. These buildings normally
provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants. These buildings are further subdivided into
three groups via C-1 Hospitals and Sanities; C-2 Custodians Institutes (example: - Homes for aged)
and C-3: Panel institution (example: - Jails, Mental hospitals etc.)

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 4. GROUP D: ASSEMBLY BUILDINGS

These include any building or part of building where group of people gather for amusements,
recreations, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel & similar purposes. Ex- Theaters,
assembly halls, auditoriums, museums, restaurant, places of worship, clubs, aero drums
etc. Buildings under these groups are further subdivided into three groups i.e. D-1 to D-5
in descending order of accommodation and facilities.

5. GROUP E: BUSINESS BUILDINGS

These include any building or part of building, which is used for the transaction of business, for
keeping accounts, doctors & barber shop, beauty parlors etc.

6. GROUP F: MERCANTILE BUILDINGS

These groups include any building or part of buildings, which is used for shops, stores, markets
for sale and display of products for wholesale or retail.

7. GROUP G: INSDUSTRIAL BUILDING

This group includes any building or part of a building or structure in which products of different
kinds and properties are fabricated and assembled or processed. For example assembly plants,
power plants laboratories, gas plants, refineries, dairies etc.

8. GROUP H: STORAGE BUILDING

This group includes those buildings, which are primarily used for storage of goods, wares, (not
highly combustible), warehouses, cold storages, garages etc.

9. GROUP I: HAZARDOUS BUILDING

This group includes those building structures which are used for storage, handling, and
manufacture or processing of materials which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and prove
hazardous to health, building contents. Ex- buildings used for storage of highly flammable liquids
or explosives etc. included in this groups.

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3.1.2 According to type of constructions

LOAD BEARING STRUCTURES

In this system the load bearing walls of stone or brick are constructed on a continuous foundation
and they are designed to support the entire load including their own load. Hence in this type of
structures, the beams, trusses etc. are always made to rest on lode bearing walls.

FRAMED STRUCTURES

In this system the numbers of piers or columns are erected on their own independent foundations
and they are braced together by beams and slabs. In this way the whole structure is erected and the
gaps between the piers or columns are filled with partition walls. The function of partition walls is
simply to support their own weight and to serve as a screen for privacy. The entire load of structure
is carried out by the frame.

COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

This structure is combinations of load bearing structure. In this type, the order wall consists of
bearing wall. Whereas the frame of columns and beams consist with one end on bearing walls and
other end on inner columns with thin partitions between the bearing walls.

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 4. LIFE CYCLE OF A CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT

Fig. 5

1. CONCEPTUAL AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES- In this stage, ideas generated by

individuals / a group of people are studied. Following important points are carried out to establish
the viability of the project.
 Conceptual development of the model and its studies
 Technical and economic feasibility studies
 Environmental impact assessment
 Social Impact assessment
 Land and geological survey-location of the project
 Enumeration of major problems in translating the project to reality
 The cost of construction is roughly estimated and source of money discussed
 How to relocate any power line coming in the construction area.
 Preliminary soil investigation

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 These points basically come under the conceptual model & technical and educational studies.
Environment project assessment is not very important for this project.
But a thorough study of the environment project impact has also to be carried out for the
construction of Dam, Nuclear power plant, etc. In our country many of big dams such as Narmada
and Tehri Dam has been delayed due to the object of environmental impact. In the USA, many of
the Nuclear power plants were discarded due to the environmental assessment or either got
converted to fossil fuel plants.

Outcome of this stage: A report dealing with investigation and studies concerning the problems
to be encountered and its solution.

2. ENGINEERING DESIGN - In this stage, project takes the definite shape. All the
technical issues related to the project are carried out. Engineers come out with the best
alternatives available.
Design phase of project is carried out in two phases -
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design
• Preliminary design- This stage involves primarily the studies of various design alternative, their
economic comparative studies and architectural aspect. Also, in this stage, detailed field
investigation such as soil testing, geological, hydrological data collection, market survey, etc. are
carried out. Depending on the nature of the project, various data is collected. It is difficult to say
the end of feasibility study and the start of preliminary design. These steps are also a part of
feasibility study.
Example:
In the example of a building, this step involves selection of the building column, i.e. beam size.
Area of steel, slab thickness. Also the exact dimension of the building.
Number of piers, width of foot path, architectural aspect, etc. Also detailed soil investigation and
site investigation are carried out to get the idea of method of construction.

• Detailed Design- In this stage, the project is broken down into its components and each of the
elements are analyzed and designated, such that the engineer renders the explicit drawings and
specifications which is used for construction.

This phase is traditionally involved with designers.

Outcome of this design phase: The following are the outcome of this phase -
• Drawing of the structures/facilities to be constructed

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 • Specifications of component to be employed which contain detailed description of
the amenities to be constructed

3. CONTRACTING AND PROCUREMENT- In this stage, the bill of quantities

are prepared, final cost estimate is worked out. Most of the agreements are signed and a
relationship between different parties involved is defined; following points are generally
addressed during this time. The project has to be executed according to the drawing and
specification. Also -
• Tender notices are advertised
• Qualification of contractor / suppliers is studied.
• Contract is awarded to execute the work
• For many of the projects, such as industrial projects, industrial material and
equipment to be installed is purchased

Outcome of this stage: Contract document, which is a legal document describing the terms
and conditions to execute the project.

4. CONSTRUCTION -This is the most important phase of a civil engineering project,

where the major portion of the money is invested. A lot of issues of project management are
involved during this phase. The project is realized in the real world. The main work involved
during construction is to answer the following questions -

• How to do the particular construction(Construction Methods)

• How to organize labor and equipment to accomplish the construction (Labor and
equipment Management)
• How to manage materials for constructions (Material Management)
• How to breakdown the overall work into small identifiable work called activity and
put them in sequence (Construction Planning)
• How to calculate the time and resources required to complete the activity and obtain
the criticality of the activity (Construction Scheduling)
• How to distribute the labor and equipment, in order to accomplish the work in the
given time (Labor, equipment, allocation, resource allocation)
• How to prepare the bill for the money invested in the construction to get the
payment from the client (Construction Finance)
• How to conform the construction is according to drawing the specifications
(Quality of conformance)

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 • How to implement the safety measure taken during construction (Construction
safety)
• How to organize the different personals or the company involved in the
construction and define relations among them (Constructional Organization
management, construction sub-contracting, construction Supervision and method
of reporting)
• How to check whether the project is according to construction schedule and quality
(Construction supervision)
• What to do if things are not moving according to plan (Disputes and arbitration,
Labor laws, Penalty)
• How to avoid redundancy in the system (Value engineering)

Outcome of this stage: Facility or structures

5. COMMISSIONING OF A PROJECT - Aim of this phase is to check that the

project has been carried out according to the contract document. All the facilities developed
should function properly as envisaged in the design. Also during this stage changes in the
design during the construction is properly documented for the purpose of technical
performance and financial implications. Following activities are carried out during this
stage -
• Check if each component is functioning according to design and specification
• Check if the entire system is functioning accordingly as desired
• To remove the defect if any during construction work
• Dream has come to reality
• This is one of the main stages, in the bigger project such as power plant, industrial
project, dam, etc., the commissioning in large project is carried out in several stages
and then the complete system is tested. Testing of components are generally carried
out during construction phase. Operational and maintenance instruction manuals
are also prepared during this phase.

6. UTILIZATION AND MAINTENANCE -

• Basic infrastructure facilities created should be utilized to its fullest capacity
• Regular repair of the part getting damaged has to be accomplished
This stage has become a very important stage in dealing with project when we talk about
the life cycle cost of the project.

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4.1 GOOD PRACTISING AT A CONSTRUCTION SITE:-
• Promoting mix design with fly ash.
• Utilization of concrete debris in Temporary Roads and Yard developments.
• Utilization of broken bricks in brick ‘coba’ waterproofing.
• Using of MS cantilever plat forms for material shifting through Tower crane.
• Improving site logistics by completing the non-tower areas, extended basements
and underground water tanks on priority.
• Using of Doka jumping form to reduce the slab cycle and timely completion of lift
shafts and machine rooms.
• Initiating measures during design stage itself for reuse of available structural steel
elements mobilized for temporary works in main jobs like chiller plat forms,
structural steel backlight supports, louvers etc.
• Promoting LAFOR system for Energy Center 15m height GF slab to achieve better quality with
safety.

4.2 BASIC STEPS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

It involves-
• Collection of field data by making necessary measurements;
• Recording of observed data in a systematic manner.
Before starting any field observation, the permanent adjustments of all the instruments need to be
checked thoroughly by trained personnel and if required, it must be adjusted.

Office Work: It involves

• Processing, analyzing and calculation of observed data;
• Preparation of necessary data (for making plan or map of the area);
• Making of a plan or map of the area;
• Computation of relevant field parameters as per design for setting out engineering works at
site.

Setting out work: The entire process from conceptualization of a structure to its final erection
on the land, involves a lot of steps that are to be carried out in order so as to be able to accomplish
the task. A lot of aspects need to be taken care of for carrying out different activities associated
with the project. The important steps with details have been mentioned here.

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 1. Conceptualization :
The type of structure that has to be built with the purpose that it is meant for has to be decided by
the ‘Client’ or the ‘Owner’ of the building. According to the needs, requirements and the purpose
of the building the design of the building is decided upon. However, amongst all this the most
important thing to be remembered is the budget of the entire project. As, it acts as the most
fundamental guideline for the whole project.

2. Site assessment :
The site should be visited to carry out a preliminary survey of the basic details of the site. They
may include, the geographical directions, soil quality (a basic idea), accessibility to the site, etc.

3. Quantity Survey :
Surveying or land surveying; is the technique, profession, and science of accurately determining
the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them,
commonly practiced by licensed surveyors, and members of various building professions. These
points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish land maps and
boundaries for ownership, locations (building corners, surface location of subsurface features) or
other governmentally required or civil law purposes (property sales).
To accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of mathematics (geometry and
trigonometry), physics, engineering and law. An alternative definition, from the American
Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM), is the science and art of making all essential
measurements to determine the relative position of points or physical and cultural details above,
on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable form, or to establish the
position of points or details.

Fig. 6

25
Operations in surveying consists of :
• Planning
• Field Observation
• Office Works
• Setting out Works

4. Contract :
This is the most important legal document that governs an entire project. It is an agreement
between the client and the contractor that carries all the details related with the project. It includes
each and every detail regarding all the work that is to be carried out at the site. Once the concerned
people have signed it only then can the work be carried out.

5. Soil Testing:
All the necessary tests are carried out as mentioned in the IS Codes, by the concerned firm or lab.
The head of the organization, carrying out the tests, should then submit a detailed report. Usually
the foundation type is also recommended by the same organization. The results are used further in
deigning of the super-structure.

Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical engineers or engineering

geologists to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock around a site to design
earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks and
structures caused by subsurface conditions. This type of investigation is called a site investigation.
Additionally, Geotechnical investigations are also used to measure the thermal resistivity of soils
or backfill materials required for underground transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines, radioactive
waste disposal, and solar thermal storage facilities. A geotechnical investigation will include
surface exploration and subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used
to obtain data about sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves soil sampling and laboratory
tests of the soil samples retrieved.
Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and
photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical professional walking around on the site
to observe the physical conditions at the site. To obtain information about the soil conditions below
the surface, some form of subsurface exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below
the surface, obtaining samples, and determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include
test pits, trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring, and in situ tests.

26
METHODS OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
• Soil sampling
• Soil samplers
• In-situ tests
• Laboratory tests
• Geophysical exploration.

6. Architectural & Structural Drawings :

These acts as the guideline for the contractor who carries out the construction at the site.
They should therefore, have all the details regarding the dimensions of the structural elements,
clearly mentioned in it. Different types of drawings required at the site are (some general
drawings):
• General Arrangement of every level
• Beam Detailing
• Slab Detailing
• Column Detailing
• Column Layout
• Staircase Detailing

7. Structural Analysis of the proposed structure :

A structural engineer analyses the entire structure as proposed by the architect through the
‘Structural Drawings’. The entire design has to be analysed thoroughly, with the basic design
features being fulfilled.

8. Planning & Scheduling :

This is a very important aspect as far as multi-storey projects are concerned. A schedule
is worked out by the planner determining the time of completion of various activities on site.A lot
of factors need to be kept in mind when planning the time durationfor different activities. Labour
output, Plant and Machinery availability. Site conditions, etc. determine the scheduling. A detailed
knowledgeabout site works assists in working out the schedule. It then also assistsin monitoring
of the progress of construction activities from time totime.

9. Billing :
This is another very important aspect in civil engineering projects. Billing is done at every
step of construction phase and plays the role of keeping in check the expenses. Even the minutest
of details are included and a very detailed account of all the expenditure is prepared.

27
 ‘Bill of Quantities’ is one of the most important bills. (All the above processes were majorly
at the corporate office level. The ones mentioned below are those that are practiced on the site.)

10. Material Procurement :

Once the due date for construction hasbeen agreed upon material is bought and stacked in
the ‘Store’ at thesite. A note of all the incoming and outgoing material is kept at theStore office.
Only the required quantity of material is kept in the stock,in order to reduce wastage to a bare
minimum. An audit is carried outfrom time to time to keep a check of all the activities at store
level.

11. Quality Control:

Before the material can be given a nod to beaccepted and kept in the stock for its use
in construction, a proper testing of the material has to be carried out. All the major tests arecarried
out in accordance with the IS Codes. A report is also prepared bythe concerned in-charge and if
the material fails to meet the minimum standards it can be returned to the supplier. A few of the
tests are:
• Compressive Strength Test for Concrete and Bricks.
• Sieve Analysis for Coarse and Fine Aggregates.
• Impact Test for Coarse Aggregate.
• Shear Slump test for Concrete (Workability).
• Test for checking Silt content.
• Boiling water test for the plywood used in formwork.
12. Plant And Machinery (P&M) :
This department at the sitemanages all themachinery being used at site. From transporting
it to the requiredlocation to maintaining its proper functioning. Batching plant is themost important
machinery used at site and requires experienced personfor its use. It assists in the production of
concrete and therefore takestop priority. All the other equipments used are also equally
importantand need to be taken good care of. The machines usually used are:

• Batching Plant
• Transit Mixture
• Excavator (JCB)
• Concrete Pump
• Tower Crane
• Hoist
• Air Compressor

28
 • Vibrator
• Concrete Breaker

13. Finishing :
This is the last part of construction but requires greatskill and expertise. It deals with all
the safety features like fire fighting,external façade, plumbing, electrical fittings, AC ducts, False
ceiling,etc. It also forms an important part of the entire budget and thereforehas to be dealt with
carefully.

29
 5. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT SITE

 Plot Total Area - 6.89 Acre

 Built up Area - 1861.1872 CU.M
 Site: Construction of government 3 schools
 Type of Structure – EDUCATIONAL, SEMI PERMANENT STRUCTURE
 Client Name: PWD
 Architect –consultant Mr. HP Gupta (retd. SE from PWD)
 Structural Consultant – ACGON ENGINEERS Pvt. Ltd.
 Contractor: PAWAN KUMAR PVT. LTD.
 Contract Value : 15 Crore
 Original Contract Duration:135 DAYS
 Date of commencement: 3RD MARCH 2017
 Expected date of Completion: 30TH NOVEMBER 2017

5.1 LOCATION OF THE SITE

Fig. 7

30
 Fig. 8

5.2 VIEW OF THE SITE

Fig. 9

31
 6. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

6.1 EXCAVATION

Fig. 10

Excavation is a process of making trenches by digging up of earth for the construction

of foundations and basements. Excavation level at escape site is 219.825 mm. Excavation is done
by the JCB on the hourly basis. After the excavation the surface is leveled called surface dressing.
Excavation was carried out both mechanically and manually. Normally 1-2 earth excavators were
used for excavating the soil. Adequate precautions were taken to see that excavation operations do
not damage the adjoining the structures. Excavation was carried out providing adequate side slopes
and dressing of excavation bottom.

32
6.2 LAYOUT

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

33
 Layout was done on the PCC poured over levelled surface. After the process of excavation
laying of plain cement concrete that is PCC was done. A layer of 75mm was laid in such a manner
that it does not mix with soil. It provides a solid base for the raft foundation and a mix of 1:3:6
(M10) was used. After PCC was done, layout of columns and shear walls was carried out so that
their reinforcement should be placed on exact position. Same procedure was used on floor slabs
also to locate cut out and other necessary members.

6.3 FOUNDATION

Fig. 13
Steel for raft was placed after the layout was done. First bottom reinforcement for raft was
done and maximum size of bar used for main reinforcement was 20mm.
After completion of bottom reinforcement Top reinforcement was done and chairs were
provided at every meter sq. Also for the column and shear walls reinforcement was done.

34
6.4 COLUMN CASTING

Fig. 14

35
Fig. 15

36
 Fig. 16

LAYOUT PEDASTAL STARTER

Fig. 17

37
 On the raft the column layout is done as shown in the figure 17. Layout for starter.
The column ties and link bars are provided as per column reinforcement drawings and general
specifications. Displacement of main bars should be provided with L bar. The plumb of formwork
should be checked. Height of cast should be calculated accurately. Avoid caps as far as possible.

6.4.1 Key in Column

Fig. 18

Since the height of column is very large, hence it is not possible to cast the column at one
time, to cast the column later the key is made at the junction so that the proper bond between the
old concrete and new concrete is formed.

38
6.5-SLAB, BEAM, SHUTTERING AND CASTING

Fig. 19

39
Fig. 20

40
 Fig. 21

 Beam bottom is first laid on the column and then slab form work is laid.
 After the reinforcement, the slab is checked for steel as
per drawings and level required.
 A camber of 5 mm in provided in the center of slab.
 Casting of slab should be discontinue at l/3 from the support.

Shuttering and scaffolding was done after the completion of reinforcement. Shuttering was
done to stop the concrete at its limits and required surface was obtained with required size.
Scaffolding was done to provide access easily around the raft. When casting of raft was completed
shuttering and scaffolding for the columns and shear walls was done. All the outer columns of the
frame were checked for plumb by plumb-bob as the work proceeds to upper floors. Internal
columns were checked by taking measurements from outer row of columns for their exact position.
Jack were used to lift the supporting rods called props.
Shuttering or form work is the term used for temporary timber, plywood, metal or other
material used to provide support to wet concrete mix till it gets strength for self-support. It provides
supports to horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces or also provides support to cast concrete
according to required shape and size. The form work also produces desired finish concrete
surface.
Shuttering or form work should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete
mix and the pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the top of form
work/shuttering. It should be rigid to prevent any deflection in surface after laying cement concrete
and be also sufficient tight to prevent loss of water and mortar form cement concrete. Shuttering

41
should be easy in handling, erection at site and easy to remove when cement concrete is sufficient
hard. Generally there are three types of shuttering.
 Steel Shuttering
 Wooden Planks Shuttering
 Temporary Brick Masonry Shuttering
Steel shuttering
Steel shuttering plate is the best type of shuttering because this is water tight shuttering
which can bear the load of cement concrete placed on it. This shuttering can be used for horizontal,
vertical or any other shape required for the work. It gives leveled surface which has good
appearance. This shuttering gives good appearance and pattern work according to architectural
drawings. If the plaster is required, the thickness of plaster will be less. Being water tight
shuttering, the strength of concrete with steel shuttering is comparatively higher.

Wooden plank shuttering

Generally wooden planks shuttering is used by contractors because this shuttering is cheap
and easily available. But this type of shuttering affects the strength of concrete and has some
disadvantages which are given below.

Temporary brick masonry shuttering

In some cases labor contractor uses Temporary Brick Masonry in mud for vertical support
of sides of beams, fascia etc. This shuttering should be avoided. This type of shuttering reduces
the strength of cement concrete by soaking cement slurry. Also no proper compaction is made as
this shuttering does not bear the pressure of vibrator. The surface of cement concrete given by this
type of shuttering is uneven and the thickness of plaster is increased.

Defects Found In Shuttering/Form Work

 The supports of form work are not in plumb and are not cross braced.
 The ground supports of ballies are poor and therefore settle the form work.
 There is insufficient thickness of shuttering plates/planks unable to bear lateral
pressure imposed by wet concrete especially in columns.
 Shuttering plates are not cleaned and oiled or oiled with dirty oil.
 There are many insufficient and loose connections in centering and shuttering.
 The form work is removed before time. The work is not planned and designed
properly.
 In case of beam shuttering proper provision for retaining side is not made. Hence
the side of beam is not in proper line.

42
  The shuttering is poorly made with cracked and warped timber planks having lots
of holes and knots.
 Through bolts for RCC walls form work for an underground tank is used. Later
these holes made by bolts are not plugged.
 ‘Ballies’ are resting on bricks or brick pillars
 Ballies are not in one piece. Small ballies are used and these are not properly
jointed. Also no additional cross bracing is provided at the joint.
 The supports under shuttering plates are not properly tight.
 The earth work under supports is not properly compacted before starting shuttering
work.

The bottom of ‘ballies’ are in wedge shape, not having proper base.

6.6 EXPANSION JOINT

EXPANSION JOINT
MATERIAL, SIZE IS
25MM

EXPANSION
JOINT IN
BUILDING

Fig. 22

 Since concrete is subjected to volume change. Provision mustbe made to cater for
the volume change by way of joint torelieve the stresses produced.
 Expansion joint is function of length.

43
  Buildings longer than 45 m are generally provided with one or more expansion
joints.
 Material used as expansion joint material is armour boardwhose thickness is 25
mm.
 Expansion joint material, size is 25 mm.
 Expansion joint in building.

6.7 CONCRETING

Fig. 23
After shuttering was completely done concreting was done with the help of Transit mixers
and was pumped to the required place with the help of concrete pumps. For concreting of vertical
members like columns and shear walls maximum free fall of concrete allowed was 1.5 meter.

44
6.8 DE-SHUTTERING

Fig. 24
Forms were not struck until the concrete has attained a strength at least twice the stress to
which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of form work. The strength referred is
that of concrete using the same cement and aggregates with the same proportions and cured under
conditions of temperature and moisture similar to those existing on the work. Where so required,
form work was left longer in normal circumstances. Form work was removed in such a manner as
would not cause any shock or vibration that would damage the concrete. Before removal of props,
concrete surface was exposed to ascertain that the concrete has sufficiently hardened.
Where the shape of element is such that form work has re-entrant angles, the form work
was removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking occurring
due to the restraint imposed.

6.9 BRICK WORK

 English bond is used.
 Cement used for B/W is OPC 43/53 Grade.
 SECOND class bricks are used.
 Mortar(1:6) was used for 230mm B/W and 1:4 was used for 115 mm B/W.

45
 6.9.1 Brick work check list:-
While on site, a site engineer must ensure that the brickwork is going on as per quality
requirements. Some of the general requirements of quality of brickwork are mentioned below. Use
this as a checklist while executing brickwork.
1. The thickness of joint in brick masonry should not exceed 1 cm.
2. The face joints should be raked to a depth of 15 mm by raking tool when the mortar
is still green so as to provide proper key for plaster or pointing.
3. Brickwork should be taken up in layers not exceeding one meter height at a time.
4. Check that the brick work is in plumb.
5. Check that the brick courses are in level.
6. Check the quality of bricks with specific reference to
 Strength
 Efflorescence
 Dimensional accuracy
 Water absorption
7. Check that no brick bats are used as queen closer.
8. Check strength of mortar by scratching with sharp instrument like screw driver.
9. Check quality of sand in mortar. (Test for fineness modulus and silt content).
10. Check mixing of mortar whether done by hand or by machine, whether mixing is
done on a proper platform.
11. Check arrangements for curing.
12. Whether raking of green joints done or not.
13. Whether soaking of bricks done or not.
14. Check general quality of works with reference to lines, levels, thickness and
trueness of the joints.
15. Whether brick corners are provided properly by a proper brick closer and not by
pitting brick bats.
16. Whether top courses in plinth, in window sill and below RCC slab and parapet are
provided with brick on edge.
17. Whether joints of brick work are filled with mortar fully, check especially vertical
joints.
18. Check type of scaffolding and whether tied and braced properly.
19. Check reinforcement in brick partition wall, whether provided.
20. Check bonding of cross wall with long walls.
21. Whether holes left in the brick work while execution for supporting scaffolding are
filled with concrete and not with dry bricks.

46
6.9.2. Bricks used on the site:-

6.9.2.1. Concrete block bricks: 6.9.2.2. Normal bricks:

Fig. 25 Fig. 26

6.10 WATER PROOFING

WATER BAR:

Fig. 27

47
 Water bar is provided in the retaining wall of that the moisture can’t move from the soil to
the joint. Water bar is basically provided at the constructions joints of retaining wall of two
different towers.

WATER PROOFING:

Fig. 28

1. Water proofing has remained as an unsolved complex problem.

2. Use of plasticizers, super plasticizers, air-entraining agentshelps in reducing the
permeability of concrete by reducing therequirement of mixing water, hence can be also
be regarded aswaterproof material.
3. Some of approved water-proofing compound by the companyare:- pidilite, cico, fosroe,
baushimine, unitile.
4. Water-proofing cement paint:- super snoweem.

48
 6.11. DEWATERING FLOOR

Fig. 29
Material required: cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water, Admixture(Cico Floor
top RTU hardener)Surface is prepared by cleaning and applying concrete slurry on it.concrete(M
20) is poured proper level and slope of flooring.Thickness of flooring is checked before and after
finishing of concrete. Concrete should be laid in alternate panels of area 50-60 meter sq. Size of
tremix should be 3-4 m wide and 12-16 meter in length.Compaction is done by screed vibrator in
two passes followed by leveling beam. For dewatering suction mat are provided attached to a
engine of 10 HP. At 0.7 atmosphere vacuum shall be maintained for 10-15 minutes and at 0.8
atmosphere vacuum shall be maintained for 12-15 minutes. After removal of suction mat concrete
shall be power floated without delay.Cico floor top hardener would be laid 4-5 kg in every sq.
mtr.Before initial setting brooming is done. Curing of surface for 7 days.

49
 6.12 CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING

Fig. 30
The base surface shall be clean properly free from dust grease and loose materials.Fixing
of 30*4mm glass strip panels of size 1.2m*1.2m of true line level and slope of each panel.
Pouring of concrete done by concrete pump upto proper level and slope of flooring.After
concrete pouring, compaction of concrete was done by ramming with heavy teak wood
float.Flooring shall be finished to true line, level and slopes.Concrete surface shall be finished
smooth with cement slurry by steel trowel.After setting curing for 7 days is done.

50
 6.13 STONE FLOORING

Fig. 31
Surface preparation and laying of marble/kota stone: Surface on which stone is to be fixed
shall be cleaned and wetted. Stone slabs for flooring shall be laid over the bedding mortar (1:4)
and for skirting (1:3). The average thickness of bedding mortar be 20mm. Mortar shall be spread
tamped and corrected to proper levels.
Over this bedding mortar buttering by neat grey/white cement is done (4-5 Kg/ Sq.).Stone
shall be soaked in water washed clean and fixed on floor. Each piece shall be gently tapped till it
is properly bedded/leveled. Joint thickness shall be minimum and cutting should be done with
diamond cutting blade.
Pointing and Finishing: The joint shall be cleaned off with wire or coir brush or trowel.
Joint then shall be grouted with resin/Tan X/ white cement. The floor shall be wet cured for 7 days.
After curing surface shall be washed and finished. Mirror Polishing: The surface shall be polished
with synthetic carborundum stone buffed cleaned with diluted acidic wash to give a smooth even
perfect plane surface.
Protection: Flooring shall be protected with Protective scratch proof tape or POP of
appropriate thickness over 200 micron polythene sheet till handling over. Before handling over
protective tape and POP shall be removed and one coat of polishing is done.

51
6.14 CEILING

The mix proportion for ceiling plaster of 6mm was 1:3(one cement : 3 fine sand) on
concrete surfaces.All plastering was finished to true level including plumbs and square with
adjoining sides.The face of plaster was finished flush. The joints was raked out to receive render/
plaster finish later.Plastering guides using nylon threads was used to ensure uniform thickness of
plastering.Curing of plaster was done for atleast seven days.

Drop ceiling (T-bar ceiling with red sand stones)

A dropped ceiling is a secondary ceiling, hung below the main (structural) ceiling. It may
also be referred to as a drop ceiling, T-bar ceiling, false ceiling, suspended ceiling, grid
ceiling, drop in ceiling, drop out ceiling, or ceiling tiles and is a staple of
modern construction and architecture in both residential and commercial applications.
NOTE: - Here T bars were used in the ceiling s it was a temporary structure and it was the best
suitable bars which could be used with the red sand stones shown in the figure}.

Fig. 32

52
6.15. WHITE WASH

Surface preparation: Surface thoroughly brushed free from mortar,dropping. Chalk mitti as
a base putty is used for the undulation of surface and then sand papering.Preparation of material :
5Kg of water and 1 KG of lime paste with DDL binder(250gm with 5 Kg of lime) and Neel
(3gm//Kg of lime). Application: White wash shall be applied with brushes and coating should be
from down to top. Two or more coats are applied as per satisfaction.

6.16. GYPSUM PLASTER

Fig. 33
Gypsum plaster was applied directly on brick , stone and concrete surface.Tie rod hole was
cleaned upto 50mm deep in the column and shear wall and micro concrete was filled in hole.Wall
was thoroughly cleaned hacked and free from all loose particles.Surface was pre wetted so as to
achieve more spread and higher coverage.Mixing was done by mixing rod to obtain a thoroughly
mixed surface.Gypsum plaster ratio(1 water: 2 Gypsum) was maintained to have a good cohesive
workable mix.Chicken wire mesh was applied on RCC wall and brick wall joint.If the plaster was
more than 40-50 mm then chicken wire mesh was applied after doing rough plaster.When the
gypsum plaster has been applied on walls its line and level was checked with the help of straight
edge.

53
6.17. WET STONE CLADDING

Fig. 34
Marble for cladding was approved by engineer.Quality of stone was uniform and it was
free from any discoloration, cracks and veins. Marble opted for this site was Omani marble of 20
mm thickness. Application: Before fixing of cladding base for stone cladding was prepared. Grid
and bull mark was marked. Marble stone was fixed by cramps and fasteners made of steel.
Fasteners were of 8-10 mm dia. and 75mm length. After bull marking cladding was started from
bottom to upward.Verticality was checked by plumb bob and POP mortar was used to fix the stone
at the corner. White cement paste was applied on joint during fixing of stone.After setting of first
row of stone grey cement and coarse sand mix mortar was filled in backside (1:3) during filling of
slurry Straightness was checked with straight edge so that line and level are maintained in proper
way. Finishing: Joint was cleaned off with coir brush/trowel and grouted with white cement and
cladding was wet cured for 7 days.After curing period surface was polished with synthetic
carborundum stone and then washed with dilute oxalic acid.

54
6.18. INTERNAL PAINTING

Fig. 35
Surface preparation: Internal plaster surface should be cleaned and dusted off. Surface was
made smooth using sand paper. After that putty was applied and again sand papering was done.
Application: Before application of emulsion paint primer was applied. After primer the surface
was lightly sand papered to make it dry. The first coat of acrylic emulsion paint was applied using
roller and brush first in horizontal direction then in vertical direction, this constitutes one coat.
After the first coat was dried second coat of paint was applied. The final surface was presenting a
smooth surface.

55
6.19. EXTERNAL PAINTING

Fig. 36

Surface preparation: paint was not applied directly on plaster wall/wooden surface/RCC
etc. Prior to application of priming coat surface was thoroughly cleaned. If the plaster had any
cracks then the portion was removed and repaired with fresh mortar. If efflorsence was present it
was thoroughly removed with brush and broom. Application:

Before application of paint waterproofing cement primer was applied. After primer paint
was applied on the clean and smooth surface. Before painting paint was thoroughly stirred to keep
uniform consistency.Initially paint was applied on the surface horizontally them vertically.This is
one coat.Entire surface was finished in two or more coats. At this site up to 4th floor texture paint
was done and above 4th floor weather shield was done.

56
6.20. RAILING PAINTING

Fig. 37
Surface preparation: Before painting of Balcony/ Stair case railing all the rust and scales
was cleaned by scrapping or with steel wire brushes. Dust, layer of oxide and dirt was removed.
Surface should be dry for painting. Application: Before application of duco paint primer was
applied on prepared surface by spray gun. After primer was dried surface putty was applied then
surface was made smooth using sand paper. After that duco paint was applied in two coats.

57
6.21 BINDING MATERIALS USED

6.21.1 Chicken wire mesh

Fig. 38

6.21.2 Drainage pipes

Fig. 39

58
 Since the thermal expansion of concrete is different from that of masonry. The interface
between the concrete and the masonry is liable to crack. To avoid this crack the chicken wire mesh
is used to avoid the crack and also provides the better grip for Masonry with concrete. Similarly
when the drainage pipes are laid along with the outer wall then again the connection between the
pipe and the wall has different coefficient of temperature change hence they are joint to the
concrete by lead keys. In the toilets and kitchen sunken portion the joints in any case are packed
by water proof and non-shrinkable material.

59
 7. TESTS IN LABORATORY

 Compression Testing Machine(CTM)

 Workability or Slump cone test on Concrete
 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate
 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate

7.1 COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE

Fig. 59

Compressive strength test on concrete remove before 24hrs. Whenever cube is coated.

NOTE: Load in UTM=140 Kg/cm and

60
 Size of Cube Mould=15x15x15 cm.

PROCEDURE:-
 Remove the specimen from curing tank.
 Place the specimen in Compression Testing Machine (CTM), Capacity-3000KN.
 Place the cube so that caste face shall not be at top or bottom.
 In case so that cast face shall not be capped using Sulphur Capping. Sulphur
Capping is for the finishing of cube layer.
 Align the axis of specimen with center of thrust of spherically seated platen.
 Apply the load till specimen break or crack.
 Record the max load applied.
 Calculate compressive strength. Compressive Strength = Load/Area. Unit-N/mm.

Note- Taping bar is used for cube is 25 times and 35 times.

Taping bar: - 16mm Diameter & 700mm Long

7.2 SLUMP CONE TEST

Types of slumps:-
Collapse Shear True
In a collapse slump the In a shear slump the top portion of In a true slump the concrete
concrete collapses the concrete shears off and slips simply subsides, keeping more
completely. sideways. or less to shape.

Fig. 60
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a
term very closely related to workability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It
refers to the ease with which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness.

61
 Fig. 61

Fig. 62

 Collect the sample on non-absorbent metal plate or tray and mix it thoroughly.
 Clean the internal surface of cone slump.

62
  Fix the cone firmly to its base plate with help of clamping screw and place it
at horizontal surface.
 Fill the mould with concrete sample in four layers each layer approximately¼ cone
height.
 Compact each layer with 25 strokes by tamping rod.
 Release the clamping screw and lift the cone slowly and carefully in vertical
direction from the concrete.
 Place the cone inverted at the side of concrete.
 Measure the difference of height between top of cone top of plastic concrete.
 Record the value as slump of concrete in mm.

7.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATES

Fig. 63

Max. Size of agg. (mm) Min. wt. of sample (kg) Min. wt. of sieve
analysis (kg)
40 50 20
20 25 12
10 6 3

63
7.3.1 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates-
 Prepare sample using sample divider for different of aggregate as per table above.
 Make the sample dry by heating at 100 to 110°C.
 Take the weight of sample and sieve it successfully on following sieve-50mm,
40mm, 20mm, 10mm, and 4.75mm.
 Shake each sieve separately until not more than a trace passes but not less than 2
min.
 Take weight of material retained on each sieve.
 Calculate % retained, and cumulative % retained on each sieve.
 Calculate corresponding % passing %retained = (Wt. of retained on sieve/Total
Wt. of sample)*100

7.3.2 Sieve analysis of fine aggregates-

 Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Max. Size of agg. (mm) Min. wt. of sample (kg) Min. wt. of sieve
analysis (kg)
10 6 3
4.5 3 1

Using Sieve-4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600micron, 300micron, 150micron.

 Make the sample dry by heating at 100 to 110°C.

 Take the weight of sample and sieve it successfully on following sieve-50mm,
40mm, 20mm, 10mm, and 4.75mm.
 Shake each sieve separately until not more than a trace passes but not less than 2
min.
 Take weight of material retained on each sieve.
 % retained, and cumulative % retained on each sieve.
 Calculate corresponding % passing %retained = (Wt. of retained on sieve/Total
Wt. of sample)*100

Note: sieve shaker of 20cm and 45cm frame}.

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 8. SELECTION OF CONCRETE
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of
ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the
plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed
and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an

index of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water
and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made
up of the cost of materials, plant and labor. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the
fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a
mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and
cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete
which may cause cracking.

The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the
structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality
control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic compromise,
and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labor depends on the workability of mix, e.g.,
a concrete mixof inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of
compaction with available equipment.

8.1 CONCRETING

Important terms used for concreting:-

COVER BLOCK-

Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods from touching the shuttering plates and
thereby providing a minimum cover and fix the reinforcements as per the design drawings.
Sometimes, it is commonly seen that the cover gets misplaced during the concreting activity. To
prevent this, tying of cover with steel bars using thin steel wires called binding wires (projected
from cover surface and placed during making or casting of cover blocks) is recommended. Covers
should be made of cement sand mortar (1:3).

65
 Ideally, cover should have strength similar to the surrounding concrete, with the least
perimeter so that chances of water to penetrate through periphery will be minimized. Provision of
minimum covers as per the Indian Standards for durability of the whole structure should be
ensured.

Fig. 40
COMPACTION-

It is important that concrete be vibrated at the correct frequency to fluidize the mix, to coat
the aggregate with cement paste and to release trapped air. The operating frequency of internal
vibrators may be less than specified values, which may have been measured with the vibrator
operating in the air. A reduction in frequency results in an energy reduction, which in turn reduces
the effective compaction area. It is important to introduce the vibrator in a systematic way, so that
the compaction areas overlap and all the concrete is compacted. An internal vibrator with an elastic
motor and electronic speed control has been developed. This gives controlled energy input and has
the added benefit of a lighter, more flexible cable.

Fig. 41

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FINISHING-

When the concrete compaction and screening is done, the wall is roughly floated with a
trowel to give a smooth surface. After floating, wall is left to set hard. Free water (bleed water)
will rise to the surface of the wall after it is levelled. Wait until the surface water dries before doing
the final float or trowel finishing. On a cold day the bleed water may havse to be dragged off by
pulling a rope over the surface.

Fig. 42

Never spread dry cement or sand over the wall to absorb the bleed water as this will make
the finished surface weak and dusty. Wood or steel hand floats and trowels do a good job too; the
whole surface should be worked over twice. Save finishing time by finishing the girder only to the
standard needed for the type of finish to be used, the top surface is finished smooth.

CURING- Approved curing compounds may be used in lieu of most curing with the permission
of the engineer-in charge. Such compounds shall be applied to all exposed surfaces of the concrete
as soon as possible after the concrete has set. Water covering closely the concrete surface may also
be used to provide effective barrier against evaporation.

If Curing is not done:-

 It let concrete dry out of its own accord after concerting.

 It will not develop the full bond between all of its ingredients.
 It will be weaker and tend to crack more.
 The surface won't be as hard as it could be.

67
 Fig. 43

8.2 SPECIALLY DESIGNED CONCRETE ON SITE

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically.

However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the
correct mix proportions for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding
performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients
per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of
concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the
masses of the ingredients.

8.3 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and

68
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of
ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the
plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed
and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an

index of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water
and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made
up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the
fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a
mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and
cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete
which may cause cracking.

8.3.1 Types of Mixes:

8.3.1.1 Nominal Mixes:

In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength
are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin
of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal
concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.

8.3.1.2 Standard mixes

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength
and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength
has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.

IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20,
M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25
correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2)
respectively.

8.3.1.3 Designed Mixes

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the

69
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the designed
mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the
prescribed performance.

For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in
the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very
small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is
necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.

8.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF MIX PROPORTIONS

The various factors affecting the mix design are:

8.4.1 Compressive strength

It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific age,
usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting
the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of
compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely
proportional to the water-cement ratio.

8.4.2 Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section to
be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For the
narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must
have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort.
This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the
compacting equipment available at the site.

8.4.3 Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when the
high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital,
the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.

8.4.4 Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a particular
water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in maximum size

70
of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in size of
aggregate.

IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be as
large as possible.

8.4.5 Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and water-
cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not
desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.

The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired workability
and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity
of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions.

8.4.6 Quality Control

The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The variation
in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and lack of control
of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference between the
mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The factor
controlling this difference is termed as quality control.

8.4.7 Mix Proportion designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms
of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions
1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one
part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate.

8.5 STRENGTH TEST OF CONCRETE

Out of many test applied to the concrete, this is the most important which gives an idea
about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has
been done properly or not. For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X
15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm x 10 cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the
works cubical moulds of size 15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids.
After 24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top
surface of these specimens should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste
and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

71
These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days curing.
Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens fails.
Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

Procedure:-

 Clean the mounds and apply oil

 Fill the concrete in the moulds in layers approximately 5cm thick
 Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel
bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
 Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel.

Fig. 44

72
Compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 days

GRADE OF CONCRETE MIN. COMPRESSIVE SPECIFIED

STRENGTH (N/MM2 ) AT 7 CHARACTERISTIC
DAYS COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (N/MM2)AT
28 DAYS
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45

8.6 COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE

 Cement
 Water
 Aggregates
 Reinforcement
 Chemical admixtures
 Mineral admixtures and blended cements

There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main
ingredients below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the
finished product can be tailored to its application with varying strength, density, or chemical and
thermal resistance properties.

"Aggregate" consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or
crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.
"Cement", commonly Portland cement, and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, serve as a binder for the aggregate.
“Water” is then mixed with this dry composite, which produces a semi-liquid that workers can
shape (typically by pouring it into a form). The concrete solidifies and hardens to rock-hard
strength through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.

73
"Chemical admixtures" are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may speed or
slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties.
"Reinforcements" are often added to concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high compressive
strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with
materials that are strong in tension (often steel).
"Mineral admixtures" are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled
materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent
environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and
valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power
plants, and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials
in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the ash and fume act as a cement
replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and
environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be
disposed of.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and
delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.

CEMENT

Fig. 45
A few tons of bagged cement. This amount represents about two minutes of output from a
10,000 ton per day cement kiln. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general
usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. It consists of a mixture of oxides of

74
calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating
limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source
of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption
per ton of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty
industrial installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients
used in concrete the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns
require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement.
Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires.
The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement
kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.

WATER
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.
A lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, whereas more water gives
a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause
problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2

75
AGGREGATES

Fig. 46-Crushed stone aggregate

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel
and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,
demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag
and bottom ash are also permitted.
The presence of aggregate greatly increases the durability of concrete above that of cement,
which is a brittle material in its pure state. Thus concrete is a true composite material.
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the influence of
vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among
landscape designers. In addition to being decorative, exposed aggregate adds robustness to a
concrete driveway.

76
8.7 CONCRETE PRODUCTION
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water,
aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive.
Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In
modern usage, most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a
concrete plant, or often a batch plant.
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central mix
plants. A ready mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix plant mixes
all the ingredients including water. A central mix plant offers more accurate control of the concrete
quality through better measurements of the amount of water added, but must be placed closer to
the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.
A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like
cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of
various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of
those ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.

Fig. 47
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms,
which are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape. There are many
different ways in which concrete formwork can be prepared, such as Slip forming and Steel plate

77
construction. Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory
settings to manufacture Pre-cast concrete products.
There is a wide variety of equipment for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy
industrial machinery. Whichever equipment builder’s use, however, the objective is to produce the
desired building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within
time constraints. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to
ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various
technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
When initially mixed, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel of tangled chains of
interlocking crystals, and components of the gel continue to react over time. Initially the gel is
fluid, which improves workability and aids in placement of the material, but as the concrete sets,
the chains of crystals join into a rigid structure, counteracting the fluidity of the gel and fixing the
particles of aggregate in place. During curing, the cement continues to react with the residual water
in a process of hydration. In properly formulated concrete, once this curing process has terminated
the product has the desired physical and chemical properties. Among the qualities typically
desired, are mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric
stability.

Workability
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly
with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends
on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of
hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the
water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water
leads to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and
aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an
aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low
slump, which cannot readily be made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simplistic measure of the
plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards.
Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of
concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is
then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to
consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain
amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one
or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may
slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.

78
 Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or super
plasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio Some other admixtures, especially air-
entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.

Fig. 48
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring
methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how
the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted. After mixing, concrete is a fluid and
can be pumped to the location where needed.

Curing
In all but the least critical applications, care must be taken to properly cure concrete, to
achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement
requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement paste
hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak and gaining in strength
in the weeks following. In around 4 weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached,
though strengthening may continue for decades.

79
A Concrete slab pounded while curing:

Fig. 49
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast
drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to
increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater
shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during
the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength
concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage
and cracking .The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on
cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation.
During this period concrete must be kept under controlled temperature and humid
atmosphere. In practice, this is achieved by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water,
thereby protecting the concrete mass from ill effects of ambient conditions. The picture to the right
shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding – submerging setting concrete in water and
wrapping in plastic to contain the water in the mix. Additional common curing methods include
wet burlap and/or plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete, or by spraying on a water-
impermeable temporary curing membrane.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids
cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or
overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced
strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.

80
 9. FOOTINGS

Footings are an important part of foundation construction. They are typically made up of
concrete with reinforcement that has been poured into an excavated trench. The purpose of footings
is to support the foundation and prevent settling. Footings are especially important in areas with
troublesome soils.
The construction of footings is best left to the pros that can access the soil conditions and
decide on the proper depth and width for the footings as well as proper placement. The dimensions
of footings also depends upon the size and the type od structure that will be built. Placement of
footings is crucial to provide the proper support for the foundation and ultimately the structure.
Concrete footings may also be needed for the projects such as a deck, pergola, retaining
wall or other types of construction.

9.1 TYPES OF FOOTINGS

9.1.1 Isolated or spread or pad footings
It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped to
spread the load over a larger area. When footing is provided to support an individual column, it is
called “isolated footing”.

Fig. 50

9.1.2 Combined footings

It supports two columns as shown in figure below. It is used when the two column are so close to
each other that their individual footings would overlap.

81
A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that a spread
footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining
it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combine footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the
column is larger than the other column.

Fig. 51

9.1.3 Strap footing

It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever, as shown in
figure below. The strap connects the footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply
acts as a connecting beam. A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the
allowable soil pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.

82
 Fig. 52

9.1.4 Strip or Continuous footing

A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load bearing wall.
A strip footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their
spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such cases, it is more economical to provide
a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known
as continuous footing.

Fig. 53

83
9.1.5 Mat or raft footing
It is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under entire structure or a large
part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the
columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils or
where there is large variation in the loads on the individual columns.

Fig. 54

84
9.1.6 Footings used on the site

ISOLATED FOOTING

Fig. 55

COMBINED FOOTING

Fig. 5

85
Fig. 57

86
`

Fig. 58

87
 10. SAFETY MEASURES AND CAMPAIGN

In Civil engineering construction project, accidents cannot be avoided. An event can

happen any time and unexpectedly during construction. About 80 percent of accidents are mainly
caused due to unsafe practices and shear negligence of the workers. Safety measures are required
to be built properly to motivate and encourage the workers to work at the given site or industry
without any fear, tension or worry in mind about his security of life. Good safety measures are
essential to increase the output of work by generating safety free environmental sense of
contentment among the workers. Safety measure can be efficiently handled by properly educating
and training workers about the safe rules and their importance. It is the foremost duty of
construction management to appoint separate safety engineer to undertake safety measure and to
prevent the occurrence of accidents. The causes of accidents should be properly investigated and
suitable measures should be adopted to control these accidents. Thus, safety measures prevent:

 Reduced workers’ compensation claims

 Reduced expenses related to injuries and illnesses
 Reduced absenteeism and Lower employee complaints
 Loss of Life and Increased productivity
 Improved employee morale and satisfaction
 Reduction of hidden cost and Reduced insurance cost

Fig. 64-Safety Measures

88
Personal Safety-

 Wear protective equipment. Always wear safety helmet, safety vast and safety
footwear at construction site.
 Do not drink or take drugs while working.
 Pay attention to personal hygiene.
 Do not play in the workplace.
 Report to your supervisor immediately if you notice any unsafe condition

Public Safety

 Pay attention to public safety. Members of the public are often unaware of or do
not understand the work carried out on construction sites and the hazards involved.
 Take great care to prevent the fall of materials from height.
 Do not stack materials on floor edges or on scaffolds.

Safety Campaign-

An organized movement launched by an enterprise or construction firm to advocate the

safety rules and regulations among its workers to reduce the number of accidents is termed as
safety campaign. The following points should be kept in mind for launching safety campaign.

 The safety campaign must be placed under the charge of a very competent,
experienced and able manager, who may be termed as safety Director.
 The worker should be frequently addressed in a small group in their language or
easy accessible language to explain about safety rules.
 Do’s and Don’ts during construction work should be displayed in bold letter along
with diagram on chart paper
 Advertisement films, Documentaries and CD should be shown to the workers on
off days, explaining about the need for safety measures.
 Safety Slogans and safety Quotations should be made an integral part of safety
campaign to educate the illiterate and poor workers.
 Training in first-aid should be provided to workers and supervisors for trating minor
cuts and injuries.
 Safety journals should be brought about by the concerned management and
distributed free of cost to the workers.

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10.1 INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL

Inspection is the process of carrying out vigilant checks during the construction of project
against any serious defect or lack of progress. Inspection of work is carried from beginning of
work up to the completion of project at various stages or levels by competent authority. Quality
control is the comparison of materials, construction techniques and finishing products etc. with the
laid down standards. The quality control and inspection should ensure that the quality of work is
the accordance with the prescribed specification.

Stages of construction:

 Layout stage: It is the first stage of work to be inspected when the layout of
building is carried out. The layout should be properly checked for right angles and
dimensions must be measured as per plan.
 Earthwork completion stage: At this stage, quality inspectors check the adequate
depth and width of excavation trench to ensure desired the depth of foundation.
 Foundation laying stage: At this stage, the quality engineer mainly inspects the
material reached at the site, such as quality of cement, sand, bricks and aggregate
to be used in foundations. The materials must be of the same quality as has been
inspected at the supplier’s premises. In general, a contractor always tries to use over
burnt or jhama bricks for the foundation for the foundation work which should be
objected.
 D.P.C. laying stage: It is the one of the critical stage, which must be inspected by
the quality engineer. It is the completion of foundation stage, when damp proofing
course is laid at the top of foundation layer to protect the building from moisture.
At this stage, once again layout of building should be exactly checked as per the
building plan to ensure proper internal dimensions of rooms and its component.
 Formwork erecting stage: Erecting formwork is one of the major stage of the
construction work, which must be given due attention by the quality inspectors. The
shape, strength and finishing surfaces of concrete in beams, column and slabs
mainly depend upon type of form work. For large project, only steel form work
should be used. For concrete construction forms or shuttering in the forms of
wooden planks or steel plates are used for keeping the green concrete in position
till it hardens. This helps in giving the desired shapes to different components of
the structure

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10.2 REMOVAL OF FORMWORK

 For columns = 24 to 48 hours

 For slab up to 4.5 m span = 7 days
 For slab more than 4.5m span = 14 days
 For beams up to 6m span = 14 days
 For beams above 6m span = 21 days
The good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:-
 The material of the formwork should be practically water proof so that it can’t
absorb water from concrete.
 It should be strong enough to withstand the pressure or the load of the fresh
concrete, live load of the worker coming on it.
 The formwork should be so made that it can be removed easily without causing the
least injury to the surface of nearly constructed concrete members.
 The inside surface of formwork should be smooth so as to give good appearance to
the resulting newly constructed concrete members.

Reinforcement laying stage: The strength of the structure member like beams, column and slab
depends upon the reinforcement provided. So, when the reinforcement stage is laid over the
formwork erected, it is right time for quality engineers to inspect the work for identification of any
defect with respect to inadequate reinforcement detail.

In safety training safety instructor tell us of use of safety equipment at construction site:

Custom hard hats safety vests work gloves

Fall protection safety glasses safety shoes

Fig. 65

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 11. EXPERIENCE

11.1 PROBLEMS FACED DURING TRAINING

The most prominent problem that occurred was improper shuttering at the time of laying slab. The
clear cover provided by the mason was insignificant and hence created a lot of problems.

Fig. 66

Improper Shuttering

Rain, an important factor that is needed to be discussed here. Infrequent rains created a lot of
problems during the course of work execution. It lead to delay in work progress and an unnecessary
loss.

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11.2 OVERALL BENEFITS OF TRAINING

Internship is a class healed at site to provide an enhanced understanding of the outside working
environment before the student graduate. Student like civil and urban engineering and other fields
also take this practice. The main aim of this practice (internship) is that to teach students
communication with different workers or employees, to improve practical skill what they learned
at class, up grading the theoretical knowledge in addition to the class, improve their leadership
skill, team playing skill and etc.

I have acquired much knowledge in different tasks as explained below in different section. That
different knowledge gets me a good performance in the internship period and I gain an experience
that helps me after the graduation in the upcoming working era of mine.

11.2.1 Improving practical skill

The aim of the internship is to address more practical knowledge for student. So, I found a practical
knowledge at the site as much possible within the four month. The knowledge we have learn in
the class is helpful to get those practical or real work in the site and totally different from the actual
knowledge gained from the class. Thus I found some knowledge in the site which helps me to
work with the site environment or site peoples.

Some of the practical knowledge I gain from the internship class was:

 Construction of formwork and false work for some reinforced concrete structure.
In any construction work the first stage before casting of concrete is designing and
constructing of form work. As I explained in the work procedure the formwork and
false work must be stiff and must resist the fresh concrete till the concrete gain its
strength. Thus the construction stage of form work was new to me since I‘m new
for the practical world now I gain practical knowledge about how it is worked and
erected.
 Bar bending, positioning, splicing and tying, according the specified drawing. After
the formwork and false work is ready the bar bending, positioning and tying work
goes next. This work is done based on the working drawing provided in the working
drawings (structural drawing) by the design team of that specified structure. In most
case it was new for me to see such work since it is a practical work only performed
at the site.
 Surveying on building construction. We conduct the surveying class in the field for
its lab session of the course in the normal class. But we don‘t know about how it is
going to be in building construction in particular and in which particular stage of
the construction work it used either the super structure or sub structure.

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  Concrete is a vital material in any construction of reinforced concrete and is the
main constituent or ingredient of any reinforced concrete structure. Thus it is
mandatory to know this material in practice including how it is treated, placed
(poured), mixed and the equipment used for those work. I got the practical
knowledge in terms of those listed aspects of concrete.
 Different construction equipment (machines) and their use in construction site.
Many of great structures before are a product of numerous human power and
countless days inspired by great powers. Machines are capable of handling tough
work which may be beyond the scope of human labor to be performed.
They can be expected to work with fair degree of effectiveness even under adverse
weather, climate or topographical conditions. I generally know how equipment‘s
are used in the site including their specific purpose.

11.2.2 Upgrading the theoretical knowledge

The internship class is not only depending on the practical aspect but it also help students to
upgrade or increase knowledge on already that they have. I try to integrate the practical knowledge
with that of the theory learned in the class in different place in order to get more knowledge than
the theory we learned on the class. I got the internship class very interesting in terms of upgrading
a theoretical knowledge and I learned from the site some theories that we haven‘t learn in the class
room by searching different related literature. Some of this is:

 Quantity surveying
 Structural design of shear wall and its advantage
 Construction equipment
 Report writing

I learned those things in exclusive cause it is hard to read and understand everything from books
and asking some peoples at site to those things ashamed me. Generally I change myself alit bit
after the internship period in my knowledge than before I took it.

11.2.3 Upgrading interpersonal communication skill

Communication is sharing or exchanging information or ideas with others in order to get some
messages and knowledge. The communications systems within the building design and
construction enterprise has taken on a large role in the achievement of profitability and efficiency.
A basic understanding of communication systems is beneficial to all building professionals and
trades, as they all play a part in the success of the construction. Construction is one of the places
that ask a good communication skill either managing every trade of work or asking what is
gowning on over there. So, communication is an important way of learning, which can be defined
formally as the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skills and sharing what we
know. Cool communication is important in the real constructions world and it can appear in

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different forms as speaking, writing, and listening. In the site the most things I gain is due to
communication with other workers like engineers, skilled and non-skilled workers, Forman etc. in
some place/case it is very difficult to talk workers and ask them what we want because of that they
underestimate us and sometimes they are not eager to tell.

11.2.4 Improving team playing skill

Team playing skill for construction work Team works, especially for engineers, involve in every
piece of task and achieving good team playing skill is essential for Effective completion of tasks
and Increasing productivity. This skill already exists in my personality in the campus due to
different assignment and project works that I work together with student. But this skill is more
than this in the construction site. In the construction site the work is already a team work and it
needs more closeness of workers to solve problems arise in different aspects, misunderstanding in
the drawing or working methodology and consult every work. We the student at the site also works
together as a team to get more understanding and share ideas. More or less I improve my team
work status by working together with different professionals, student and workers as a whole in
the civil engineering works and consulting.

11.2.5 Improving leadership skill

Leadership is the process of influencing individuals or groups to accomplish an organizational goal
or mission. I have seen how each worker is controlled and organized to perform its day to day
activities. Among all other managements i have seen that human resource management is the most
important one. I have actually observed the method of controlling the working time and amount
of work done by each worker so that the work proceeds according to the work plan
(schedule).Leadership is a skill to guide, control and monitor peoples. For effective leadership i
understood that personal values like confidence, effective communication and devotion are very
important. In order to be good Leadership the following criteria should be fulfilled.

Those are:-

 Be technically proficient (skilled with different knowledge‘s).

 Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions.
 Make sound and timely decisions.
 Know your people and look out for their well-being.
 Keep your workers informed.
 Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers.
 Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished.
 Use the full capabilities of your organization.
 Listening to others.
 Being organized.
 Able to communicate clearly and efficiently.

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In the site it was impossible to us to lead anything because we go to the site to learn about the site
work and we don‘t have enough ability to handle such works in such short time but we have learned
how to become a good leader and the main signal of a good leader.

Finally what I take hold of is Becoming a leader isn‘t easy because it takes a conscious
commitment and consistent effort to develop one‘s leadership skills.

11.3 WORK ETHICS AND RELATED ISSUES

The concept of work ethics may be summarized as the overall quality in one‘s behavior towards
appreciating the process of work flow and performing rather well on the job so that this work flow
will not be jeopardized in the long run. During my internship program, I could say that I have
managed to do my side of the job description with a high spirit and enthusiasm so that there was a
smooth flow of activities both in the office and on construction site. Work ethics involve such
characteristics as honesty, responsibility, reliability, accountability and etc.

Punctuality is one of the major issues that could be raised when talking about work ethics and
on my side I tried meet this criteria by attending to my working station in time so that there will
not be any delay on the activities planned for that day. The behavior that one shows towards his
peers and colleagues is also one manifestation of the concept of work ethics. Personally, I always
respected and gave priority the employers of the company. Elements of work ethics that worth
mentioning are:-punctuality, honesty, reliability, office discipline, corporation and responsibility.

We as a student should follow the rules and regulations set by the company and avoid
complaining any work load, activity or assignment that may arise on the site or office. It is a
pleasure of supervisors if we have a good work ethics and we are responsible for any given tasks.
Since the aim of internship is to let students know the outside environment pertinent to their field,
which includes of such the above dealt qualities, I was with the great interest that I tried to meet
my responsibilities and work ethics that I suppose to be fulfill by my side.

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 12. CONCLUSION

On concluding the training report, I would like to say that I got a good overview of Public
Works Department (PWD) of the construction site within 4 weeks of my training. It was a
wonderful experience working on the site. I learned about the practical knowledge at site and got
to know about how the things are executed.

The four weeks training that I received at PWD was great experience for me not only on
technical terms but also in terms of interaction with other workers and for the practical knowledge.
I learned a great deal on applying the knowledge I have gained at the University. Learning
something from books and lectures is nothing like having firsthand experience. At the site I got to
apply my engineering knowledge. The company gives the full freedom for the trainee to get a
sufficient training. The trainees are allowed to ask and do anything relevant to the training.
Engineers are always very enthusiastic on giving us the best training experience. The employees
do not think of their designation but only on the work to be done. Teamwork has been excellent.
Employees are busy with their work but they always help us to improve our knowledge.

A drawback I see on the site is that it has many health hazards. Employees are exposed to large amounts of
dust. When inhaled, these particles can cause serious lung disease. Even though there is a rule to
wear protective masks, employees do not do so most of the time. They should be urged to wear
protective gear and lectured on negative consequences of not wearing them. So according to me
proper safety measures should have been taken by all the staff working on the site as more they
are fit and healthy more projects will be done right by putting their hardwork.

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