Mathematical Modelling of GTAW and GMAW

Mathematical Modelling of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW) and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Processes
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirernents

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science
University of Toronto
@ Copyright by Massoud Goodarzi 1997

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Abstract ii
Mathematical h,fodelling of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and

Cas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Processes
Doctor of Philosophy, 1997
Massoud Goodarzi
Depanment of Metallwgy and Materids Science

University of Toronto
GTAW Process
Models for the GTAW arc and the weld pool were developed. In the arc
model, the shape of the electrode tip was addressed and the effect of the elrcnode tip
angle in the range of 10 to 150 degrees on the arc properties. especially on the anode
current density, the heat tlux and the gas shear stress over the weld pool, was studied.
It was found that by increasing the rlecuodr tip ansla. the anode spot at the weld
pool surface tended to be more iocalized. This led to h i ~ h e rrnavimum heat tlux and
anode current density. On the other hand, the gas shear stress increased with decreas-
ing electrode tip angle. The variation in the anode current density, the heat tlux and
the gas shear stress with the elecuode tip angle has signifrcant effect on the weld pool
properties. By developing a model for the weld pool the variation in the weld pool
due to variation in the electrode tip angle was studied.
In the weld pool model, by considering the four tlow driving forces into the
weld pool. it was round bat, in determining the flow pattern into the weid pool and
hence i ts shape, the gas shear stress and surface tension arc dominant forces.
GMAW Process
A model for GMAW arc is developed. ln this model a cathode spot detïned
Abst ract iii
such chat the electrons with a ccnstant current density emit ti-om the cathode surface.
It was found that the radius of the cathode spot is a tùnction of applied current. arc
length. eleçuode diameter and shielding p.This mode1 can successtùlly predict the
arc properties. such as temperature. gas velocity and gas pressure at the surface of the
calhode in both argon and helium for 2-10 mm arc of applied currents from 100 to
250 A.
Thesis Supervisors:
Professor James M. Toguri and Dr. Tuck Chow (Roland) Choo
Acknowledgements iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would likc to offer rny sincere thanks to Prof. James M. Toguri for provid-
ing me with support h m the tint sreps. and Dr. Roland Choo for his guidance during
the course of rny study.
M m y thanks go to al1 members of the Chernical Metallurgy Rcsearch group
for their Mendship during rny staying in Toronto. Special thanks to Dr. Tomio Ta-
kasu for his elaborating comments on my thesis.
I am sxuemely grateful to my wife. ÿnd my children for rheir patient during
years far from their heloved people and land. Without efforts of my wife to keep cve-
rything organized. doing this study was hardly possible.
1 am always thankfui to my parents. for their moral support since day one.
Withciut them, I would not be here today.

Finülly I would likc to mknowledge the Ministry of Culture and Higher Edu-
cation of Islamic Rcpublic of Iran for providing me the opportunity to continue m y
study abroud.
Table of contents v
TABLEOF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
xix
ONE: TNTRoaucnorq
CHAPTER
1.1 GASTLWGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
1.2 GAS METAL AKC WELDING (GMAW)
1.3 THEELECTRIC ARC
1.3.1 The Cathode Region
1.3.3 The Arc Column
1.3.3 The h o d c Region
1.4 DEFINITIONOF THE PROBLEM AND
OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
1-41 Detinition of the Problem
1A.2 Ohjectivcs of the Present Investigation
1.5 LITERATIJRE REVIEW OF MAITEMAp[ICAL
MODELLING OF THE ARC'
REFERENCES
3.1 WTROD~~CTION
2.2 MODEL DEVELOPMENT
2.3 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
2.4 BOUNDARYCONDITTQNS AND W E R I C A L METHOD
2.4.1 Boundary Conditions
2.4.3 Numerical Method
2.5 R E S U L U AND DISCUSSION
2.5. i Arc Properties
2 - 5 1 Anode c u r e n t Density
2.5.3 Anode Heat Flux
2.5.4 G u Shear Stress on the Anode Surface
2.6 SUMMARY
REFERENES
Table of contents vi
CHAPTER
THREE: ~ T E
C OF THE -
C Tll?
m 70
3.2 hd0DEL DESCRIPTION 70

3.3 RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION 74
3.3.1 Arc Prop~rties 76
3.3.2 Anode Cument Density and Heat Flux 86
3.3.3 Shear Stress 94
1 . 1 INTROD~JLTION
1.2 WELU POOL MODEL
4.7.1 Goveming Equations 102
4.2.2 iMclting and Solidification Modelling 105
4.2.3 B o u n d q Conditions 106
4 . Matcrial Properties for the Workpiecc 108
4.3.5 Numerical Method 1O8
4.3 RES!LTS AND DISCUSSION 109
4.3.1 Electromagnetic Farce
4.32 Buciyancy
4.3.3 Gas Shear Stress
4.3.4 Surfacc Tension
4.3.5 Combination of Driving Forces
1.3.6 Corn parison with Experimcntal Data
5.3 GOVERNINGEQIJATIONS AND BOWDARY CONDITIONS 134

5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 138
5.1.1 Cathode Spot Radius
5.4.2 Mode1 Veritkation
5.4.3 Arc Properties
5.1.4 Effkct of the Shielding Gris
5.4.5 Effect of the Electrode Tip Shape
Table of contents vii
6.1 CONCLL~S~ON
6.1.1 GTAW Process
6.1.2 GMAW Process
6.2 SL~C~C~ESTIONS
FOR FUTURE STUDIE!
6.3.1 GTAW Process
6 - 2 2 GMAW Process
APPENDIX rI 186
List of tables viii
LET OF TABLES
CHAPTER
TWO
Table 2- L : Boundary Conditions.
Table 2-2: The Corresponding Quantities for the Diffcrent ConservaUon
Equa tions.
Table 2-3: Arc Parameters for Different Arc Lengths and Applied Currents.
A Cornparison with a Sarnple of Other Numerical Results. (T,,.
(K):
,,,u (rn.s*% A@. (VI; 4,(Pa)).
Table 2-1: Maximum Anode Current Density and Maximum Heat Flux for
Different Currents and Arc Lengths. t J,.,,, .,,
(~.rnrn-'); q,.
I: ~ . r n r n - ' ) ) .
Table 2-5: Ctmtribution of Different Heat Transfer Mechanisms to the An-
ode Heat Flux. (q,. %: q,. %: q, %).
Table 3- 1: Boundary Conditions.

Table 3-2: Arc Paramr ters for Differen t Arc Lengths. Applied Cunents md
Elecuode Tip Angles. (Tm,. (K):,u, (ms-l); A@. (V): AP,,
(Pa)).
Table 3-3: Maximum Anode Current Density. Maximum Heat Flux and
Maximum Temperature of the Gas on the Anode Sudace for Dis-
lerent Elecuode Tip Angles, Arc Lengths and Applied Currents.
(.Jas (~-rnm-');qa,mm, (W-mm-'): Ta.mm. (KI 1.
Table 3-4: Total Heat Transferred to the Anode and Contributions of' the
Three Mechanisms for Different Situations. (Qa. a.Q,. Q,, (W)).
CHAPTER
FOUR
Table 4-2: Data Used for the Surface Tension Calculation [ IO].
List of tables ix
Table ;!-3: The Corresponding Qumtities for the Different Conservation

Equa tions.

Table 5-2: Maximum Temperature. Maximum Velocity and Eleçtric Poten-
tial Difference far a 250 A Arc o f Different Cathode Spot Radius.
Table 5-3: The Corresponding Cathode Spot Radius with the Minimum
Electric Potential Difference for Different Cases.
Table 5-3: Arc Properties for Different Arc kngths and Applied Currents.
(Tm,, (KI:,u, (ms-'1: A@. (V;R,, (mm)).
Table 5-5: The Ratio of Droplrt Contribution to Radiation luid Convection
C(mtributian.
Table 5-6: Arc Proprnies for Different Arc Len~thsand Applied Currenw in
Heliurn. (Tm=.
(K);
,,,u (m.al?: Rc. (mm)).
List of figures x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the GTAW process.

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of the GMAW process.
Figure 1.3 Variation in volume and transfer rare of drops with welciing cur
rent (steel electrode). [41
Figure 1.4 Voltqe distribution dong an arc shown schematicaily.
Figure 1.5 Temperature for thermionic emission at various çurrent density
lcvels [7]. hdividual points show boiling point o f pure elements
versus work function.
Figure 1.6 Mrasured and calculated isotherms of a tiee-burning argon arc. (1
= 200 A. L, = 10.0 mm. P = 1 atm). [491
Figure 1.7 Speçies temperature distribution in the anode boundary layer. (Jc
. I O 0 kPa. Gas = Arson). [ 101
= 9%1Oh ~ . r n - P~ =
Figure 1 .X Calculated cathode surface temperatures for a 200 A arc in argon
at 1 atm compared with expenmental measurements of Haidar
and Farmer [34. [62]
C H A ~TWO
R
Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram of the welding ürc (GTAW).
Figure 2.7 Caiculation domain for GTAW (scheinatic).
Figure 2.3 Contïguration of radiation view factors.
Figure 2.4 Isothens of 10.0 mm arcs in cornparison with the experimentd
results of Hsu et. al. [Ml.For cdculated results, the cathode cur-
rent drnsity is 6 . 5 ~ 1 0~.rn-'.
~ a: 1 = 100 A; b: 1 = 200 A: c: 1 =
300 A.
Figure 2.5 Typical velocity profile in GTAW arcs of two different Iengths.
Ic = 6 . 5 ~ 1 0~ ~. r n - " 1 = 220 A. a: ,L = 2.0 mm; b: L, = 10.0
mm.
List of figures xi
Figure 2.6 Distribution of axial velocity dong the a i s of symrneüy for LOO
A arc of 10.0 mm length.
Figure 2.7 Variation of axial velocity at the cenue line of the arc for differ-
rnt arc kngths. Numbers are lrngth of arcs in mm. I = 300 A.
Figure 2.8 Typical pressure distribution in a GTAW arc. I = 2013 A. L,, =
10.0 mm. Jc = 6 . 5 107
~ ~.m-'.
Figure 3.9 Variation of the gas pressure at the surface of the anode with the
arc Irngth and applied current. Numbers are appiied current in A.
Figure 2-10 Variation of rlccuomagnetic force at the surface of the anode
with arc lensth. Numbers are the arc lengths in mm.
Figure 2.1 1 Variation of arc voltqe wih applied cumnt and arc kngth in
çomparism with experimental and se lected cdculated results.
Fisure 2.12 Anode current density for d i f f e ~ n tapplied currents compared
with experimental [24], and theoretical [ l I l results. a: I = 100 A:
h: 1 = 200 A: c: I = 300 A. L, = 6.3 mm. Jc = 6.5~10'~ . m - ' .
Figure 2.13 Anode current density for arcs with different lengths in cornpari-
son with experimental [NIresults. Numbers are arcs lengths in
mm. 1 = 200 A.
Fisure 2.14 Variation of maximum anode çurrent density with an: length in
cornparison with the rxperimrnral [25]values. 1 = IO0 A.
Figure 3.15 Anode hzar tlux for different applied current in çomparison with
the rxprrimental [24] and theoretical [ 1 1] results. a: 1 = 100 A: b:
1 = 100 A: c: 1 = 300 A. L, = 6.3 mm.
Figure 3-16 Anode hrat flux for different applied currents in cornparison with
oxprrimental [27] values. a: I = 50 A; b: 1 = 100 A; c: I = 150 A.
La, = 5.0 mm.
Figure 2.17 Anode hrat flux for arcs with difkrent kngths in cornparison
with experimental [XIresults. Numbers are an: longhs in mm.
= 200 A.
Figure 2.18 Variation of maximum anode heat flux with arc length and ap-
plied current in cornparison with the experimental [25, 261 values.
List of figures xii
Figure 2.19 Contribution of the three rnechanisms in the anode heat tlux in
cornparison with other theoretical estimation [ 1 11. a: I = 100 A:
h: 1 = 200 A: c: I = 300 A. L, = 6.3 mm.
Figure 2.20 Variation of temperature at the vicinity of the anode surface with
applied current and radial distance.
Figure 2.21 Variation of Electrical conductivity of Argon with temperature
[91-
Figure 2.22 Variation of three mechanisms of heat trmster contribution into
the anode heat flux with the arc length. I = 200 A. a: Electron: b:
Convection; c: Radiation.
Figure 2.13 Variation of radiai velocity with the radial dismce and the arc
lèngth. I = 200 A-
Figure 7.24 Variation of shear stress with radial distance and applied current
in cornparison wirh othrr theoretical estimation [ I l ] . La, = 6.3
mm, a: C = 100 A; b: I = 200 A: c: I = 300 N400 A.
Figure 2.25 Variation of die shear stress with radial distance and arc length in
cornparison with other theoretical estimation [L 11. I = 200 A. a:
L,, = ?.O m d 3 . 2 mm: b: L, = 6.3 mm: c: La, = 10.0 m d 1 7 . 7
mm.
CHAPTER
THREE
Figure 3.1 Effeçt of rlecuode tip _oeometry on the weld pool shape and size
111.
Fisure 3.2 Clllçulation domain for tapered rlecuode GTAW (schematic).
Figure 3.3 Efftxt of the electrodr tip ansle on the maximum temperature and
iis position. Jc = 108A .rn-?.
F i 3.4 Vilnation in the area of the cathode surface covered by plasma as
a function of the cathode tip angle 131. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 5.0 mm.
Figure 3.5 Variation of the cathode surface area with the elrctrode tip angle.
Figure 3.6 Variation of plasma temperature at 1.5 mm from the tip of the
tungsten elecuode with the electrodt: tip angle and applied cur-
List of figures xiii
rent. Numbers are applied current in A.

Figure 3.7 Isotherrns of 10.0 mm arcs in cornpaison with the experirnental
results of Hsu et. ai. [ 1 11. a: 1 = LOO A; b: 1 = 200A.
Figure 3.8 Radial distribution of temperature at 1.5 mm from the cathode tip
in cornparison with experimental data [31. 1 = 200 A. L, = 5.0
mm. a: a = 20.71 deg (Exp.: a = 18 deg); b: a = 60 deg.
Figure 3.9 Variation of the axial distribution of the axial velocity with elec-
trode tip angle for 200 A and 5.0 mm arcs. Numbers are rlec-
trode tip angles in deg.
Figure 3.1 O Variation of the radial distribution of the axial velocity with elec-
uode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. Numbrrs are the electrode tip angle in
deg.
Figure 3.1 1 Variation of the radial distribution of pressure at the anode sur-
face with electrodr tip ansle. 1 = 100 A. Numbers are rlectrode
tip angle in deg.
Figure 3.12 Disüibution of pressure contours for three electrode tip angles. I
= 200 A. L
, = 5.0 mm. a: a = Y. 18 deg; b: a = 37.33 deg; c : a
= 60.00 des.
Figure 3.13 Variation of axiai distribution of pressure with zlectrode tip an-
sir. Numbers are electrode tip angle in deg.
Figure 3.14 Variation of arc voltage with electrode tip angles and applied cur-
rent. Numbers are applied cument in A.
Figure 3.15 Variation in the arc volüige with arc length and applied çurrent in
cornparison with experimentd data [ l ] . Numbers are arc length in
mm.
Figure 3.16 Distribution of rlectnc potential in the arc for different elecuode
tip angles. The isotherm of 10000 K shows the domain that the
results are diable. I = 200 A. ,L = 5.0 mm. a: a = 9.18 deg; b:
a = 60.00 deg, c: a = 100.06 deg.
Figure 3.17 The variation of the voltage drop into the electrode with the elec-
trode tip angle. Numbers arc applied cunent in A.
List of figures
-
xiv
Figure 3.18 Variation of a: maximum anode current density, and b: maximum

cas temperature on the anode surface. with the ebctrode tip angle
C
and applied current for a 5.0 mm arc. Numbers are the applied
current in A.
Figure 3.19 Variation of maximum anode current density with electrode tip
an# and arc length. 1 = 200 A. Numbers are an: length in mm.
Figure 3.20 Variation of the maximum anode heat tlux with rlectrode tip an-
-ale for arcs of different applied currents. Numbers are arc iength
in mm. a: I = 100 A; b: 1 = 200 A; c: i = 250 A.
Figure 3.21 Trmsferred heat to the anode versus the rlrctrode tip angle for
200 A arcs with different arc lengths. a: L,, = 2.0 mm: b: La, =
5.0 mm;c:,L = 10.0 mm.
Figure 3.22 Effecr of the rlectrode tip an_olr on the radial distribution of the
hèat tlux to the anode. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 5.0 mm. a: Total heat
t'lux; b: Electron contribution; c: Convection contribution; d: Ra-
diation contribution.
Figure 3.23 Variation of radiai velocity of the gas with the rlectrode tip an-
de. a: Effeçt of arc length. I = 200 A. Numbers are arc length in
L
mm. b: Effect of applied current Luc = 5.0 mm. Numbers are ap-
plieci current in A.
Figure 3.24 Effect of the rlrcirode tip ansle on the distribution of shear stress
in arcs with dii'frrent lengths. I = 200 A. a: L, = 2.0 mm: b: ,L
= 5.0 mm; c: ,L = 10.0 mm.
CHAPTERFOUR
Figure 4.1 Schcmatic representation of the GTAW arc in the weld pool. The
various physical phciioffienaoccurring in the workpiece (the nght
side) and the calcuiation domain (the left side) are indicated. The
orisin of the calculation domain is located at point A.
Figure 4.2 Variation of apparent viscosity with solid volume fraction (used
in this study).
List of figures xv
Figure 4.3 Radial distribution of the heat flux for 9.18 and 60.0 degree elec-
trode tip angles. 1 = 200 A. Lare = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.4 Radial distribution of the current density for 9.18 and 60.0 degee
clectrode tip angles. 1 = 100 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.5 Radial distribution of the shear stress for 9.18 and 60.0 degree
clecuode tip angles. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.6 Current density distribution into the workpiece for a: 9.18 and b:
60.0 degree elecuode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Figure 1.7 Electromagnetic force into the weld pool for a: 9.18 md b: 60.0
degree c1ectrode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.8 Velocity pattem into the weld pool and liquidus and solidus lines
for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip angle due to electro-
magnetic force. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
Figurc 4.9 Buoyancy dnving force into the weld pool for a: 9.18 and h: 60.0
degrce electrode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.1 O Vzlticity pattern into the weld pool and liquidus and solidus lines
for a: Y. 18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode rip angle due to buoyancy
driving force. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Fisurc 4.1 1 Vclocity pattem into the weld pool and liquidus and solidus lines
for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip angle due to gas shear
stress. I = 200 A. L,, = 2.0 mm.
Fisure 1.12 Variation of maximum temperature in the weid pool for differen~
driving forcc as a Iùnction of the clecuode tip angle. I = 200 A.
L, = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.1 3 Variation of surface tension gradient as a function of temperature
for Fe-0.022 wr8 S. Required information was derived h m Sa-
hoo et. al. [ 101.
Figure 4.14 Velocity pattern into the weld pool and Liquidus and solidus lines
for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip mgle due to surface
tension. I = 200 A. ,L = 2.0 mm.
Figure 4.1 5 Radial distribution of the Marangoni shear and surface tempera-
List of figures mi
ture for stainless steel AIS1 304 with the electrode tip angle as
the parameter. 119
Figun 4.16 Puddle shape in GTAW of stainless steel AlSI 304 with 2.0 and
5.0 mm arcs. The electrode tip angle changes from Y. 18 to 131.4 1
degrees. 120
Figure 4.17 Total surfacc stress (rS1 + rgaS) and temperature at the weld pool
surface for stainkss steel AIS 304 after GTAW with a 2.0 mm
arc. The electrode tip angle is 9.18, 60.00 and 131.11 de,m e s . L 23
Figure 4-18 Flow pattern into the weld pool for stainless steel AIS? 304 in the
case o f different e!ectrode tip angles and arc lengths. 133
Figurc 4.19 Variation in the weld pool width as a function of the elecrrode tip
angle. Cornparison with experimental results [20]. 135
Figure 4.20 Variation in the weld pool depth as a tùnction of the electrode tip
angle. Comparison with experimental results [?O]. 125
Figure 4.21 Variation in the depthlwidth ratio as a function of the zlectrode
tip angle. Cornparison with experimental results [211. 127
Figure 5.1 Schema~icof the welding arc (GMAW). 133

Figure 5.2 Calculrition damain for GMAW (schematic). 135
Figure 5.3 Variation in the maximum tempenturc with the cathode spot ra-
dius t'cir 750 A Ar ünd He arcs as a function of arc Iength. 141
Figure 5.4 Variation in the maximum velocity with the cathode spot radius
for 250 A Ar and He arcs as a function of arc Iength. 142
Figurc 5.5 Variation in the elecüic potential differcnce with the cathode spot
radius for 250 A Ar and He arcs as a hnction of arc length. 143
Figure 5.6 The radial distribution of temperature at different distances from
the cathode plate in cornparison with the experimentril data [ l 11. 1
= 150 A. Distance from the cathode plate a: 7.5 mm; b: 5.0 mm;
c: 3.5 mm. 145
Figure 5.7 The radial distribution of temperature at different distances from
List of figures xvii
the cathode plate in comparison with the experirnental data [ l Il. I

= 250 A. Distance tram the cathode plate a: 7.5 mm; 6: 5.0 mm:
c: 2.5 mm.
Figure 5.8 Variation in Cas velocity with appiied current tor 10.0 mm arcs in
comparison with experimental results [Il].
Figure 5.9 Variation in the total current at the tip of the electrode as a fùnc-
tion o f applied current for different electrode diameters. Numbers
are the electrode diarneter in mm.
Figure 5.10 Isotherms of 10.0 mm arcs with different applied currents. a: I =
150 A; b: 1 = 250 A; c: I = 350 A.
Figure 5.1 1 Variation in the arc voltage with applied current and arc lengrh.
Numbers are arc length in mm.
Figure 5.12 Variation of eleciric field with a: applied current of I 0 . 0 mm
arcs; b: arc length of 250 A arcs.
Figure 5.13 Variation in the thermal power transferred to the cathode due t«
a: radiation and b: convection with the applied cumnt as a func-
tion of arc length.
Figure 5.14 Variation in the transîèrred heat to the anode due to elecuons
condensation with the applied current.
Figure 5. f 5 Variation in the percentagc of current which reach the tip of the
rlecuode with the a: applied current; and b: electrode diametcr.
Figure 5.16 Effect of the applied current on the decîromagnetic force around
the slectrode tip. a: I = 150 A; b: 1 = 250 A: c: I = 350 A.
Figure 5.17 Schematic of elecîrons path when there is side current into the
consumable eiectrode.
Figure 5.18 Electrical conductivity of Ar and He as funclions of temperature.
151
Figure 5.19 Isotherrns of 10.0 mm helium arcs with different currents. a: I =
150 A; b: 1 = 250 A; c : I = 350 A.
Figure 5.20 Velocity profiles of the helium arcs of Figure 5.19. a: I = 150 A:
b: I = 250 A; c: 1 = 350 A.
List of figures xviii
Figure 5.2 1 Variation in the cumnt into the elecuodt: with the applied current
and distance fiom the electrode tip. a: [ = 150 A: b: 1 = 250 A; c:
I = 350 A. 16 1
Figure 5.23 Variation in the heat transferred to the workpiece or the electrode
in unit time with the applied current in helium and argon. a: Elec-
won heat transfer to the ekcuode; b: Convective heat transfer to
the workpiece; c: Radiâtive heat transfer to the workpiece. 163
Figure 5-23 Effeçt of the shielding gas on the geomrtry of the weld pool is
shown schematically. [23] 164
Figure 5.21 Variation in the eleciron contribution to the total heat tramferreri
to the weld pool in He and Ar as a function of applied current. 164
Figure 5.25 Schematic shape of the electrode tip in two different metal trans-
fer modes. a: GIobular; b: Spray. L 65
Figure 5.26 Isotherms ut' 10.0 mm. 200 A arcs for two rlectrode tip angles. a:
a = 10 deg; b: cc = 180 &_o. 167
Figure 5.27 Efkct of the rlecuode tip angles on the velocity pattern for 10.0
mm. 200 A arcs. a: a = 10 deg; b: cc = 180 deg. 168
Figure 5-28 Effect of the rlectrode tip mgle on the distribution of the pressure
in 10.0 mm. 200 A arcs. a: a = 10 deg; b: a = 180 deg. Numbrrs
are pressure difference in P a
Nomenclature xix
--
A~ Currcnt cross section near cathode [m-'1
A*
b
Temperature coefficient of surface tension for iron [4.3x10-" N.(m.K)-'1
Bo Azimutai component of magnetic field [Tl
1
Empirical constant appearing in E equation [ 1.441
Empirical constant appearing in e equation [1.92]
C~ Specific heat at constant pressure [J.(kg.K)-II

Empiriçal constant appearîng in F~ equation [0.091
E Eiecuic field vector [V.m-'1
EZ Axial elcctric tïeld [ ~ . m - ' 1
G~ Generation o f turbulent energy [kg.(m.s3)-'1
Hf Latent heat of fusion of the metai [J.kgl]

1 Applicd current [A]
I. Total current in die rlecuode at slab j [ A ]

J
Ij, arc Total current in the arc at slab j [AI

J Currcnt density vector [~.m-']
Ja Anode surrent density [A.m-']
I arc Input current density to the weld pool from the arc [~.rn-']
Jc Cathode current density [~.rn-'1
'max Maximum çurrent density at the centre [ine of the arc [ ~ . m - ' ]
Radial current density [A.rn"l
JZ Axial current density [ ~ . m - ' ]
K Turbulent kine tic energy [m2.s2]

K scg Equilibrium constant for segregation [- 1
Nomenclature xx
Arc length [ m l
Pressure [Pa]
Maximum pressure at the centre Iine of the arc [Pa]
Turbulent Prandti number [-j
Prandtl number at Tw [-]
Anode total heat [Wl
Anode heat due to convection and conduction [W]
Anode heat due to electrons w]

Volumetric heat source from the cathode fail to ionize the plasma [Lm-)]
Anode heat due to radiation w]
Güs constant [8.3 144 mole.^ )-' ]
Cathode spot radius [ml
Elèctrode radius [m 1
Calcula tion domain radius [m 1

Cathode surface area [m21
The anode surface element. [ d l
Radiation e n e q y source of V.
J
[n
Radiation loss V . [J.s .m-'l
J
'
Source rate of [-1
Temperature [KI
Eleçiron temperature at the rdge of the plasma [KI
Elcctron temperature at O. 1 mm from the anode surface [KI
Gas temperature at inllow boundary [Kj
Liquidus temperature of AIS1 304 stainless steel [1733 KI
Mclting point of iron in y equation [MO9 KI
Melting point of the rlectrode material [KI
Nomenclature xxi
-
T m. wp Melting point of the workpiece materiai [KI
Tr Reference temperature [ 1523 K]
Ts Solidus temperature of AISI 304 stainless steel [ 1523 KI

Temperature of wall [KI
Twater Temperature of coohng water [KI
v Arc voltage [VI
vc Cathode faIl voltage [VI

The plasma volume element [m3]
j '
"s Activity of sulfur [-wt% S]

b Experimental constant in equation ( 1-8)
C Specd of light in vacuum [299,792.458 rn.s1]
*e Elcctrodt: diameter [mj

t2 Elemrnülry charge [ 1 . 6 0 2 10-19
~ CI
l Liquid fraction [-j

O
c' Standard acceleration of gravity l9.80665 m.s-?]
h Enthalpy [J.kgl ]
hr Enthalpy of the gas at Te [J.kgl]

hW Enthalpy of the gas at Tw kg-'1
k Thermal conductivity [W.(m. K)-l]
1 Entropy Factor in y equation [0.00318 (wt%)-'1
k, Boltzmann constant [1.38x J.K1]
keff Eflcctive thermal conductivity [W.(rn. K)"]

Turbulent component of thermal conductivity [W.(m. K)" j
qa Total anode heat flux [ ~ . m - ' ]
'la,, Hcat flux to the weld pool frorn the arc [~.rn-']
9, Anode heat flux due to convection and conduction [ ~ . r n - ' l

Nomenclature xxii
9, Anode hrat tlux due to electrons [W-rn-']
qr Anode heat flux due to radiation [ ~ . r n - ' !
q, i
Radiative heat tlux receive by S i y.m-']
r Radial coordinate, Radial distance [rn]

r.1. j
Distance between Si and V . [ml
I
Radius of Vj [ml
s
Radius of S i [ml
rt Radius of current conducting zone [ml
u Axial velocity [ms-'1

v Velocity vector [rn-se']
v Radiai velocity [m.$ '
z Axial coordinate. Axial distance [ml
Greek syrnbols
r S
Surlace excess at saturation in y rquation [1.3 x 10-' rno1e.m-'1
Diftùsion coeftïcient o f @ [-]
AH Enthalpy of segregation in y equation [-LX8 x 105 .i.rnolr-'l
General çonserved property [-1

The ansle that ri, makes with the nomai to the S i [rad]
Elcçuodr tip angle [deg]
Volume coefficient of thermal expansion [K.']
1
Surface tension [Nm-'
Surface tension of irori üt Tm in y rquation [1.943 ~ . r n - ' l
Dissipation rate of turbulence energy [rn2.s-'1
Elcctric potential [VI
Nomenclature xxiii
Work function of the anode matenal [VI

Work function of the cathode materid [v
Themal diffusion coefficient of the ekctron [rn2.s-'j
Newtonian viscosity of tluid [kg.(rn.s)-'1
1
Viscosity of the gas at Te [kg.(m-SI-'
Effective viscosity of tluid Ikg.(rn.s)-'
Turbulent componrnt of viscosity [kg.(rn.s)-l]
Viscosity of the gas at Tw F,o.<m.s)-'1
Permeability of free space [Jirx lW7 NA-?]
Dummy function [ml

Ruid density [kg.m-3]
Gas density at Te [ko_.mb31
Gas density at Tw [kg.m-31

1
Electrical conductivity [Sm-'
Elccuode electrical conductivity at slab j [S.m-']

Empirical constant appearing in K equation [ l .O]
Empirical constant appraring in E rquation [1.3 1
Shear stress [ ~ . m - ' ]
Gas shrar stress [Nrn-']
Shear stress due to surface tension [ ~ . r n - ? ]

Today fusion welding is the most important technique used in weldin,O con-
struction [ i 1. Fusion welding is definrd as a joining process in which the coalescence
of metais is accomplished by fusion. This process requires a heat source o f sufficirnt
intensity to maintain a molten liquid metal pool. Based on the heat source, fusion
welding c m be divided into three different categories; sas welding. arc welding and
hi$-eneqy bearn welding [2]. Most cornmon welding processes in the arc weldin?
çategory an be Iisted as hilows [II:
0 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
8 Gas Tungsten Arc Wrlding (GTAW):
8 G u Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):
Subrnrged Arc Welding (SAW):
Electroslag Welding (ESW).
There is a gentml trend to increast: producûvity and safety in the welding industries-
To realize this objective, there has bren a significant growth in automated welding
systilms. In this regard. more attention has been paid to GTAW and GMAW because
of their continuous nature and their relative merits [3]. As a result of these importcrnt
trends, GTAW and GMAW will be considered in this suidy. A brief introduction of
each process is now provided.
C h a ~ t e r1 Introduction 2
1.1 GAs TUNGSTEN A R C WELDWG (GTAW)
GTAW is a welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten (nonconsum-
able) electrode and the weld pool. A shielding gas, which is usually an inert gas such
as argon or helium, is also used to protect the elecvode and weld metal from atmos-
pheric contaminations. A sketch of this process is shown in Figure 1.1.
GTAW c m operate in either AC or DC mode. The direct current configura-
tion. in which the workpiece is connected to the positive terminal and the tungsten
electrode is connecred to the nesative terminal, is the most cornmon mode and is usu-
ûlly referred to as Direct Current Electrode Negative or DCEN. The decuons are
rmitted from the tungsten elrcirode and are accelerated to very high speeds while uav-
elling through the arc. Such high-speed electrons hit the workpiece and exert a strong
heatinz rt'fect on it [1].If the tungsten rlectrode is connected to the positive terminal.
which is callcd Direct Current Electrode Positive or DCEP. then clcctrons will acceler-
ate to it. Thzreiore. thicker elecuodes must be u x d to prevent melting. The weld
pool depth in DCEP is also less than the weld pool depth in DCEN [ 2 ] . Because of
the cathodic çleaning action of the arc. this modc of operation is important for weld-
Shielding gas inlet

-7 7
Contact tube
Figure 1.1 Schrmatic diagram of the GTAW process.

Chapter 1 Introduction 3
ing aluminium and magnesium. To increase the capability and to remove some disad-
vantages of this process, some other operating modes, such as square wave AC, pulsed
DC, and high frequency pulsed welding are also recommended [3,4].
1-2 GASMETAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

GMAW is a welding process that uses an arc between a consurnable electrode
and weld pool. The process is used with shielding gas, again to protect the electrode
and weld metal apinst contamination. Argon, heliurn and a mixture of argon with ox-
ygen or carbon dioxide are among the most common gases used for shielding the
process. In this process the consurnable electrode acts as the filler metal as well.
therefore the deposition rate is high. A sketch of this process is shown in Figure 1.2.
As in GTAW, different operating modes have been used for GMAW. Because
of the difficulty in obtaining a smooth metal uansfer. DCEN and AC current are sel-
dom used [ 2 ] . To improve positional control and aiso tu obtain a spray-type rnetal
transkr with minimum spatter, the pulsed DC mode can be applied [3].
Electrode
wire feeder
Shidding gas inlet
Welding torch
- Power supply
-- Contact tube
i
a
a
~rkpiece
I
1 I
Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of îhe GMAW process.
There are two basic modes of meml transkr h m the consumable electrode to
the weld pool; free-flight mode and dip or short circuiting transfer mode. In the free-
tlight transfer, an arc is rnaintained between the elecrrode and the workpiece and the
metal is transferred ricross the arc in the form of droplets. The most cornmon free-
flight modes are globular transfer and spray transfer. If the electrodr is fed toward the
workpiece at a speed which exceeds the rate at which the arc alone c m melt the wire.
it will eventually bridge the arc gap and dip into the pool.
The type of metal transfer is denrmined by a number of factors, the most im-
portant are the following [A]:
Magnitude and type of welding current:
Electrode diameter:
Electrode composition:
EIectrorie extension;
Shielding gas.
With a DCEP. globular uansfer takes place when the current is relatively low
regardless of the type of shielding gas. However. with carbon dioxide and helium
shiolding sas, this type o f transfer takes place at dl usablr welding currents. Globular
transkr is çharacteriz.ed by a drop diameter rhat is greatcr than the electrode diameter.
With argon-rich shielding gas, it is possible to produce a very stable. spatter-
free axial spray transfer mode. This requires the use of direct current and a positive
elecuode, and a cunent Ievel above a critical vaiue called the transition current. As
shown in Figure 1.3. below this current, metal transfer occurs in the globular mode at
a ratc o f a few drops per second. Above the transition current, the transfer occurs in
the form o f very smdl drops that are formed and detached at a ntc of hundrcds per
second.
- T:a nsition
C
al
a
current 1 9
n
I
I
- 5
I
! I
-I .O
O 1 O0 200 300 400 JO0 600
Current, A
F i ~ u r c1.3 Variation in volume and uansfer rate of drops

with wetding cvrrent (steel electrode). [JI
1.3 THE ELECTRIC A R C
In hoth GTAW and GMAW processes. an arc acts as the source of energy,
aïid the quality of weldment to a large extent depenus on the heat and electric çurrent
from the arc. It is therefore worthwhile to invesrigate the arc in morc detail.
An arc c m be detined as a discharge of cleçuicity between two clecmdes.
anode and cathode. in a gascous phase. in which (a) the voltage drop at the cathode is
o f the order OC the excitation potential of the electrode vapour (that is about 1 0 V)
and ( b ) the çurrent density can have any value above a minimum o f about 106 ~ . m - '
[5]. Some invcstigators, for exampie Guile [71, put 1 A üs a lower limit for the çur-
rent in the arc, however it would be morc appropriate to determine the lower limit
hased on currcnt density.
It is found that the distribution of electric field dong an arc is not uniform
(Figure 1.4). By considering the voltage distribution. an arc can be divided into three
differcnt pans; the cathode resion, the arc çolurnn and the anode region which shall
' Anode fall voltage
Cotumn vottagc
Cathode fall voltage
Arc length
Anode Cathode
surface surface
Figure 1.4 Voltage distribution alone rin arc shown

schematically.
now be described.
1.3.1 The Cathode Region
This region is the most critical part of an arc. When a cathode is heated to a
sufficiently hi$ temperature. elecuons are emitted with a current density Jc given by
the Richardson-Dushman equation 151
where A is a constant of about 6x105 A . ( ~ . K ) - ' for most metds md h = e o c / ,k
$= is the work function of the cathode material and is d e h e d as the energy that
must be supplied to an eleclron over and above its energy at absolute zero to make it
possible for the electron to overcome the surface forces [6]. The ternpenture of the
cathode surface is the main variable in the current density equation and it must be
high enough to reach currcnt densitics which arc rncountered in arcs. In this case the
emission of elecuons is thermionic and only materials with high boiling point (4000 K
Chapter t Introduction 7
or higher) can withstand these temperatures (Figure 1.5). In thermionic emission. the
current density is in the range 106 to 108 ~ . r n - ' and the cathode spot nomally occu-
pies a fixed position [7]. The boiling point of mosr metiils is less than 1000 K md in
these metals the emission of elecuons is non-thermionic. In GMAW in which the
workpiece is the cathode. the electron emission is non-thermionic. with current densi-
ties of 1 0 l 0 ~ . m - 'or more [7]. Aiso. the cathode spot is not stationary. Usually the
-
-i antalum
Ci
Zirconium
O
t Uranium Carbon /
Thonum + +
dnnn t + Tantalum
carbide
Y
-
Elernents for which therrnionic type emission has flot
been observed: O
Elernents for whrch information 1s lacking: $.
1000 l . l l l J t l l l l l l r l ! l p l
2 3 4 5
Thermionic work function. V
Figure 1.5 Temperature for thmnionic emission at var-

ious current density levels [71. Individual
points show boiling point of pure elements
versus work b c t i o n .
mobility of Ihe cathode spot is not desirable in welding. If il occurs on the elecuode.
the arc wanders up and down the electrode and may damase the surrounding parts. If
it occlrrs on the workpiece, the arc heat may be too widely spread. It has been shown
in the case of aluminium that the presencc of a relatively thick oxide layer tends to
restrict rnovemcnt of the cathode. A similar èffect is used in the GMAW of steel.
Normiilly the gas metal arc process is operated with the elecuode positive and if the
shielding gas is pure argon, the arc wanders on the workpiece surface excessively [8].
In fact. it has been obsenred that arcs c m become unsrable and even extinguish for
lack of sufficient oxide or other inhornogenities and impunties. Probabiy the destnic-
tion of the oxide Iriyers at an emitting site by ion bombardment causes the emission
rfficirncy of that site to faIl to the point where other sites take over its share of the
ç u m n t [ 7 ] . Thttreforc an oxidizing gas c m help the arc to be stable. and it is corn-
mm to add such an oxidizing gris. typically 2% O,- o r 20% CO,.- to the shielding
gas (argon). in the GMAW proçess. (81.
1.3.2 The Arc Column

The main body of the arc is the arc column and it c m be defined as that part
of the arc which is located between the cathode and the anode Mls [7]. The arc col-
umn is a piasma and consists of neuval particles. such as atoms and molecules (both
in the excited and non-excited states) and charged particles. such as rlectrons and ions.
At aunospheric and higher pressures, the arc column is elecuically neutral. Thus, the
numbers oc positive and negative alectricd charge carriers are alrnost the sarne.
For many years, it has been considered that the arc column is in local thermo-
dynaniic equilibnum ( L E ) . This requires that collision processes (not radiative proc-
esses) p v e m transitions and reactions in the plasma and that there will be a
microreversibility among the collision processes [ 9 ] . This definition is applicable for
optically thin and atmospherïc plasmas. One of the consequences of the LTE state is
that dmost compkte energy exchange behveen the different gas particles takes place.
The important finding is that the temperatures of the electrons, Te,and heavy parti-
cles (atoms and ions). Tu,are the same. In the case of the low pressure arcs. the
C
mean k e path of elecuons between two consecutive collisions is quite large. During
this time interval they cm gain additional rnergy from the electric field. and so the
temperatures of electrons and heavy particles may not be equal [71.
Howcver. it was shown rhat the temperatures of electrons and heavy particles
in the atmosphcric arcs. very close to the electrodes [ 101 and al the fnngcs [ 1 11, arc
different. Furthemore. Fariner and Haddad [121 have shown by measuring tempera-
turcs of the outer boundary of a tice buming arc (stabilized by natunl convection) us-
ing thc Rayleigh scattering technique, that the iirc at its outer part is not optically thin.
From al1 of thcse investigations. it can be conçluded bat only the çore of the arc col-
umn c m be çonsidered as a thermal plasma under LTE condition.
1.3.3 The Anode Region
The third part is the anode region which receives electrons tiom the arc. Al-
though the influence of the anode on the arc is less than the cathode [7],in welding
in particular and in plasma processing in general. the anode in most cases is the objec-
tive of plasma heating. In this sense, the cnergy transport from the arc to the anode is
qui@ important,
Therc arc two anode modes found in arcs. These two modes arc the cathode
jet dominated [13] or the normal anode mode [7] and the anode jet dorninated [13] or
Chapter 1 Introduction 1O
the anode spot mode [7]. In the anode spot mode, the anode is tixed to a specitic
point on the workpiece m d tnversing the eiectrode causes the anode to jump from
point to point. Constriction of the current path on the anode surface induces an anode
jet. This is the situation that can be observed in relatively long arcs with low currents.
By increasing the current. the anode spot tends to disappear. In this situation there is
no distinguishable anode spot and the anode is in its normal mode. The normal or
cathode jet dominated mode is usually observed in welding and in this case the arc
column is bell-shaped. stable and symmeuicaI [71. Even in GMAW. which normally
operatcs with a positive electrode and where the anode spot forms at the tip of elec-
trode, the electrode is in the normal mode as it is continuously being consumed.
The objective of most plasma processine operation is to describe the heat flux
to the anode. Although there an: three mechanisms (if heat transfer from the arc to
thc anode, radiation. convection and vlectron drift and condensation, not al1 of them
arc neccssuily present. In DCEN which is the most common operating mode for
GTAW. the anode k a t input is due to the condensation of clectrons plus the energy
cained in püssing through the anode drop zone. and heat convection and radiation
b
liom the arc [ 7 . 141. In GMAW in which the DCEP is more common. the anode heat
input froni the arc does not include the convective part [71. Heat transfer from the arc
to the anode for thc case [if GTAW and GMAW. will be discussed in detail in the
fr~llowingchaptcrs.
1.4 DEFINITION
OF THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
1.4.1 Definition of the Problem
Welding of metal pieces is a major part of many manufactunng processes and

thc integrity and soundness of the final product depend on the strcngth of the weld-
ment. The quality of welds, on the othrr hand, is determined by metallurgical changes
in the weldment. including fusion zone and the heat affected zone and geometry of the
weld pool. It has been shown that the puddle geometry. the temperature gradients, the
local cooling rates and the solidification structure can be significantly influenced by
heat and fluid tlow into the weld pool [15]. The geometry of the weld pool. in
GTAW specifically. can change with variation in the shape of the electrode tip [41. In
addition, there are some other weld characteristics such as weld penetration, undercut-
ting. surface smoothness, segregation pattern and gas porosity. which are likely to oc-
cur due to changes in flow pattem in the weld pool [16]. In the case of arc welding
processes. the heat and fluid flows in the weld pool are drtermined by elecuomagnet-
ic, buoyancy and surface tension forces 1171, and the impinging force of the arc plas-
ma [18]. Gas shear stress also can be a parameter affecting the flow pattern into the
weld pool, specially for high current arcs (191.
The mathematical modelling of weld pool developed very rapidly during the
1980's [20. 2).The need for industry to achieve higher quaiity and more consistent
wclds, on the one hand, and availability of computing facilities and software packages
and computational tluid mechanics. on the other hand. were two reasons for this tre-
mendous growth [2 11.
The description of the input energy and the electric current sources are basic
for every numcrical mode1 to sirnulate the weld, and the resultant output is affected by
these two sources. There are many numerical models for tluid and heat flows of the
weld pool in GTAW [17, 18, 20, 22-27] and in GMAW [28-3 13. In the majonty of
the GTAW models, heat tlux and electric current tiom the arc are defined to have
Gaussian distribution at the top of the weld pool. Recently there have been some ef-
forts to combine arc and weld pool models together [32, 331. Although it was indicat-
ed that the elecuode tip shape can affect the weld pool geomeuy [4] and even the
properties of the arc [341, none of the models consider the effect of the tungsten elec-
uode tip shape. Because of the continuous metal transkr tiom the consumable elec-
uode to the weld pool. the situation in GMAW is more complicated. For this process,
the# is no cornbined model available. In the only model available for the arc [35],
there is no effort made to evaluate the heat tlux to the weld pool.
1.4.2 Objectives of the Present Investigation
The focus of this study is on the mathematical modelling of the arc in both
GTAW and GMAW processes. Mathematical modelling h a been chosen because it
çan provide a powerful tool to study differcnt parameters and their effects on the arc
behaviour. Moreover in many cases, determining the properties of the arc experimen-
tdly is difficult if not impossible due to the very small dimensions and very high p-
dients of temperature and electnc potential in the arc column.
For the GTAW process. the focus of the investigation will be directed to the
rffects of the tungsten elecuode tip angle on the heat tlux to the workpiece and mode
current density. Tu obtain these objectives. the following steps will be undertaken:
Devcloping a mathematical mode1 for GTAW with tlat elecuode:
Calculating thc heat flux to the workpiece by taking the heat mnsfer rnechanisrns
from the arc t o the workpiecc into account;
Cornpuin_«the çalculated results with the available experimcntal data:
Expanding tiîc mode1 to cover variation in the electrode tip angle;
Comparing the calculatcd results for angular rlec~ode model with available
rxpenmental data;
Cumbining the arc model with a simple model for weld pool to show the effects of
the electrode tip angle on the weld pool shape, and compiuing the resuits with the
available experimental results;
Providing sensitivity mdysis on the critical process paramelers.
For the GMAW, the tocus of investigation will be on the efft-cts of variation
in the çonsumable electrode tip shape from tlat to upered (conical). on the arc charac-
teristics. In this stage, the contributions of the arc and the droplet in the heat tlux to
the workpiece will be estirnated. The following steps will be pursued:
Developing a mathematical model for GMAW with tlat electrode:

Snidying the effects of the electrode material and also the shielding gas on arc
pro perties ;
Comparing the results with available experimental and other theoretical results:
Estirniiting the contribution of the arc and the droplets into the heat flux t the
workpiece:
Snidying the variation of the elrctrode tip shape on the arc properties.
The thesis consists of two sections. In section one. the GTAW process will be
considered. This section consists of three chapters: 2. 3. and 1. Chapter 2 will explain
the mathematical model formulation for the arc in GTAW with tlat electrode. The re-
sults {if calculation and cornparison with some othrr numerical and available experi-
mental values will be prexnted. Chapter 3 will hcus on the mathematical model
improvements in order to mat itngular electrodes. The effect of the eleçtrode tip ansLe
on the arc properties will be considered in this çhapter. In chapter -1. a simple model
for the weld pool will be presented. Information from the arc modelling will be used
in the weld pool model to show die effect of the electrode tip angle on the weld pool
shape.
Section two (chapter 3,will focus on the GMAW process. ln this chapter,
the mathematical model for the arc in GMAW with tlat electrode will be developed.
Effects of the elcctrode material and the shielding gris along with welding parameters
such as applied current and arc length (distance between the cathode and the anode)
and die effect of the variation of the electrode tip shape from tlat to tapered will be
studied in this chapter.

Finally, in chapter 6 conclusions and suggestions for future studies will be
presen ted.
1.5 LITERATUREREVTEW OF MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF THE ARC
The objective of the present investigation is to evaluate the heat tlux to the
workpiecr in GTAW and GMAW throuzh mathematical modelling of the arc in these
processes. Therefore. it will be worthwhile to review the modelling of the arc for
welding purposes. In this review both analytical and numerical rnodels will be cov-
ered.
The main part of an arc is its colurnn which consists of almost neutral cornbi-
nation of at l e s t three différent particles (elecuons. positive ions and neutral atoms).
At atmospheric pressure. such a combination is collision dominated and can be created
as a continuum fluid [36], so that the conservation rquations c m bt: written for such
cui arc. However. plasma is an electricity conductor and interaction of electric cunent
with its magnetic field rnust be considered as a mornenturn source. Moreover, like
every othrr conductor. the passage of elrctricity through the plasma raises the temper-
ature due to the Joule's effect. The amount of this rnergy is proportional ro the
square of çurrent densities and is high enough to kerp the ionized -as stable.
As repartrd by Pfender [5] and Boulos [37], die modelling of electric arc be-
gan at 1935 with Elenbaas [381 and Heller [391. Ln their models. they sohed the mer-
gy conservation equation by considering Joule heating as a source of energy and

conduction as the main mechanisrn for heat uanskr. For m axisymmetric arc column,
their models c m be fomulated as foilows:
and EZ can be obtained throu,oh Ohm's law

where r. shows the outer radius of the arc. In their rnodels, they fomulated the
physical phenomena that take place in an arc in a very simple form.
In 1955. Maecker [40] considered the electromagnetic force and pressure Sra-
dient and derived a model for the arc. By solving the flow and continuity equations
mdyticaily. he obtained an approximate value for the maximum pressure as
r2 ( 1-4)
L
In his model, Maecker assumed that the current density over each cross-section is con-
stant. Later Schoeck [41] moditïed Maecker's model by considering a parabolic cur-
rent density distribution in the t o m
where r, is the outer radius of the current conductin_ozone. Baxd on this he obtained an-
other expression for the maximum pressure. as follows:
5 1'
- --
' m a ~( s ) C'A~
Maecker [40] and Shoeck [-Il] did not consider the variation of gas properties
dur to temperature. but by introducing the main dnving forces for the plasma into the
arc column, they provided a basis for further investigation related to the arc.
As reported by Boulos [37] in 1967, Watson and Pegot [42] for the t-mt time
combined tlow and energy equallons in a two-dimensional rnodel and through solving
these equations numerically obtained accurate results for tlow and temperature fields.
Their model considered only the column of the arc. The main assumptions that they
us& c m be summarized as follows:
axisymmetric. steady state larninar tlow;
local thermodynamic equilibrium ( L n ) ;

neg lisible thermal diffusion. gravity and viscous dissipation e ffects:
optically thin plasma;
8 therrnodynamic and transport properties are only temperature dependent.
In 1979 Glickstein [43] and Chang et al. [a]
presented two different models
for the arc in GTAW. Glickstein analytically solved the one-dimensionai conservation
equations for mass, momentum and energy. To evaiuate the electric fields, he sirnply
measured the arc voltage and by knowing the length of the arc cdculated the rlectric
field through the following equation:
Glickstein showed that any addition of minute amount of low ionization potentiai e k -
ment to the welding gas can cause significant changes in the configuration of the weld
head. Also by taking into account the heat loss due to radiation into die energy equa-
tion. hr showed that above 10000 K this term is important and can not be neglected.
Chang et ul. [ U ]presented a numerical solution for the two-dimensional rnass
and momentum conservation rquations, by assuming an isothermal plasma. They
quantitied the variation of the plasma velocity due to welding çurrent and arc length.
and sugested that this variation has a profound iniluence on the shape of the weld
pool.
At the sarne time, Lowke [45] presented his one dimensional mode1 arc. By
separating arcs into two cakgories of low current and high current. hr concluded that
in low current u c s the properties of the arc are conuolled by natural convection (con-
vection due only to gravity), whereas for high current arcs they are conrrolled by the
self-magnetic M d . He ais0 found that the propenies of the plasma at high current
arcs are dependent to some extent on the cathode current density. In his study he as-
sumed a cathode current density of 108 ~ . m - ' . He aiso suggested that the cathode cur-
rent density is not a function of the applied cumnt for currents between 1 kA and 20
kA.
Ramakrishnan and Nuon [46], based on an integral formulation [471, present-
ed their one-dimensional mode1 for 100-500 A arcs and concluded that the overall arc
properties are insensitive &O the cathode current density.
By adding vixous body forces to the momentum transport equation and as-
suming a Gaussian form for the radial variation of the axid velocity. Allum [J81 pre-
dicted the gas tlow in GTAW. He solved the conservarion rquations for mass and
momentum, hy assuming a Gaussian distribution h r the axial current density and by

neglecting the variation o f the plasma properties with temperature. He found that the
huoyançy forces are dominant in the outrr part of the arc and increased in imp«nance
with pressure.
In 1983. Hsu rr al. [49] presented a cornplete model for a freee-burning high-
inti'nsity arc. In this model a comptete set o f two-dimensional conservation equation
of m a s . momentum and rnerpy dong with continuity of elrctric potential was solved
numrrically. The most crucial boundary condition was î'ound to be the cathode current
density. They dehned current dcnsity as a hnction of radius as follows:
J z = J m a x exp (-br)
in which b is a constant and Jmax is obtained from
whrre r, is the radius of the hottest pan. of die cathode. For the anode boundary.
thry used the experirnentally measured values of temperanire at 0.5 mm frorn the an-
ode. They found that the flow field b o u n d q conditions were not so critical. A sam-
ple of the predicted temperature field which is compared with experimental values is
shown in Figure 1.6 [49].

Later Hsu and Pfender [50] presented a two-temperature mode1 for the arc.
They solved two energy conservation rquations for electrons and heavy particles sepa-
rately. As a result of this study. it was found that diere was a large difference be-
tween temperatures of electrons and heavy particles at the kinges of the arc and very
close to the electrodes. This difference specificdly is shown by Dinulescu and Pfender
[ I O ] ior the anode boundary (Figure 1.7).
Kovitya and Lowke [SI]developed a two dimensional mode1 for free buming
arcs. In the mode1 they considered only the arc column. At the cathode they applied a
constant çurrent drnsity and at die anode considered the temperature to be LOO0 K. By
Figure 1.6 Measured and cdculüted isolhcrms of a free-

burning argon m. (1 = 200 A, L,, = 10.0 mm,
P = 1 aun).[491
T, - electron temperature
T, - heavy partrcle temperature
I 1 I 1 I 1 1 I ! I 1
0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.0 8.8
Distance from anode, 10.' m
Figure 1.7 Species temperature distribution in the anode

P = 100
b o u n d q layer. t Jc = 9x 106 Am-'.
kPa, Gas = Argon). [ 101
comparing with the experimental values of Haddad and Farmer [52], they found the
hest value for current density al the cathode to he lu8 A.m-2. In this study they ana-
lysed the cffects of differcnt ierms in the momentum and cnergy equations in detail.
One ycar later. in 1986, Kovitya with Cram [53) presented another mode1
which was based on the previous study 1511 with considering some modifications Sor
both Lhe cathode and the anode boundaries. They detined the cumnt density at the
cathode as a function of radius by,
where J,, is the maximum current density and is considered to be 10%.m-'. For
the anode they detined the anode spot radius based on experimental rneasurements and
considered the temperature inside the anode spot as 10000 K and outside as 1000 K.
In both of his models, Kovitya calculated the argon plasma propenies.
The tïrst attempt to estimate the heat flux from the arc to the weld pool
rnathematicaily was carried out by McKelliget and Szekely [lit]. By calculating the
rnergy vansfer through convection. radiation and electrons tlow. they predicted the an-
ode heat flux. By using Mckelliget and Szekely's approach. Westhoff [54 presented a
more complete mode1 for GTAW arc. He showed chat the deformation of the anode
surface has significant effect on the current path in the arc. even for relatively small
deformations of about 1 millirnetre.
Although in GTAW a sharpened tungsten rod acts as the cathode. in most of
the mentioned models the cathode was considered to be a tlat tip rod. Tsai and Kou
[55] simulated a real GTAW torch to compare sharpened and tlat tip electrode and to
study the effect of the nozzle wall on the arc properties. They found that the conical
surface of the electrode tip facilitated die motion of =as through the creation of an
rlecuomagnetic force parallel to the conical surface. They also showed that heat
rransfer and tluid tlow in the arc plasma are quiet sensitive to the distribution of the
cathode çurrent density dong the elecuode tip. They found that the presence of the
shidding sas nozzle. under welding conditions, does nui have any significant eiièct on
the ve locity and tem perature fieIds.
One of the problerns in modelling the arc is the cathode and the anode re-
cions. Many investigators attempted to develop mathematicai models to simulate these
C
parts o f the arc [lO. 55-581.

In 1990. Delalonûre and Simonin [601 presented the fvst mode1 of arcs which
includcd the electrode region. To avoid pre-dedning the cathode density at the cath-
ode boundary. they solved a ~eneralset of thennodynamic and electrornagnetic equa-
tions for the non-equilibrium boundary layer of the cathode. This procedure provided
the required boundary condition for the calculation of the plasma propenies in the arc
cdumn region.
Jog et (11. [6 11. in 199 1. considered a set of continuum conservation equations
Chapter 1 introduction 21
for the çharged particle densities and temperatures and Poisson's equation for the elec-
tric k l d . to drvelop a model for the welding arc. In addition. by utilizing the arc
properties they calculated the heat flux to the weld pool. In this model they consid-
ered Iow current arcs, hence they did not solve the flow equations.
Zhu et ul. [62] combined both arc and cathode by using a one dimensional
model for the rkcuode layer [59]. They divided the calculation domain into three
parts. electrode (cathode). cathode sheath and arc column. By defining two intemal
boundaries between these parts. they solved the relevant conservation equations for the
rlrcuode and the arc. n i e results of this model are in fairly good agreement with
some available experimentd data. For example, a cornparison of the calculated cath-
ode surfiicc temperature with Haidar and Farmer expenmrntal values [34] is shown in
Figure 1.8. Later Lowke et ul. [63] simplified the model by putting boundary condi-
tions for elrctric potentiai into the rod electrode. In their model, they solved the m a s
cmtinuity and consemation equations for momentum and cnergy for the =as only.
Thcy neglectcd the cathode sheath between the electrode and the arc. Although in this
model thcre is no need to pre-define the cathode çurrent density. the rcsults are de-
pendent to some extent on the cathode surfxe temperature.
Lowkct rt ul. [64 and Zhu et (11. [331 have extended their models LO include
arc column and bixh elrcirodes. In these models they divided the whole calculation
domain into iïve parts. including arc çolumn. cathode. anode and two electrode
shraths. For the internai boundaries they adjusted the temperature at each iteration
such that the energy conservation equation was satisfied. Lowke et <il. [64] focused
prirnarily on the cathode surface temperature, while Zhu et al. [331 concenuated their
attention on the k a t flux to the anode and the anode surface temperature.
Most recentiy Kaddani e t al. [65] developed a three-dimensional mode1 for
unsteady arcs. in this model. they considered only the arc colurnn. and found that the
Axial distance from the tip. mm
Figure k.8 Calculaied cathode surface temperatures for a 200 A

arc in argon at 1 atm compared with experimental
measurements of Haidar and Farrner [34]. [621
cathode current density played a very important role in stabilizing the arc.
The only mode1 for GMAW arc is presented by Jonsson et al. 1661. They
considered the workpiece as the cathode and the consumable clectrode as the anode,
and solved the relevant conservation equations and physical laws for a GMAW proc-
ess for aluminium which is shielded by argon gas.
From the above it can be concluded that while our knowledge of the mathe-
matical modelling of the welding arc in GTAW have improved considerably over the
last years there are still important areas that need much work to provide helpful infor-
mation to the welding society. These c m be identified as follows:
Evaluating the heat flux and the mode current density to the workpiece:
Studying the effect of elecirode geomeûy on the ÿrc properties and heat flux:
Modelling of arcs bumed into the mixed pases;
Deviation from LTE and optically thin behaviour.
Modelling of the arc in the GMAW process has only started recently and it
will be sometime before the appearance of a well developed model. Some of impor-
tant areas to study Tor GMAW can be listed as follows:
Non-thermionic cathode nature and behaviour in difirent grises;
El'lect of composi~ionof gas on the arc properties;
Consumable-arc interaction;
Drople t-arc interaction.
It is ohviaus that some of the topics in hoth GTAW and GMAW require
years to study. In the current study. the inputs Iiom the arc to the workpiece wi11 be
invcstigatcd.
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Chapter 1 introduction 28
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C hapter 1 Introduction 30
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1993, vol. 74. pp. 5997-6006.
2-1 INTRODUCTION
In this çhapter a mathematical mode1 for the welding arc in the GTAW proc-
ess will be developed by solving the conservation equations and Maxwell's equations
sirnultaneously. To check the validity of the model, the obtained results will be com-
pared with available experimental data, Effects of the arc variables, i.e. arc length and
applied current on the properties of the arc will be investigated. Finally. the heat flux
from the arc to the workpiece will be evduated, by estimating the contributions of dif-
ferent heat trlinst't'r mechanisms.
2.2 MODELDETELOPMENT
Figure 2.1 shows a schrmauc diagram of a DCEN gas tungsten welding arc.
A nonconsurnable tungsten electrode serves as the cathode with the workpiecr being
the anode. By applying an electnç potential drop between the electrodes and by ioniz-
ing the g u between them. for example by a pilot arc, an arc can be establishrd. Ther-
mdly emitted electrons from the cathode strike the neutral atoms in the arc gap and
ionizr hem and finally condense on the suriace of die anode. This combination of
free electrons, ions and neuual atoms is called a plasma. The plasma is a very good
conductor of elecuicity and so electrons can readily pass through the gap between the
elecuodes. The passage of the dectrons between die cathode and the mode produces
a magmtic field. In the arc region of variable cross section, the interaction of the cur-
Chapter 2 GTAW mode1 32
Figure 2.1 Schernatic diagram of the welding arc (GTAW.
rent with its self-induced magnetic field lrads to the phenornena of inducrd plasma
jets [il.
- - - -
The j!kSage o r eTeCtronsnstf%ou$ï die- ptasma puduces k a t ttircrugh 3mle

hearing. Since the cumnt density in the arc column is very high (106-10' Am-' [2]),
the amount of this hrat generated is sufticiently high to h e p die ionized gas srahle.
ThrmalIy emitted electrons uavel across the arc and eventually hit the work-
piece (anode), giving up rnergy which is proportional to the work function of the an-
ode material and the kinetic energy of the electrons. Other mechanisms taking part in
the heat tlux to the anode are convection and radiation from the arc [3I.
Although a plasma consists of at least three different panicles, ekctrons, ions

and neutral atoms, it c m be treated as a continuum tluid since a high intensity. high
pressure arc is collision dominated [4.

This indicates that the mean free paths for
Chapter 2 GTAW rnodel 33
particle collisions for al1 species an: much smaller than the characteristic length xaie
of the macroscopic change. In this case. the equations which describe the global con-
servation of mas. momentum and energy for nonconducting tluids can be written for
the plasma.
Tagether with this fact. the following assumptions which are çornmonly am-
ployed in arc modelling are considered:

It is assumed that the arc is axially symmetric so that the equations can be written
in two-dimensional cylindricai coordinates;
It is assurned that the arc is in steady state sn ~ ! a tthe variation of different
parameters with time is eliminated;
It is assumed that the arc is in local thermodynarnic cquilibrium (LTE). which
means that the transitions and reactions in the plasma are collision dorninated.
Therelim the temperatures of electrons and heavy particles arc almost equal. It is
shown that [5] this assumption is valid for most of the arc excepr in regions very
close to the cathode and the anode surtaces and in the fringes.
Ir is assumed thüt the plasma is optically thin so that the ndiated energy h m the
arc will not be absorbed by the plasma. Although Cram rr cri. [61 and F m e r and
Haddad [7] have shown that this assumption is not accurate at the outer part of the
arc, the corc of the arc c m still be considered as an optically thin plasma.
Laminar tlow is assumed. This assumption is justified by McKelliget and Szekely
[81 on the b a i s of larninar-turbulent transition for a tiee jet.
It is ÿssumed that the electrode is a tungsten rod with a tlat surface. This
üssumption simplifies the geometry. Later the effect of the electrode tip angle will
be investigated.
2.3 GOVERNINC
EQUATIONS
Using the above assumptions. the conservation equations c m be written as

follows:
The iast terms in the momentum quaiions are due to interaction «f the current and its
self-induced magnetic field (Lorentz force). In welding. the clectromagnetic compo-
nent of the Lorentz force is usually much greater than die elecirosiatic çomponent [ 3 ] ,
thus the latter is neglected in the momentum equations.
The source tcrms in the energy equation an: Joule heating radiation loss and heat
trcuisfer due to elecvon drift.

Continuity of current çan be written in terms of electric potential as:
Since the arc is axi-symmetnc. the azimutha1 component of the magnetic field will be
die only component that acts on the plasma through the Lorentz force. The azimurhal
cornponent of the magnetic field c m be calculated by following relation from Am-
pere's Law:
To calculate the çurrent density. Ohm's law çan be used. The generaiized
Ohm's law may be simplifieci as
Physiçal properties. narnely density, viscosity. thermal conductivity. heat ça-

pacity and elecuical conductivity are uerited as functions of temperature. Ai1 these
properties are taken from the iabulated data of Boulos et (il. [91. Radiation l o s data
are &ken hom Evans and Tankin [ 1O].
2.4 BOUNDARYCONDITIONS AND NUMERICAL METHOD
The calculation domain for al1 variables is shown in Figure 3.2. A non-uni-
form grid point system is employed with finer gnd sizes near the cathode region. The
distance between the electrodes varies from 2.0 to 12.7 mm. The inflow boundary at
the top of the domain is taken at 3.1 mm above the elecuode face (cathode surface).
Figure 2.2 Calculation domriin for GTAW

(schernatic).
The boundary at the side is 15 m m away from the mis of symmrtry. The corre-
sponding boundary conditions are given in Table 2-1.

The specification of the boundary condition for velocity is not as criticai. At
the solid boundaries, the face and side of the clectrode, and the surface of the work-
piece, the velocities are zero. At the m i s of symmetry. the radial velocity will br zero
and there is no tlux for axial velocity. The radial velocity is zero at the top inîlow
and the axial velocity equals a constant value of 2.0 m . s l and proportional to the
shielding _pas inflow. The side boundary is located far enough so that there is no axial
and radial momentum fluxes at this boundüry. At the top and side boundÿnes. pres-
sure is fixed to a constant value to esse the convergence of the solution.
Chapter 2 GTAW model 37
Table 2-1: Boundary Conditions.
At these two houndaries pressure is tixrd to ri constant value.
Currents. axial and radial, at ail boundiines except at the cathode md the an-
ode are zero. Thus. the rlectric potential tlux at thosc boundaries is zero. For the en-
thalpy cquation. it is assumed that the temperature of the gas entering the calcularicin
domain through the top ruid side boundaries rquals a constant value. For the outîlow
part of the side boundary, the energy tlux is considered to be zero. At the axis of
symmetry, the flux of both die electric potential and the enthdpy rqual zero. Since at
the cathode and at the anode, LTE condition does not exist, and t'urther these two re-
gions üct as inflow and outflow boundaries for the electric potential. a special ueat-
ment will be required for both the cathode and the anode boundary rezions.
The Cathode Region

The cathode region is a very criticai boundary in solving transport equations
of the arc. In fact, very Little is known about the transition from the relatively cold
surface (electrode) to hot plasma column over c very small distance. Usually, an elec-
tncal sheath is considered between the arc column and the electrode. Strong electric
fields accelerate the electrons across this sheath towards the arc column. It is in this
layer that ionization of gas atoms occurs causing a substantiai potential drop.
It was shown by Hsu and Pfender [SI, that in the transition layer the plasma
is not in the LTE condition. While the temperature of the heavy particles decreases
rapidly to the cathode surface temperature as the electrode is approached. the electron
temperature remains rnuch higher, almost equal to the plasma temperature.
By assuming that the electrons are in a free fa11 across the cathode sheath.
McKelliget and Szekely [8] presented a mode1 to evaluate the cathode fa11 voltage,
where Te is the temperature of electrons in the vicinity of the cathode spot. By this
they suggested that the kinetic energy of the electrons at the interface of the cathode
shcath and the arc column is obtained by passing of the electrons across a cathode faIl
voltage, V C . B a x d on this voltage. a heat source for the arc column c m be consid-
ered as Iollows:
Qioniz = 1J C ( v c (2-9)
There is another condition for the electrode surface. It is assurned that the electrode
surface is at a constant temperature close to the melting point of the electrode materi-
al.
For the ekctric potentiai, the boundary condition is approximated by assuming
that the cathode current density, Jc. emitted from the cathode normal to the surface is
constant inside the cathode spot radius, Rc. and is zero outside;
McKelliget and Szekely [8] found that a single value of the cathode current density
-gave good results, compared with experimental rneasurernents. for different values of
applied current and arc Iength. The value for the cathode current density, and there-
tore Cor the cathode spot radius was obtained from the Westhoffs study [ I l l .
The Anode Region

Since the electrical conductivity of the metal is much hisher than the plasma,
it çan be assumed tha~dong the anode surface the electric potential is constant.
For the enthalpy boundriry condition, a heat flux from the arc to the anode
(workpiece) is considered. Conventionally the heat tlux to the anode c m be expressrd
by [31
where qc = the local heat iluxes by conduction and convection, qr = the radiation
heai uansfer and qc = the energy ~ansferred to the anode by the rlectrons. q, con-
sisu of three parts. The Tist part is the kinetic energy of electrons which is gained by
the rlectrons on passing across the arc çolumn. The second is the energy sained by
the electrons on passing across the electric field of the anode sheath. It is shown the-
oretically [12.13] and expenmentally [14] that the anode Cal1 voltage is negative and
does not contribute to the heat transkr to the anode. The l u t terrn is the condensation
heat of the elecuons which is proportional to the work function of the anode material.
In the electron contribution to the anode heat flux. the energy transfcrred because of
the axial gradients of the elecuon temperatures and density [12] must be considered.
Thus the elecuon contribution can be expressed as follows:
In this equacion qd is the thermal diffusion coefficient of the rlectrons. By consider-

in= an argon plasma with electron cmperatures of about 10000 K. the value of the
term in the parenthesis is 3.203. Therefore equation (2-17) simplifies to
It is assumed rhat the tempenture of the electrons rntering the anode shrath
equals the film temperature. Te = ( Te, O.l +T 1 / 2.0. Here Te, o. is the temper-
ature of the rlectrons a[ the edge of the arc which is at 0.1 rnillimetre trom the anode
surface, and Tw is the tempenture of the waii. assumed to be 1000 K.
ï h e first term in the right hand side of eq. (2-11). q , , consists of two parts:
convective and conductive. The convective contribution depends upon the arc current
and the separation of the electrodes. In the welding process short and high intensity
arc buming in the argon is encounered and the cathode jet dominates over the whole
Içngth of the arc such that the conductive part in cornparison with the convrçtive part
can be neglectcd.
To evaluate the convective heat transfer. McKrUiget and Szekely [81, and
Westhoff [ l l ] approach was usrd. From the literature [151 a correlation for the im-
pinging flow of argon was taken and modified [ I l ] as follows:
To calculate the convective part, as in the electron term, the temperature of the wail
was considered to be 1000 K.
The final contribution to the anode heat flux is radiation tiom the plasma.
This part c m be calculated using the foUowing relationship (Figure 7.3) [8. L LI.
In the cylindricai coordinate system. eq. ( 2 -15) c m be rewritten as
JjJ 'R". j (dz)

3/2
,, e 4~ ( A - B C O S ~ )
and ÿikinp advantage of radiai symmetry
7 2
where A = r; + rs + z2 and B = 2rrrs, and rr and rS are the radius of the anode
surface and plasma volume elrments, respectively. The above integral is isvailable in
tables [Ml.and cm be caiculated numerically over the whole of the plasma for rach
mode surface ekmènt.
In this model. sinçe a water coolrd copper plate is çonsidered as the anode.
the heat loss due to vaporization of the anode materiai is neglected. However ir
should be mentioned that in the real welding process. the heat loss due to vaporization
1
Figure 2.3 Contiguration of radiation view factors.
of the metal from the weld pool results in a snonger cooling rffect on the arc and
therefore must be taken into account.
Finally. the total heat tlux to the anode can b r evaluated by combining equa-
tions (2-13), (2-14) and (2-17). The heat loss due to radiation and the heat transfer
due to temperature gradients have already been considered in the energy equation. As
a result. only the convective heat transfer to the sudace and the work function terms
in the electron heat uansfer rquation are considered a s the anode boundary conditions
for enthalpy.
2.4.2 Numerical Method

To solve the above equations. the PHOEMCS code was used. This code, de-
vrloped by Concentration. Heat and Momontum Ltd. (CHAM). provides solutions to
the discretized version of sets of differentid rquations having the general t o m [ 171:
or in steady state
The symbol stands for any conserved proprrty. such as enthalpy. momentum and m a s .
The tïrst term on the left hmd side is the convective trrrn and the second term is the con-
ductive or diffusive term. The terni on the right hand side shows the source rate of 4). By
cornparing the general form. rq. (2- 19) with the conservation equations, eqs. (2-1)-(2-4). the
associated quantities c m bt: exlracted. These quantities are listed in Table 2-2. Also, the
continuity of electric potenual c m be solved in this way and it can be treated as a conduction
problern without the convection term.

Table 2-2: The Corresponding Quantities for the Different Conservation Equations.
1 Equation
1 Axial momznturn
Radial mornen tum
2.5 RESULTS AND DISCESSION

This model has been simulated with a r p n as the shielding gas with two dif-
ferent current densitirs over the cathode spot radius for different dectrode seplirations
and applied currents. Arnong the arc properties, heat flux IO the workpiece and the an-
ode current dcnsity are rnostiy concemed. beçause these two determine the fluid and
hrat tlow into the weld pool. To verify the vdidity of the model. other arc propenies.
such as temperature profile, velocities. and electric potentiai must be exarnined. To do

this, the results of the caiculations are cornpared with available experimental and other
calçulated data.
In Table (2-3). four major properties of the arc, i.r. maximum temperature.
maximum axial velocity, eleciric potential difference, and anode pressure difference. in
different cases are summuized. The results reported by Wrsthoff [L l ] arc also given.
From Table 2-3, the maximum temperature of the arc is slightly ditTerent frorn Wesr-
C hapter 2 GTAW model 44
Table 2-3: Arc Parameters for Different Arc Lengths and Applied Currents. A Cornparison with
a Sample of Other Numerical Results. ( Tm,, , t Kk,,,u . . .
(rns''):A$ (V);AP, (Pa)).
Applied CurGnt ( A )
:,c: Westhoff s results [ 1 I ]

h o r s results [ 151. This difference in al1 cases is less than 5%.

In Figure 2.4. the calculated isothems at 100, 200 and 300 ampere for arcs of
10 mm length are compared with the experimental results of Hsu et. al. [18]. In this
Figure the cathode current density for caiculated results is 6.5x10-' ~ . m - ' . These
graphs show that the agreement between the calculated and the experimental values,
specifically for the lower applied currents and except for the region very close to the
elecuodes, is very good, especiaily when the experimental enors are reported to be
110- 15% [ 191.
The velocity profiles for the 200 A arc at a length of 2.0 and 10.0 millimetres
are shown in Figure 2.5. In Figure 2.6. the calculated values of the velocities for both
cathode current densities for a 100 A arc of 10 rnillimetre length are compared with
the experimental values of Allum [20] and Seqer and Tiller [21]. As this graph
shows. the agreement between the numerical results of this work with the lower cath-
ode current density and Lhe experimental values of Seeger and Tiller [21] is reasonably
oood, rspecially for the maximum velocity and its position. The theoretical values of
b
Allum [21] and Kovitya and Lowke [22] are also shown. The calculated values for
the lower cathode current density are in very good agreement with Westhoffs results
[ 1 1] (Table 2-3). This Table clearly indicates that arc lengths longer than 6.3 millime-
tre have no effect on the maximum velocity of the plasma. This is also shown in Fig-
ure 2.7 for 300 A arcs of different lengths with a cathode current density of 6.5~10'
~.rn''.
As expected, the maximum pressures are located at the front of the tungsren
electrode and the weld pool (Figure 2.8). Compared to Westhoff s results [ I l ] , the an-
ode pressure differences in al1 cases are higher, which is the result of the finer g i d
size that is used in this study. By considering the variation of the pressure of the an-
ode with increasing arc length and applied current, it is observed that for the 200 and
1 11000K + 1 11000K +
2 12000 K -0- 2 12000 K -e
3 73000 K t 3 13000 K +
4 14000 K 0 4 14000 K *
5 15000 K + 5 15000 K +
6 17000K * 6 17000 K *
7 19000 K -F
8 20500 K 4 2 7 000 K
Radial distance. mm Radial distance, mm
Cal.
1 ?1000K +
2 i2000 K -0-
3 13000 K +
4 14000K +3-
5 15000 K +
6 17000 K *
7 19000 K +
8 21000K +
9 22000 K +(23000
Figure 2.4 Isolherms of 10.0 m m arcs

in cornparison with the ex-
ptximcntal resu1t.s of Hsu et
al. [18]. For caiculated re-
sults, the cathode current
density is 6.5~10'~ . r n a:
-~
1 = 100 A; b: 1 = 200 A; c:
I = 300 A. Radial distance. mm
4.0 2 .O O.
Radiai distance. mm
Figure 2.5 T-vpical velocity profile in

GTAW arcs of two differ-
ent lenpths. lc = 6.5~10'
Am-'. 1 = 200 A. a: L, =
2.0 mm, b: L,, = 10.0
mm. 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
Radiai distance. mm
300 A arcs. the pressure reaches a maximum and then decreases (Figure 2.9). For the
200 A arc, this maximum occurs at about 3.2 mm but for the 300 A arc this is at
about 1.0 mm. As illustrated in Figure 2.10 this behaviour is due io an incrcase in the
rlectromagnetic force at the anode as a rcsult of a decreax in the separation of the
electrodes.
In Figure 2.1 1 the voltage of the arcs at differcnt applied currenls and arc
lengths is compared with Westhoff s results [ I l ] and the expenmental values [23].
The absolute values of the caiculated voltage of this work are much closer to the ex-
perimental results [231. However. the siope of the variation of arc voltage with ap-
- - - - Seeger b Tilier (Exp. 1979) 1211

8 Allum (Exp.. 1981 1201
- - - - - -'Kovin/a b Lowke (Cal.. 1985) 1221
Axial distance. mm
Figure 2.6 Distribution of axial velocity dong the axis of sym-

meuy for 100 A arc of 10.0 m m Iength.
plied current for both cathode current densities is less than the cxperimental dam. On
the 0 t h hand. the values of the arc voltage are very close to the cxpenmental values
when difirent cathode current densities arc considerd for differcnc applied currents.
For the 2.0 mm arc the k s t agreement for the IO0 A arc is obtained at a çurrent den-
O .O 2 .O 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

Axial distance. mm
Figure 2.7 Variation of axial velocity at the centre line of the arc for
differcnt arc lenglhs. Nurnkrs are length of arcs in mm. 1
= 300 A.
10 Pa
100 Pa
400 Pa
600 Pa
750 Pa
Figure 2.8 T-vpical pressure distri bu-

tion in a GTAW arc. 1 =
200 A. ,L, = 10.0 mm.
7.5 6.0 4.5 3.0 1.5 0.0
Radial dtsrance, mm
~ ~.m-'.while for the 300 A arc. the best agreement occurs at a çurrent
sity of 6 . 5 10'
density of 8 . 5 ~ 1 0 ' ~ . r n - ? .This is undersiandahle since the cathode çurrent density is a
iùnction of cathode surface temperature (Equarion (1- 1 )).
2.5.2 Anode Current Density

The maximum anode current densities for diffcrcnt arc Iengths and currents
Arc iength. mm
Figure 2.9 Variation of the $as pressure at the surface of the anode
with the arc length and applied current. Numbers are ap-
plied current in A.
Radial distance. mrn

8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
6.3 ' I 1 1 1 l l
i
. . . . - - - - - - - - - . - - v 1
Figure 2.10 Variation of efeciro- I l I 1 I 1

magneric force at the 2.0 l
surface of the mode

with chaneing the
-
ruc Iength. Numbers
are the atc lcngths in
mm. O5 N
2.0~1
are summruized in Table 2-3. The catculated mode current densities from this study
are also cornparcd wirh the experimental data of Nestor [141, Tsai and Eagar [25] and
Lu and Kou [26] and Lhe calculated results of Westhoff [ I l ] .
---.- Exp. Welding handbook, 2.0 mm 1231

---Exp. Welding handbook. 4.0 mm (231
+Calculated, 3.2 mm (Westhoff 1989) [ l 11
*This study. 2.0 mm. Jc = 6 . 5 ~ 1 0~' .rn.~
+This study. 4.0 mm. Jc = 6 . 5 ~ 1 A.m~'
+This study, 2.0 mm. Jc = 8 . 5 ~ 1 0 A-rn
' '
+This study. 4.0 mm, Jc = 8.5~10'~ . r n - ~
9.0 1 I i 1 1
I 1
100 150 200 250 300
Applied current, A
Figure 2.11 Vÿnation of arc voltqe wilh applied current md arc length in cornpari-
son with experimental and selectcd cdcuIated results.
Table 2-4: Maximum Anode Current Density and Maximum Heat Flux for Different Cur-
rems and Arc Lengths. ( J ,., ,,, .
( ~ . m m - ' ) ; q, (w.rnrm2)).
Applied current, (A)
ùi Figure 2.12. a cornparison of the anode current density distribution for a
6.3 m m arc ar h r e e different applied çurrents almg with the experimenüil data of
Nestor [21j is shown. The results of Nestor [24] are for a 1% thoriated tungsten elec-
trode having a pointed tip of 30" as the cathode and a water cookd copper plate as
Radial distance. mm Radial distance. mm Radial distance. m m
Figure 2.12 Anode current density for different applied çurrents com-
pared with experirnental [24], and theoreticai [ I l ] re-
sults. a: 1 = LOO A; b: 1 = 200 A; c: I = 300 A. L, = 6.3
m m and Jc = 6 . 5 10'
~ ~.rn-~.
the anode. For 100 A and 300 A arcs the calçulated anode current drnsity is higher
than Nestor's data but for the 200 A case, it is aimost the samè. As shown, the ex-
penmental ma,ximum anode current densities of the anode for both the 200 A and the
300 A are alrnost rqud. Nestor [2J] related this to the lowr axial rlectrical field
smngth of the arc with higher applird current. On the other hmd. in the calculation it
is found that the electrical potential difference betwern the last node at the centre and
the anode surtàce are alrnost the same and the difference between the maximum anode
current densitics is related to the differcnce in temperatures and therefore the eleçuicai
conduçtivity of the gas in the vicinity of the anode surface. For the 200 A anrs with
different lengths. the anode current densities are compared with the experimental val-
ues of Nestor [24] in Figure 2.13, and shows that these two senes of data are in fauly
sood agreement with each other.
For the 100 A arc with different lengths, the maximum anode current densi-
Solid lines: This study

Dashed lines: Nestor. 1962 1241
Radial distance, mm
Figure 2.13 Anode current density for arcs with different lengths
in comparison with experimental [%1 results. Num-
bers are arcs Iengrhs in millimetre. i = 200 A.
ues are higher than the experîmental values of Tsai and Eagar [25] (Figure 2.14). Tsai
and Eagar usrd Nestor's method to meuure the current density and by defining a dis-
uibution panmeter. expressed their results in a Gaussian form as follows:
Solia lins: This study

Dashed Iine Tsai b Eagar. 1985 1251
I 1 I 1 I t
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

Arc length. mm
Figure 2.14 Variation of maximum anode current density with arc

length in comparison with the experimental [25] val-
ues. 1 = 100 A.
where o, is thc distribution parameter and is a function of the applied current, arc
length. cathode geometry and gas composition. Lu and Kou's results [26] for the 100
A and 2.7 mm arc length are the only experimental data which are higher than the
calculated values. They have shown that the maximum current density is higher than
the one based on a Gaussian approximation.
In Figure 2.12, Westholfs results [ I l ] are also shown. It is clear that the two
series of calculated results arc different The reason is the stronger cooling effect of
the anode which was considered for the anode boundary condition in the present
study. In this study, in addition to convective heat transfer, the effect of the anode
work function was also considered.
2.5.3 Anode Heat Flux

The heat tlux lrom the arc to the workpiece have been measured experimen-
tally by Nestor [24], Tsai and Eagar [25], Lu and Kou [26] and Schoeck [27]. In Fig-
ure 2.15 the calculated results of this study are compared with Nestor's experirnental
results [24]. For the case of the 200 A. Westhoffs calculated h e u ilux [ l l j , fit the
experimental data better than the present study. However the agreement between the
theoretical values of this study and the experimental values in the range of 100-300 A
is reasonable. Figure 2.16 shows a cornparison of the theoretical heat tlux with Sch-
oeck's values [27] for the 50 A. LOO A and 150 A arcs of 5 mm length. Except for
the 50 A arc, the calculated maximum heat flux for the two other arcs is very close to
the experimental values. but the variation of the heat flux with radial distance in both
cases is different, while the agreement between heat flux distribution of this study and
Ncstor's data (Figure 2.15) is much better. Both Nestor 1241 and Schoeck [27] used a
-Th~s study
I
----- Exp. Nestor.
1962 t241
Cal. Westhoff.
l989[fI l
Radial distance. mm Radial distance, mm Radial distance, mm
Figure 2.15 Anode heat flux for different applied current in cornparison with
experimental [24] ruid theorerical [ I l ] results. a: 1 = 100 A; b: 1 =
200 A; c: I = 300 A. Lm = 6.3 mm.
split plate as the anode but for the cathode Nestor used a 1 9 thoriated tungsten rod
with 3.175 mm (118 in.) diameter and 30 degrees tip angle. whilr Schoeck used a pure
tungsten rod of 6.35 mm (1/4 in.) with a 45 degrees tip a q l e . The tungsten rod di-
ameter used in Nestor's experiments is almost equal to the diameter of the elecuodr
which is considered for the calculation. Anodier important parameter is the electrode
tip angle which will be studied in the next chapter.
Figure 2.17 shows the effect of the arc length on the heat flux to the anode
as obtained in the prexnt study and is compared fo the experimental values of Nestor
[24]. By decreîsing the an: length, the maximum heat flux at the centre of the anode
60
-This study I I
Radial distance. mm Radial distance. mm Radial distance. mm
Figure 2.16 Anode heat flux for different applied currents in cornparison with
experimencal [27] values. a: 1 = 50 A; b: 1 = 100 A; c: 1 = 150 A.
L, = 5.0 mm.
increases and is more localized. The agreement between the calculated results for arc
lensth 3.2 to 12.7 mm and at 200 A with the experimental values of Nestor is very
good.
In Figure 2.18 the maximum heat Cluxes for the arcs of different lengths with
arec different applied currents are compared with Tsai and Eagar [25] and Lu and
Kou [26] experimental values. The calculated values, are in good agreement with Lu
and Kou's values, except for one case, but compared to Tsai and Eagar's data the cal-
culated values are much higher.
To calculate the heat flux the three mechanisms, electron condensation, radia-
tion and convection, are considered. A summary of the contribution of these mecha-
nisms for different cases are given in Table 2-5. The contribution of the electron heat
transkr varies tiom 63.5% to 92% and is the dominant mechanism of heat transfer.
The electron contribution increases with decreasing arc length and applied current.
Both convective and radiative heat transfer show a slightly increase with the applied
current and a significant increase with arc length.
00 1 I l i
Solid iines: This study

Dashed lines: Nestor. 1962 124)
-
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 1 C.0

Radial distance. mm
Figure 2.17 Anode heat tlux for arcs with different Iengths in
cornparison with experimentai 1241 results. Numbers
are arc lengths in mm. I = 200 A.
The only available estimation of the contribution o f these three mechanisrns is
Wrsthoffs data [ L 11. In Figure 2.19. the results of this study for 6.3 mm arcs at dif-
lerent applied çurrents are compared with Westhoffs results. There is no difference in
the radiation contribution. however. the convcctive heat tlux of this study in d l cases
îs lrss than the others. This is due to the mentioned svonger cooling effeçt of the an-
ode and hencr lower gas temperature. that is a lower enthaipy at the vicinity of the
mode (rq. (2-14)). The rleçtron component increases with lower current and on in-
creasing the current its value decreases to Lrss than Wrsthoff's estimation. The srnail-
er v d u e for the electron contribution for the 300 A arc results because of the lower
rlectrical conductivity and lower anode current density (Figure 2 . 1 2 ~ ) . In the case of
the 100 A arc, because of the smaller Joule effect. the temperature is lower. In the vi-
cinity of the mode the temperature is about 2000 K less than the 300 A case (Figure
--- 1 .u 6 Kou. 60 A. d,=?.d mm 1261

L 1
O t u & Kou. 100 A. d,=2.4 mm
"\ $Lt: 6 Kou. 100 A. de= 3.2 mm

OTsai & Eagar. 100 A {251
QTsai & Eagar. 190 A (251
QTsai b Eagar. 280 A 1251
Solid lines: T h ~ study
s
O 1 1 1 I 1 1 !
I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Arc length, mm
Figure 2.18 VIuirttion of maximum anode heat ilux with arc length
and applied current in cornparison with the experimen-
ta1 [25, 261 values.
1.30). On the othrr hand. at temperatures less than 8000 K. the çonductivity of the ar-
= plasma is very low (Figure 2.71) and this causes locdizing of the elecuon cur-
.oon
renrs in the centre part of the anode so that al1 current m u t p u s through a srnall area.
This leads to a signitiçant increase in the çurrent density (Figure 2.1%) and hence an
increÿx in the elrctron contribution (Figure 7.19a).
The variation in the contributions of the thrce mechanisrns of heat transfer at
the anode with arc lcngth are shown in Figure 2.22. This graph shows that the elec-
uon contribution is dominant. especially tor short ucs. At the shortest arc length. the
ekctron part (Figurc 2.22a) is reduced to a small area with the highrst maximum heat
flux. By incrcasing the length of the arc, the surface area of the rlectiron passage in-
creases and the maximum heat tlux decreases.
For the convective part (Figure 2.22b). the maximum value increases initially
Table 2-5 Contribution of Different Heat Transfcr Mechanisms to the Anode Heat FIux.
Applied current, (A)

C hapter 2 GTAW model 60
Figure 2.19 Contribution of the threc

mechanisms in the anode heat
flux in cornparison with other
theoretical estimation [ 1 1 1. a: 1
= 1IX) A; b: 1 = 200 A; c: 1 =
300 A. L,, = 6.3 mm.
Radial distance. mm
i
I
Solid iines: This study
Dashed lines: Westhoff. 1989 11 11
I
- - - - -. )Elecrron heat flux
I
,
,,,
,,,)Convection
, heat flux
)Radiation heat flux
1
Radial distance, mm Radial distance, mm

Radial distance, m m
Figure 2.20 Variation of temperature rit the vicinity of the anode

surface with spplicd current and radial distance.
with increasing arc length due to the increase in the maximum radial velocity near the
anode (Fisure 2.33). Then, by decreasing the maximum radial velocity. the çonvective
part decreases.
In the case of the radiarive hrat ü-ansfer. increasing the arc length increases
Temperature.
Figure 2.21 Variation of Electrical çonductivity of &son

with tcrnperature [91.
Radial distance. m m
Sadial distance. mm
Radial distance. mm
Figure 3.22 Variation of three rnechanisms of heat uansfer con-

tribution into the anode heat tlux wiih the arc
length. I = 200 A. a: Elecuon; b: Convection; c: Ra-
diation.
Chapter 2 GTAW modei 63
Radiat distance. mm
Figurc 2.23 Variation of radiai velocity with the radial

distance and tfie arc length. 1 = 200 -4.
the amount of heat (Table 2-5). In Figure 2 . 2 2 ~it is shown that the arc lengh c m
aiso change the distribution of radiative heat transkr to the workpiece. such that by
increasing the arc length the transferrcd heat tends to be distributed on the surface of
the workpicce more unilormly.
2-54 Gas Shear Stress on the Anode Surface
The rolc of the shear stress on the surface of the anode due to llow of the
plasma is the other panmeter which is imp«nant in ihe ettèct of arc on the weld pool
behaviour. To evaluate this parameter, WesthoKs [ I l ] approach was used. The shear
stress acting on the surfacc c m be caiculiitcd through the following aquation:
Figurc 2.24 shows the effect of the applied current on shear stress for a 6.3
mm arc length togerher with Wcsthoffs results [ I I ] . On increasing the applied cur-
rent, the differcnce between the two calculated results increascs. This probably results
Solid lines: This srudy

Dashed line: Westhoff. 1989 ( 1 11
Radial distance. mm
I L
-7 4 6
Radial distance, mm Radial distance. mm
Figure 2.24 Variation of shear suess with radial distance ruid applied current
in comp-xison with other theoretical estimation [ I I I . ,L = 6.3
mm. ri: 1 = LOO A; h: i = 200 A; c: 1 = 300 AAOO A.
[rom the çooler gas ncar the anode. which is obtainrd through lhis study, and its ef-
fect on the viscosity of the gas. This cffect is also observed in the variation of the
shear suess distribution of the 200 A arc (Figure 2.25).
2.6 SUMMARY
in this chapter a mathematicai mode1 Cor the GTAW an: was developed. To
simplify the model. a cylindrical tungsten rod with a tlat tip was considered as the
cathode elecuodr. Rasults for the applied current range Born 100 A to 300 A and the
arc length range from 2.0 mm to 12.7 mm are prexnted. Cornparison with available
expenmentai results showed that the calculated temperature field was completely relia-
I Solid Iines: This study

Dashed Iine: Westhoff. 1989 11 1 1 1
Sadra! distance. mm
2 4 6 8
Radtal dtstance. mm
Radial distance. mm
Figure 2-25 Variation of the shear stress with radiai distance and arc length in corn-
parison with other theoretical estimation [ I l ] . 1 = 200 A. a: Lx, = 2.0
mm13.2 mm; b: Lu, = 6.3 mm; ç: L,, = 10.0 mm/12.7 mm.
ble. On the other hand. the information for the arc voltage indicated that a constant
cathode current density at different üpplied currents was not accurate and the cathode
current density mgsi increüse by increasing the applied current.
The anode currcnt density was calculaicd and it was iound that by decreasing
the arc length. the anode spot area decreases so that the anode current density increas-
es signitïcantly. Also. it wlis h u n d that the disuibution of the anode current density
changed with the applied current or in other words with gas temperature at the vicinity
of the anode surface. At lower currents or cooler gas. current density is more local-
ized at the centre part of the anode. By increasing the current and thereforc the tem-
penture of the gas near the anode. a wider m a is hot enough to let clectrons pass
through (Figures 7.20 and 2.31) and then the cumnt density at the anode spreads over
a wider area.
Calculatiun o f the anode hcat transfer showed that the dominant mechanism in
heat transfer to the workpiece is the electron contribution. The share of the electron
heat transfcr chmges from 63% for very long arc and high current to more than 92%
for short arc and low current, The share of the convection heat transfer increascs h m
-48 io -15% with applied currcnt and arc length. Also, the radiation contribution in-
creases h m -3.54 to - 2 2 1 with arc length and applied current. The rate of increase
with arc length for radiation is higher than that for convection such that in long arcs
the second important mechanism in heat transfer is radiation.
The sas shear stress applicd on the surface of the anode was also çaicuiated
for diffcrent currcnts and arc lengths and it was found that the increase in shear stress
with currcnt is signitlcant.
Although the rcsults of this modei lire in very good a p e m e n t with the exper-
imental data. this rnodel c m not predict the arc properties in the case of an electrode
wilh an angular tip. In the next chapter. the shape of the elecuode tip will be consid-
ered to obtain a mon: complete modei for GTAW arc and then the information ob-
tained from the arc modef will be used to develop the weld pool model.
REFERENCES
1- E. Pfender. "Electric Arcs and Arc Gas Heaters". in Gaseorts Electrunicx vol. 1,
edited by M. N. Hirsh and H. J. Oskam, Academic Press Inc.. 1978, pp. 291-398.
2- 1. F . Lancaster. The Physics of WUrL.ing. 2nd edn. Pergamon Press. 1986.
3- E. Pfender, "Energy Transport in Thermal Plasmas". Pure & Appl. Chem.. 1980.
vol. 52. pp. 1773-1800.
4- M. Mitçhener and C. H. Kruger Jr.. PurriLIIly ionized guses, John wiley & Sons.
Inc., 1992.
5- K. C. Hsu and E. Pfender. 'Twa-Temperature Modeiling of the Free-Burning
High-Intensity Arc". J. Appl. Phy~.,1983, vol. 54. pp. 4359 4366.
6- L. E. Cram. L. Poladian and G. Roumeliotis. "Depiinure fiom Equilibrium in a
Free-Buming Argon Arc". J. Phys. D: Appi. Ph'. 1988. vol. 2 1. pp 418-475.

7- A. J. D. F m e r and G. N. Haddad. "Rayleigh Scattenng iMeasuremcnts in a Free-
Burning Argon Arc", J. Ph- D: Appl. Ph-. 1988. vol. 2 1, pp. 42643 1.
8- J. McKelliget and J. Szekely, "Heat Transfer and Ruid Flow in the Welding Arc".
Merulfurgicul Trunsucriuns A. July 1986, vol. 17A. pp. 1 139- L 138.
9- M. 1. Boulos. P. Fauchais and E. Pkndcr. T h e ~ n i a iplu.ss,nu. firndurnrntri1.s und up-
plicarions. vol. 1. Plenum Press. 1994.

10- D. L. Evans and R. S . Tankin. Measurement of Emission and Absorption of Radi-
ation by an A r p n Plasmi'. Phyics of Fluids. 1967, vol. 10, pp. 1 137-1 144.
I l - R. C. Westhoff, S.M Thesis, Dept. of Materials Sçiencc and Engineering. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989.
12- H. A. Dinulrscu and E. Ptènder. "Analysis of the Anode Boundilry Layer of High
Intensity Arc". J. Appl. Phys.. 1980. vol. 5 1. pp. 3 149-3 157.
13- P. Zhu, J. J. Lowke. R. Morrow and J. Haidar, "Prediction of Anode Temperature
of free Buming Arcs", J. Phvs. D: Appl. Ph-.. 1995, vol. 28. pp. 1369- 1376.
14- N. A. Sanders and E. F%&der, "Measurement of Anode Falls and Anode Heat
Transfer in A~nosphencPressure Hi$ Intensity Arcs*', I. Agpf. P-. 1984. vol.
55. pp. 7 14-722.

15- W. M. Rosenhow and J. P. Hartnett, Handbook of Heat Transfer, Mc Graw-Hill,
1973. p. 8- 126.
16- 1. S. Gradshteyn and 1. M. Ryzhik, Table of Integrais. Series and Prodncts. 4th
edn, Academic Press. 1965.
17- CHAM, TR100- A Guide to the PHOENICS Input Languqe
18- K. C. Hsu, K. Etemadi and E. Pfender. "Study of Fee-Burning High Intensity Ar-
gon Arc'', J. Appf. Ph-., 1983, vol. 51. pp. 1293-1301
19- J. F. Couden and P. Fauchais, "The Influence of the Arc Fluctuations on the Tem-
penture Measurements in D.C. Plasma Jets", in n i e r m l Plasma Application in
Materials und Metallcrrgical Processing. rdited by N. El-Kaddah, TMS, 1992, pp.
75-83.
20- C. J. Allum. "Gas Flow in the Column of TIG Welding Arc". J. P h s . D: Appl.
Phu.s.. 1981. vol. 11, pp. 1041-1059.
21- C. J. Allum. "Power Dissipation in the Column of TIG Weldin~Arc". J. Phus. D:

Appl. Ph?..s.. IY83. vol. 16. pp. 1149-2165.
22- P. Kovitya and J. J. Lowke, 'Two-Dimensional Analysis of Free-Buming Arcs in

Argon", J. Ph-. D: Appl. Ph-., 1985. vol. 18, pp. 53-70.
23- Wrlcling hundbook. 8rh rdn, vol. 2, American Welding Society, 1991.
24- 0. H. Nestor, "Heat Intensity and Current Density Distributions at the Anode of
High Current. Inert Gas Arcs", J. Appl. Phys.. 1962. vol. 33, pp. 1638- 1648.
25- N. S . Tsai and T. W. Eapr, "Distribution of the Heat and Current Fluxes in Gas
Tungsten Arc". Metallurgical Transactions B. Dec. 1985. vol. 16B, pp. 841-846.
26- M. I. Lu and S . Kou, "Power and Current Distributions in Gas Tungsten Arc",
Welcing J.. 1988. vol. 67. pp. 2%-34.

27- P. A. Schoeck. "An Investigation of the Anode Energy Baimce of High [ntensity
Arcs in Argon*', in .+fodem Drvrloprnrnrr in H a t hn?~+Jer,
cdited by W. Ibele.
Academic Press. 1963. pp. 353-4400.
C H A P T E R =7
3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In chapter 7, a mathematical mode1 for GTAW was developed assuming a tlat
tip tungsten electrodr. In production different electrode tip configurations are used to
improve welding performance [ I l . The geometry of the electrode tip can significmtly
affect the shape and s i x of the weld pool [ 1.21 ris shown in Figure 3.1. Haidar and
F m e r [3] found diat the arc temperature varies significantly for different thoriated
tungsten cathodes with different tip mgles.
Tsai and Kou [4] studied the effect of the electrode shape on the arc proper-
ties. n i r y found that a çonical rlcctrode. when compared to a tlat tip çlecuode.
caused a highrr axial velocity ar the centre line of the arc and hence a signitkant out-
tlow near the anode suriace. and a higher pressure at the surface of the anode. They
dso showed that the configuration of the electrode çhanged the electron path around
the cathode. In some recent coupled cathode-arc and cathode-arc-anode models [S-81,
the cathode faces were not tlat But in al1 these models, a single configuration for the
cathode was considrred. Moreovcr. there is no information available regardins the ef-
fect of the electrode tip angle on the anode heat tlux and the mode current density.
These are very important in detemining the shape and properties of the weldment.
3.2 MODELDESCRIPTION
The governing equations, including the conservation and Maxwell's equations
Chapter 3 GTAW, Effect of the cathode tip angle 71
Figure 3.1 Effect of electrode tip geometry on the weld pool shape
and size [I 1.
and the assumptions made have been presented in chapter 7. The source terms for the
conservation equations have ais0 been explained in detail in the previous chapter. The
main differences in the model for angular electrodes are the calculation domain and
the boundary conditions.
Figure 3.2 shows the calculation domain. h the modified model, the ningsten
electrode is added to the calculation domain for the electric potentiaL The other pa-
rameters are the same as those used previously. Another difference is the boundary
condition for the elecuic potential. Instead of assigning a constant current density to
the cathode surface, the cathode surface area is defmed as a function of the elecuode
lnflow
#
Workpiece (Anode). 15.0 mm
Figure 3.2 Cdculation domain for tapered

electrade GTAW (schematic).
tip angle. The boundary conditions for this mode1 are summarized in Table 3-1.
The reason for both modif'ications was the result of the early calculations with
a constant curent density, or constant surface area. for the cathode. for different elec-
uode tip angles. By decreasing the angle of the electrode tip. the maximum tempera-
ture of the plasma tended to occur outside of the axis of symmetry (Figure 3.3), while
the available experimentril results of the plasma temperatures [3, 9- 151 show that the
maximum temperature always occur at the centre line of the arc, at least for a wide
range of the elecvode tip angles. Therefore the inflow of the electrons with uniform
disuibution placed somewhere into the electrode before the conical part (for example.
AB surface), and the cunent density distribution on the assigned cathode surface was
C hapter 3 GTAVJ, Effect of the cathode tip angle 73

L m
FG GH HB AB BC1 CD1 DE EF I
v O O O 0
av O O
,=O
u O 0 O u = Const. au O au
-&=O
-&=O
htlow:
T=3()00 K T=lOOO Eq. (2-L4)+ t)h
h T=3000 K T=3000K T = 1 0K Outtlow: =
Qionir=(JCI ' C ah Jaba
z=O
J, = O 1 ab as
= 0 = O
S,=f(a)
J, = 0
Jr = O Jz = 7
2=Rei,c
z 0-CO"".
a ; = O
I
At these two boundaries pressure is tixed to a constant value.
adjusteci so that the total entering current became equal to thc applied c u m n t An at-
trmpt was made to sirnulate the real case in which the current density is not a con-
stant value over rhe cathode spot surface (Richardson-Dashman equation. eq. ( 1- 1 )).
Haidar and Farmer [3] merisurcd the èlectrode surface area covered by the
plasma for a range o f the elcctrode tip angles. n ~ variation
r of Lhis arca with the
rlectrode tip angles based on their measurement is shown in Figure 3.1. From this in-
formation. rhe cathode surface area (the rlectron rmission surface). for angles less than
60 degees is constant and above 60 degrees. up to 180 degrees, it increases lineariy
with the elrçtrodt: tip angle. The cathode surface area for the 60 degree angle and the
dope of the line were determined by compÿnng the calculakd arc temperatures and
the experirnenüil data of Haidÿr and F m e r ar 1.5 mm lrom the tip of the elecuode
[3]. Variation of the cathode surface area with the elecuode tip angle is shown in
Figure 3.5.
In these cdculations, the cathode rod was assumed to be pure tungsten and
the properties of the tungsten was obtained from Touloukian [Ki].
Chapter 3 GTAW. Effect of the cathode tip angle 74
Tip angle = 180 deg Tip angle= 106.3 deg
Tip angle= 71.5 deg Tip angle= 33.2 deg
I 1
1.5 1 .O 0.5 C
Radial distance. m m Radial distance. mm
Figure 3.3 Effcct of the eiccuode tip angle on the maximum temperature and
position. Ic = 10%.rn-~.
3.3 RESULTSAND DlSCUSSION

The GTAW mode1 for pure argon was simulated ror a range of elecuode tip
angles. Thnie ansle of the electrodr tip was varied tiom about 9 to 150 degrees. Also,
calculations were performed for arc lengths of 2.0, 5.0 and 10.0 mm and for applied
50 75 1 O0
Cathode tip angle. deg
Figurc 3.4 Variation in the area of the cathode surface

covered by plasma as a tùnction o f the cathode
tip angle [3]. 1 = 200 A. L,, = 5.0 mm.
I 1 1 I I I I
- -
- -
- -
- -
I I 1 l 1 I 1
O 2O 40 60 80 1 O0 120 140 160
Eiectrode tip angle. deg
Figurc 3.5 Variation of the cathode surface m a with

the electrode tip angle.
currents of LOO, 200 and 250 A. The et'fects of the anode heat tlux, anode current
density, shear stress and arc pressure on the weld pool due to plasma tlow are of pri-
mary interests. It is important to verit'y the results of the proposed model developed
from this study with published experirnental results. For this purpose the effect of the
electrode tip angles on the arc properties. especially anode heat tlux. anode current
density, arc pressure and plasma llow shear stress will be prcscnted.

Four major properties of the arc, i.e. maximum tempenture, maximum axial
velocity. electric poiential difference and anode pressure difference. for different cases
are given in Table 3-2. Figure 3.6 shows the variation of temperature at 1.5 mm be-
low the cathode tip with the electrode tip angle and applied çurrent. In this graph the
experirnental result of Hÿidar and F m e r 131 For the 200 A arc is also shown. Up to
120 degrees. the difference between the theoretical and the cxperimental vdues is less
than 5% and for the 150 degrees. the lürgest difference is about 12%. Thus it can be
concluded that for angles less than 120 degrces. the devcloped model for the cathode
surface area for the 200 A arc is vcry good. In Figure 3.7 the temperature profiles o f
the LOO A and 200 A arcs of 10 mm length and 60 d e p x rlcctrode tip angle are
cornpared with Hsu et a[. rcsults [ 1 LI. Although the tip anglc in Hsu cr ul. [ l 1 ] zxper-
iments is not specified, thc agreement between the theoretical and the experimental
data for the 200 A arc is excellent even at die cathode boundary. But in the case of
the 100 A the maximum temperature is about 1000 K under zstimated. Even in this
case, the agreerncnt in the outer part of the arc between theoretical and experimental
values is reuonable.
The radial distributions of temperature at 1.5 mm [rom the tip of the rlecvode
for two different cathode tip angles are compared with Haidar and Farmer experimen-
Chaater 3 GTAW, Effect of the cathode tip angle 77
Table 3-2: Arc Parameters for Different Arc Lengths, Applied Currents and Electrode Tip Angles
4pplied Electrode Tip Angle (deg)

Current
(A)
Chapter 3 GTAW, Efiect of the cathode tip angle 78
I
Solid lines: This stud '
Dashed line: ~ a i d a lr~ a r r n e r 1994
, 131 -
- d
---_ -
-- --- - -
- 9 -
- -
*
Cathode tip angle. deg
Figure 3.6 Variation of plasma temperature at 1.5 mm from the tip

of the tungsten electrode with the electrocle tip angle and
applied current. Numbers are applied current in A.
tal results [31 in Figure 3.8. It can be observed that the agreement between the theo-
retical and the experimental values down to 10000 K is very good. However below
10000 K the theoretical values decreasr s h q l y to very low temperanires. This behav-
iour is probahly due to the absorption of energy. emitted from the central pan of the
arc, by the outer piut of the arc. in chapter 2 it w u pointed out that the opticdly thin
assumption t'or the arc is correct only for the central part of the arc. Therefore it cm
he concluded that the theoretical temperatures below 10000 K are not reliable.
Table 3-2 indicates that the maximum velocity occurred at about 37 degree tip
angle for difkrent âpplied currents. This is shown in Figure 3.9 for the 200 A and 5
mm arc for the axial distribution of axial velocity for different electrode tip angles. At
high (150 degrees) and low (9.18 degrers) tip angles. the maximum velocity is found
at longer distances from the elrctrode tip. The maximum velocity is closest to the
electrode tip at 60 degree angle.
The radial distributions of the axial velocity of the gas at 2.35 mm from the
rlectrode tip are shown in Figure 3.10 for different electrode tip angles. The peak ra-
Cal. Exp.
1 11000K *
2 12000 K -o
3 13000 K 4
4 14000K *
5 75000 K 4
17000 K O
Figure 3.7 Isotherrns of 10.0 mm arcs in cornparison with the experimentrtl

results of Hsu t?r d.[ 1 1 1. a: I = 100 A; b: 1 = 200 A.
dia1 velocity increases as the tip angle decreued from 150 to 37 degees. Bclow 37
degrees, the peak radiai velocity decreases with deçreasing tip angle and the radial dis-
tribution tends to become flatter.
Table 3-2 shows that the pressure at the mode increases with the applied cur-
rent. For the 100 A arc the pressure at the anode decreases with increasing arc length.
but for the 200 A and the 250 A arcs, the anode pressure rernains alrnost constant
when the arc length is increased from 2 to 5 mm. This is due to the significant in-
crease in the elecirornagnetic force at the anode surface when the arc length is de-
creased. The variation of the radial distribution of the pressure at Ihe anode with the
electrode tip angle is shown in Figure 3. L 1. By decreasing the cathode tip angle. the
- w
Solid h e : This study Solid line: Thrs study

Dashed Itne: Haidar 6 Dashed line: Haidar Er
Farmer 1994 131 Farmer 1 994 (31
5000 1 I 1 I 1 1
0.0 1O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Radial distance from the arc axis. mm Radial distance from the arc axis. mm
Figure 3.8 Radial distribution of temperature lit 1.5 mm tiom the cathode tip is com-
p m d with the experimental clritri [31. 1 = 200 A. ,L = 5.0 mm. a: a = 20.74
dcg (Exp.: a = 18 deg); b: a = 60 deg.
anode pressure increaxs to a maximum at an angle of about 20 degrces. At tip angles
srnaller than 20 degrees, the pressure profile tends to be a little flatter. Increasing the
pressure at the anode cm change the contiguration of the weld pool surface. Westhoff
[17] has shown that cven a srnall depression of about L mm at the surface of the weld
Axial distance from the electrode tio, mm
Figure 3.9 Variation of the axial distribution of the axial velocity with electrode tip
angle for 200 A and 5.0 mm arcs. Numbers are dcctrode tip angles in deg.
Radial distance from the arc axis. mm
Figure 3.10 Variauon of the radial distribution of the axial velocity wiîh
clectrode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. Numbers are the electrode tip
angle in deg.
pool c m change the electric current path significantly.

Typical pressure distribution in the arc for three different zlecuode angles is
shown in Figure 3.12. For low an$rs, the maximum cathode pressure is on the side of
the electrode cone. In tact. for very low angles thrre is a negative pressure at the tip
Figure 3.1 1 Variation of the radiai distribution of pressure at the mode surfsace
with electrodt: tip angle. 1 = 200 A. Numbers arc electrode tip an-
gle in deg.
Figure 3-12 Distribution of pressure con-

tours for three electrode tip
angles. 1 = 2 0 A; L, =5.0
mm. a: a = 9.18 deg; b: a =
37.33 deg; c: a = 60.00 deg.
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Radial distance, mm
7.6 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Radial distance. mm Radial distance. mm
of the electrode. The axial variation of pressure at the cenue line of the arc for differ-
ent angles is illustnted in Figure 3.13. %y increasing the cathode tip angle. a maxi-
mum in pressure occurs at the cenue which moves toward the rlectrode tip. Since the
flow is parallel to the surface of the electrode. changing the flow direction to a direc-
tion dong the axis of symmetry produces the maximum pressure, and by increasing
the angle, which conesponds to increasing the amount of reflection. the maximum
pressure increases (Figure 3.13).
Distance from the electrode rip. mm
Figure 2-13 Variation of axid distribution of pressure with elecuode

tip angle. Numbers are elecuode tip angle in deg.
The variation of the arc voitage with the rlectrodr tip angle and the applied
current is shown in Figure 3.14. There are two panmeters that affect the elrctric po-
tential difference between the two electrodes, the mean diameter of the arc, or the
conductor media beween the electrodes, and the electrical conductivity of the cas
I I I I 1 I 1
0.0 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 150.0
Electrode tip angle, deg
Figure 3.14 Variation of arc voltage with electrode tip angles and applied
current. Numbers are applied current in A.
Chapter 3 GTAW, Effed of the cathode tip angle 84
which is function of temperature. It will be shown later in this chapter that by in-
creasing the ekcuode tip angle. the arc shrinks. In other words. its mean diamrter de-
creases. Therefore. if no change in the conductivity of the gas occurs any increase in
the electrode tip angle increases the arc voltage. Since the conductivity of the gas is a
function of the temperature and the latter one itself is a function of the electrode tip
angle, then it is possible for the rlectric potential to decrease or increase. Figure 3.14
shows that up to 60 degrees. the arc voltage increÿses with the tip angle for 5 mm
arcs. Above 60 degrees. it depends on the arc temperature and hence the slope of the
variation of the elecuical conductivity of the plasma (Figure 2.2 1 ) and the arc voltage
increases or demeases.
The arc voltage for different applied currents and arc lengths for an elec~ode
with a 60 degree tip angle is compared with the experirnental values [ I l in Figure
3.15. This graph indicates that the calculated values for the 200 A arc are in good
azreernent with the rxperimentai data. The slope of the variation in both 2 mm and 5
- - -
1 - 1
Soitd lines: This study

Dashed Iines: Exoerimental data Il l I
8.0 1 I I I 1 1
50 100 150 200 250 300
Applied current. A
Figure 3.15 Variation in ihe arc voltage with arc length and applird cumnt in cornpiin-
son with the rxperimentd data [II. Numbea are lrngth of arc in mm.
m m arcs is higher than the experimental values. By considering this and also the tem-
penture results (Figure 3.7a). it can be concluded that the cathode surface area chang-
es with the applicd current. The distribution of the electric potential for three
electrode tip angles is illusülited in Figure 3.16. The rlectrode tip angles cm also
change the voltage difference in die electrode significandy. The effect for different
currents is depicted in Figure 3.17. The effect of the angle on the voltage drop 1s due
to the variation in the cross seciional area of the elecirode.
Figure 3.16 Distribution of electric po-

tential in the arc for differ-
ent electrode tip angles.
The isothem line of
10000 K shows the domriin
that the results are relia-
ble. 1 = 200 A, L, = 5.0
mm. a: a =9.18 deg; b: a
= 60.00 deg; c: a =
100.06 deg.
Radial distance. mm
Isoelectric potentials. 1 V intervals.
Electric potential at the anode 1s
zero
Radiai distance. mm Radial distance, mm

Electrode tip angle, d e g
Figure 3.17 The variation of the voltage drop into the electrode with the
eiectrode tip angle. Numbers are applied current in A.
3.3.2 Anode Current Density and Heat Flux

The maximum current density, the maximum heat flux and the maximum tem-
perature on the anode surface for different electrode tip angles, arc lengths and applied
currents are summarized in Table 3-3. In most cases the anode current density in-
creases with the electrode tip angle. It can be concluded that by increasing this angle.
the electrons path toward the anode become more concentrated at the centre part and
leads to a higher current density for larger electrode tip angles. The exceptions are for
the 5 and 10 mm arcs with I00 A current. In these cases the anode current density
reaches a maximum at 60 degrees and then decreases. Although the electric potential
gradient still increases with the electrode tip anple. the plasma temperature at the an-
ode surface is very low. therefore the electrical conductivity of the gas is exuemeiy
small, in the order of hundreds ~ . m - ' .Typical variation of the anode current density
with the electrode tip angle and applied current for the 5 mm arc is illustrated in Fig-
ure 3.18. The variation of the plasma temperature at the surface of the anode is also
shown. Temperature of the gas at the anode surface for the 100 A arc is much lower
and is below 9000 K in all cases. Typical variation of the anode current density with
Tale 3-3: Maximum ode Current Density, Maximum Heat Fiux and Maximum Temperature of
the Gas on the Anode Surface for Different Elecuode Tip Angles, Arc Lengths and Applied Cur-
Applied Arc Electrode Tip Angle (deg)

Current Length -l
(A) (mm) 9.18

r
6.cW
the ekctrode tip angle and the arc length for the 200 A arcs is shown in Figure 3.19.
The effect of the electrode tip angle is more significant for short arcs.
The effect of the electrode tip angle. arc lrngth and applied current on the
maximum hcat tlux to the anode is shown in Figure 3.20. Aimost in al1 cases, the
maximum hrat tlux to the anode occurred between 30 and 60 degrees. The same ba-
l l I I l
30 60 90 120 150
Electrode tip angle. deg
i 5000 1
u
I I i I I I
*-
- 2 5 0 - -- -
L 13000
-C
3 - 200.-- 1
-
a r 1000 - -
E
c. - -
r/>
G 9000 - -
- 1 0 0
-
7000 6 I
30 60
I I
90
I
120
I
150
Elecrrode tip angle. deg
Figure 3-18 Vaiation of a: maximum anode currcnt density, and b: maximum _sas
temperature on thc anode surface. with the clectrode tip angle and ap-
plicd çurrcnt for the 5.0 mm WC. Numhers are the üpplied curent in A.
haviour was observed in the total heat tnnsferred to the anode. Variation of the total
heat and also the coniributions of the three different mechmisms with the eiectrode tip
angle and an: length is shown in Figure 3.21. It is obvious that the electron heat flux
is the major mechanism of heat uansfer io the anode. The absolute value of heat due
to electrons remains almost constant with change in the angle ot' the electrode tip. but
its contribution to the total heat decreases with increasing arc length.
20 I I 1 I I
P.
E
E
2.0 y -
:
>r
%
<n
C
8-
C
IO
a'5:
F
3L
5.0
5- ,
al
-0 10.0
O
C
Q:
O I I I I I
O 30 60 90 1 20 150
Figure 3.19 Variation of maximum anode current density with electrode tip
angle and arc lengrh. 1 = 200 A. Numbers are arc length in mm.
Convective heat transfer is the most sensitive mechanism to the electrode tip
angle. The variation in convection causes the variation in ~ h etotal heat. The radiation
and electron heat transkr mechanisrns do not show significant change with the elec-
trode tip angle. On the other hand, the variation in the radiation heat transfer with arc
length is the most signifiant. For long arcs, the contribution of radiation is more than
convection (Figure 3.21). For very long arcs, radiation heat uansfer is dominant.
The total heat and the contributions of ail three mechanisms are given in Ta-
ble 3-4. This Table shows that the variation of the total heat and its components with
the electrode tip angle in the range of 100-250 A is similar but at different levels.
The effect of the electrode tip angle on the distribution of the total heat flux
and the three heat transfer mechanisms for the 200 A and 5 mm arc is shown in Fig-
ure 3.22. The most significant change is related to convection. By decreasing the an-
*le from 150 degrees to about 38 degrees (which is not shown in this graph), the
t
maximum heat tlux due to convection increases about four h e s . The heat flux due to
convection spreads over a very small area at the central part of the anode, while the
Efectrode tip angle, deg
Electrode trp angle, deg
Electrode tip angfe, deg
Figure 3.20 Variation of the maximum anode heat flux with elrcvodr tip
mgle and arc Icngth for arcs of different applicd currents.
Numbers arr: arc length in mm. a: 1 = 100 A; b: 1 = 200 A; c:
1 = 250 A.
Totai heat
Eiectron contribution
Convection contribution
Radiation contributron
Electrode trp angle. deg

m
I I j
I 1
l
1 l 1 !
30 60 90 120 1 50
Figure 3.21 Trmsferred heat to ihe anode versus the electrode tip
angle for 200 A arcs with differeni arc lengths. a: L,
= 2.0 mm; b: L m = 5.0 mm; c: L,, = 10.0 mm.
C hapter 3 GTAW, Effecî of the cathode tip angle 92
Table 3-4: Total Hear Transferred to the Anode and Contributions of the Three Mechanisms for
Different Situations. (Q,, Q,, Q,, Q, (W)).
Electrode Tip Angle (deg)

* - - - . - - . - - .
150.00degrees
60.00 degrees
--------- 20.74 degrees
9.18 degrees
F i p r 3.22 Effect of the rlectrode tip mgle on îhr radial distribution of the
heat flux to the mode. 1 = 200 A. L, = 5.0 mm. a: Total hent
flux; b: Elecuon contribution; c: Convection contribution; d: Ra-
diation contribution.
two other mechanisms are spread over a laser area.
3.3.3 Shear Stress

The shear stress applied to the surface of the anode is proportional to the ra-
diai velocity of the gas. The effect of the electrode tip angle. together with the ap-
plied current and the arc length. on the maximum radial velocity at the anode surface
is illustrated in Figure 3.23. The effect of the tip angle is the most significant for the
shortest arc. Figure 3.23a shows that for the sharp electrode, the maximum radial ve-
locity for the 2 mm arc is the highest but by increasing the tip angle it decreases to
about the maximum radial velocity for 10 mm arc. Figure 3.23b shows that for the
100 A arc. the radial velocity of the gas is very srnall. Thus, for t h e x arcs the shear
stress c m not be important.

The effects of the electrode tip angle and arc length on the distribution of the
shear stress at the anode surface of the 200 A arc are shown in Figure 3.24. As illus-
trated, a sharp eiectrode can increase the shear suess by 2.5 to more than 4 times. For
the 2 mm arc, althou~hthe maximum radial velocity for the 28.36 degrees electrode
tip is the highest (Figure 3.23), the shear suess in the case of 9.18 degrees is higher
than that of the 28.36 desrees. From Figure 3.18b, it is known that the gas tempera-
ture for a 5 mm arc changes with the electrode tip angle. For the 2 mm arc. this vari-
ation is more significant. This observation explains the ditference in the shear stress
and the radial velocity distributions on the surface of the anode.
3.4 CONCLUSION
Althaugh the assumption of a constant current density. which is a function of
the applied cumnt, over the cathode spot gave good results for the tlat tip electrode.
this was not the case Cor the angular tip electrode. Instead, it was necessary to use a
variable cathode surface area. This resulted in a very good agreement of the calculat-
- 200
r20
! 1 I T 1
2 - 52-
SI50
-O
-
O
2
5 100 -
73
L
5E.x 50-
2 1 O0
O I 1 1 I 1
O 30 60 90 1 20 150
Figure 3.23 Variation of radial velocity of the gas with the electrode tip angle.
a: Effect of arc length. 1 = 200 A. Numbers rire arc length in mm. b:
Effect of applied current. L,, = 5.0 mm. Numbers are applied cur-
rent in A.
ed results with the experimental data, particularly for the 200 A arcs, for a wide range
of the electrode tip angles from 10 to about 150 degrees. This study indicated that the
calhode surface m a increased with the applied current.
Increasing the tip angle led to shrinkage in the arc diameter. Therefore the an-
ode current density and the heat flux due to the electrons increased with ihe tip angle.
Chapter 3 GTAW, Eifect of the cathode tip angle 96
--------- '1 50.00 degrees

60.00 degrees
----------- 28.36 degrees
------ 9.18 degrees
Radial distance. mm
Radial distance. mm
Radial distance. mm
Figure 3.24 Effect of the alectrode tip mglr on the distribution of

shear stress in arcs with different lengrhs. I = 200 A. a:
L, = 2.0 mm: b: L, = 5.0 mm; c: L, = 10.0 mm.
On the other hand. decreasing the electrode tip angle increased the sas velocity and
therefore the convective contribution to the anode heat tlux. The highest heat tlux oc-
curred for electrode tip angles in the range of 30 to 60 degrees.
Decreasing the electrode tip angle h m 150 to 10 degees caused the pressure
on the surface of the anode to increase by 50 to 180% dependinp on the applied cur-
rent. The maximum pressure at the anode surface occurred at angles of 20-30 de,orees.
The shear stress increased significantly with decrease in the elecuodr tip angle. In-
crease in both the pressure and the shear stress with the applied current was very con-
siderable. Thus, the surface of the weld pool tends CO be more unstable at hizh
currents dut: to the high pressure and the high shear stress. This suggested that for
high currents. it is better to use electrode with wider tip angles to obtain a smoother
wdding surface.
REFERENCES
1- Welding handbook. 8th rdn, vol. 2. Amencan Welding Society, 1991.
2- S. Kou. Wrlding Mrtallurgy. John Wiley & Sons. 1987.

3- J. Haidar and A. J. D. Famer. "Large Effect of Cathode Shape on Plasma Tem-
penture in High-Current Free-Burning Arcs". J. Phys. D: Appl. P h . . 1994, vol.
27, pp. 555-560.
3- M. C. Tsai and S. Kou, "Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow in Welding Arcs Produced
by Sharprned and Hat Electrades", Int. J. Heur and Muss Transfer, 1990. vol. 33.
pp. 2089-2098.
5- C. Delalondre and 0. Simonin. "Modelling of High Intensity Arcs including a
Non-Equilibrium Description of the Cathode Sheath". Colïoq~ieDr Ph?~siqur. 15
1990. Colloque CS. Supplement Au n 18. Tome 51. pp. 199-206.
6- P. Zhu. J. J. Lowke and R. Morrow. "A Unified Theory of Free-Buming Arcs.
Cathode Sheaths and Cathodes". J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.. 1992. vol. 25. pp. 122 1-
1230.
7- J. J. Lowke, P. Zhu, R. Morrow, J. Haidar, A. J. D. Farnier, and G. N. Haddad,

"Onset of Cathode and Anode Melting by Electnc Arcs". in Int. Svmp. on Pfusmcl
Chrm.. Loughborough, UK, Aug 1993.
8- P. Zhu, J. J. Lowke, R. Morrow and J. Haidar. "Prcdiction of Anode Temperature
of Free B urning Arcs". J. P h y . D: Appl. Phys., 1995, vol. 28, pp. 136% 1376.
9- H. N. Olxn, "Measurement of Argon Transition Probabilities Using the Thermal
Arc Plasma as a Radiation Source", J. Quant. S p e c ~ o x Rudiat.

. fiansfer, 1963.
vol. 3, pp. 59-76
LO- L. Bober and R. S. Tankin. "Emission and Absorption Meiisurernents on a Suong-
ly Self-Absorbed Argon Atom Line". J. Quant. Specrrosc. Radiut. Trunsfer. 1969,
vol. 9, pp. 855-879.
11- K. C. Hsu. K. Etrmadi and E. Pfendrr. "Study of Free-Buming High-Intensity Ar-

@onArc".
s 1.Appl. Phys.. 1983, vol. 54. pp. 1293-130 1.
12- G. N. Haddüd and A. I. D. F m e r . "Temperature Deteminations in a Frer-Burn-
ing Arc: 1. Experimental Techniques and Rrsults in Argon". J. Phys. D: Appl.

Phys., 1984. vol. 17. pp. 1189-1196.
13- A. J. D. F m e r and G . N. Haddad, "Rayleigh Scattering Measuremcno: in a Free-
Buming Argon Arc". J. P h y s D: Appl. Phys., 1988. vol. 21. pp. 426-43 1 .
14- P. Vervisch, B. Chrron and I. F. Lhuissier, "Spectroscopie Analysis of a TIG Arc
Plasma", J. P h ~ s .D: Appl. P h y ~ . ,1990, vol. 23. pp. 1058-1063.

15- A. B. Murphy, "Laser-Scattering Temperature Measurements of a Frec-Buming
Arc in Nitrogen". J. Ph- Dr Appl. Phys.. 1994. vol. 27. pp. 1 - W - 1498.
16- Y. S. Touloukian. 7% r rniophxsicul Propri-tics of High Temperutrire Solid Mute ri-
ds, VOL 1: E1tirn~~nr.s.h1cMillm Co. 1967.

17- R. C . Wcisthoff, S.M n e s i s . Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering. The
Massachusetts institute of Technology, 1989.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the two previous chapters. a model for the GTAW arc was developed and
die rffect of the electrode tip angle was investigated. The main objective of these cd-
culations was to provide the necessary information for a joint mode1 for WC and weld
pool. To check the accuracy of the obtained results, they were compared with availa-
ble experirnentd data but unfortunately the experimental data for the variation of the
anode current dcnsity and the hrat flux with the rlectrode tip angle were nor available
in the literature. In this chapter, the obtained data from the arc calculations are used
to develop a rather simple weld pool model. Using this model. the effect of different
welding parameters on the shape and size of the weld pool are investigated. For the
first tirne. the effwt of the elecuode tip angles on the weld pool proprrties will be
considered.
4.2 WELD POOL MODEL
Therc are severai models available for the weld pool and a detailed discussion
about different aspects of the weld pool rnodels c m be found in the litenture [ M l .
The GTAW process is shown schematically in Figure 4.1. By applying an
electric potential difference berween the cathode (the tungsten electrode) and the anode
(the workpiece). an arc c m be rsiablished between the two poles. This arc is the en-
ergy source in this process. The amount of heat that is absorbed by the workpiece is
Chapter 4 WeM Pool Model 101
O
Electrode cip angle (a)
Vaporizarion. radiative
and convective tosses
Rad~ativeand
convective losses
Figure 4.1 Schematic representation of the GTAW arc in the weId pool.
The various physicai phenornena occurring in the workpiece (the
right side) md the calçulation domain (the left side) are indiçat-
ed. The origin of the cdculation domain is locrited rit point A.
high to melt it and develop a molten metal pool. This pool will grow until the heat
gained by the workpiece equals the heat loss by conduction. convection, radiation and
vaporization. Flows in the pool are driven by a combination of forces mentioned in
section 1.41 and are shown schrmatically in Fisure 1.1.
The main objective of this chapter is to providr a tool to determine the validi-
ty of the arc mode1 for the angular tip electrodes. The rnodels for the weld pool and
Chapter 4 Weld Pool Model 102
the arc c m be used to study the effect of the electrode tip angles and arc lengths on
the shape of the weld pool. These results will be considered in evaluating the validity
of the arc mode1 for the angular tip elrctrodes.
The mathematical model presrnted in this chapter describes the tluid tlow and
thermal rnergy transport for two dimensional tlow. lt is shown that the assumption of
lamina tlow is not very accunte [6], hence the model is based on the K-E turbulent
model. The caiculated data for the 200 A arc with lengths of 2.0 and 5.0 mm and dif-
ferent rlecuode tip angles have been used in this model. h these calculations it was
assumed that the free surface of the weld pool is ilat.
The driving forces that are considered in this model are as follow:
The elrctromagnetic force arising from the interaction of the diversent current md
its own rnagnetic tïeld:

The buoyancy force due to variation of density:
0 The surface tension gradient due to temperature gradient (Maranponi rffect );
0 The shear stress on the surface of the weld pool by the tas dow.
This model also includes the Joule heating into the workpirce and the mzlt-
ing/sdiditïcation phenornenon into the weld pool. Althoush some heat will be lost
from the free surface of the workpiece due to radiation. convection and vaponzation.
for simplicity these mechanisms are not considered in the present model. It has been
reponed that the vaporization in GTAW of stainless steel. for example. does not play
a critical rote in determinin: the temperature of the weld pool surface [ I l . Also. vis-
cous dissipation in the weld pool is assumrd negligible.
4.2.1 Coverning Equations
The relevant transport equations based on the mentioned assumptions are List-
ed below. Ic must be noticed that d l functions of flow. and accordingly functions of
Chapter 4 Weid Pool Model 1 03
temperature are time avenged variables.
Thc sourcc rems in Equation 14-21 arc due to electrnmagnetic hrces and to
Boussinesq's approximation tif the thermal buoyancy force. In Equation (4-3) the
sourcc term is only duc to clecmrnagnetic forces.
The source terms in Equation (4-4) are the Joule heating and the heat loss
due to mcliing of the metal.
To calculate the elecuomagnetic tïeld and çurrent densities, auxiliary equa-

tions based on Ampere's Law and Ohm's Law are needed (Equations (2-6) and (3-7)).
The fraction of liquid in Equation (4-4) is defined as:
T-T
C, = 1 for T 2 TI
For the turbulent model the standard two-equation K - E rnodel [7] is em-
ployed:
The effective viscosity. p, and the thermal conductivity, k e f f , are calculat-

cd as the sum of their molecuIar and turbulent components:
Chapter 4 Weid Pool Model 1 05
keff
The turbulent viscosity in the K - E model is given by:

3
-
h -
while the turbulent thermal conductivity is derived Srom the turbulent Pnndtl number:
C~p,
Pr, = -= 0.9 (4- 13)
The recomrnended valucs for the !ive empirical constants are:

C, = 0.09. C, = 1.U. C, = 1.92. bK = 1.0. oE = 1.3.
4.2.2 Melting and Solidification Modelling

[o the cnergy equation there an: thrce terms that detcrmine the amount or heat
lost due to mrlting. These terms are functions of the latent heat and variation of the
liquid fraction with timr and position. and are derived from the expression for the en-
thaipy as follows:
liquid fraction, TI, is defined by Equation (4-6).

In the momentum equations (Equations (4-2) iind (4-3)) there is no cxtra tcrm
for tlow in the mushy zone. It is shown that the apparent viscosity of dispersed sus-
pensions of uniform sphencal particles is a funciion o f the volume fraction of solid
particles [8]. Data for variation of the viscosity of iron with the solid content is not
available, thus a variation of the viscosity with the solid fraction similar to the v u a -
tion in the Sn-15% Pb system [9] was assumed to simulate the flow into the mushy
region. The variation of viscosity with the solid fraction. used in the present calcula-
tions, is shown in Figure 4.2.
O 10 2C) 30 40 50
S o l d volume fraction.%
Figure 4.2 Variation of apparent viscosity with solid

volume fraction (used in this study).

The calculation domain is shown in Figure 4.1. A non-uniform grid point
system is cmployed with tïner grid sizes near the weld pool region. The workpiece is
considered to bti a 4 0 ~ 4 0 ~ 1 2 .mm
5 watcr cooled stainless steel AISI 304 block and
the origin of the calculation is located a[ the centre of the hloçk. The corrcsponding
boundary conditions are summarized in Table 1-I .

The momrntum boundary conditions are given in the second and third rows
in Table 4-1. At the solid boundaries (BC. CD, DE, and EF), the velocities are zero.
At the axis of symmetry, FA. the radial velocity and the axial momentum flux arc zc-
ro. At the free surface, AB. there are two sources of radial momentum. The tïrst is
the shrÿr stress which is being üpplied by the flowing gas at the surface of the weld
pool, and rhe second one is the Marangoni elfect which is due to the variation of the
surface tension with temperriture and is described by:
Chapter 4 Weld Pool Model 1 07
Table 4- 1: Boundacy Conditions.
The relation between the surface tension of a binary solution with temperature and
composition is given by [IO] as follows:
The energy boundary conditions arc given in ihe fourth row o l Table 1-1. At
CD md DE boundaries. which are the watcr cooled wdls. the temperature cquals the
temperature of the water. By taking advantage of the axial symrnetry. it is çonsidered
thal the radial energy tlux is zero at the AE boundary. Finally, a heat flux calculateci
h m the arc modcl is considered at the t'rce surface. AC.

The electric potentiril boundaiy conditions are given in the tifth row of Table
4- 1. The bottom boundary is electrically isolated and hence the surrent density in this
boundÿry is zero. For the side boundary, since the electricd conductivity of the metal
is very high and this boundüry is lar enough from the weld pool surface, it is assumed
that the currcnt density at this surface is constant and independent of the distance from
the surface. For the î'ree surface there is a çurrent density that is dso obtained from
the arc model.
4.2.4 Material Properties for the Work piece

Calculations have bern performed for an AIS1 type 304 stainless steel. Ther-
modynamic and transport properiies of this alloy considered to be constant and are de-
t-ived tiorn Choo [ l ]. The surface tension is calculated based o n Equations (4-1Fia and
b), assuming that surface tension of steel is the same as pure iron and only changed
with temperature and the sulfur content. The terms in rhese equations and their values
are Iisted in Table 4-3 and are taken trom Sahoo et. al. [101.
3.2.5 Numerical blethod

To solvi: the conservation equations. the PHOENICS code was used. The gen-
Table 4-2: Data Used for the Surface Tension Cdculütion [ 101.
Nomenclature Sym bol Value
Surface tension of iron rit Tm 'f m 1.943 ~ m - '
Tcmperature coettficiznt of surface tension for iron *S 4.3 x I O ~ (Nm - K) -'

Mclting point of iron Tm 1809 K
G-as constant R 8.3144 I ( m o l e . K) "
Surfacc excess at saturation r~ 1.3 x 10-~rnole- me*
Equilibrium constant for segregation %g- Equation (4-16 b )
Activity of sulfur "s - wt% S

Entropy tactor 1 0 3 18 t wi%)-'
5
Enthalpy of segrcgation AH: -1.88 x 10 J - mole-'
Chapter 4 Weld Pool Mode1 109
Table 4-3: The Corresponding Quantities for the Different Conservation Equations.
I Axid
momcntum
Radial
mornçncurn
Energy
p - - -
Turbulent kinetic
cnerg y
rra1 î k n of the rquations which c m be solved by this code was presented in çhapter
2 (Eqs. 3- 18 and 2- 19). The source ternis for each variable are given in Table 1-3.
4.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section the calçulated results of this study will be analysed by compar-
ing them with the relevant available exptximrnral information. The presrnted calcuiat-
ed results are for 2 seconds welding. As mentioned earlier, the main objective of this
chapter is the coupling of the weld pool rnodei with the arc model. Along with this
coupling, there is an opportunity to discuss the validity of the int'orrnation from the
arc model for the tapered electrodes. Therefore. in the calculation for the stainless
steel. as a workpiece material, previously predicted information from the 200 A arcs
of 2.0 and 5.0 mm arc lengths and different electrode tip angles have been uscd. The
electrode tip mgle varies from 9.18 to 13 1.41 degrees. The information that are used
include heat t'lux, current density and gas shear stress. In Figures 4.3-4.5 samples of
these data for 2.0 mm arcs and two different electrode tip angles of 9.18 and 60.0 de-
grees, are presnted.
There are different driving forces acting in the weld pool. nius, it is appro-
pnate to consider the effect of the electrode tip angles on these forces separately prior
to the combination of these forces and the final shape of the weld pool. Finally, the
predicted results wiil be compared with the experimental inloimation.
4.3.1 Electromagnetic Force
The electromagnetic force is directly related to the cumnt density to the weld
pool. In the previous chapter it was concluded that by decreasing the electrode tip an-
ale,
e the effective anode surface area on which the electrons from the arc condense
tends to spread over the workpiece surface. This led to a lower maximum current
density for the sharper electrode tip. This effect is also shown in Figure 4.4. By con-
sidering the effect of the electrode tip angle on the hcat flux and current density distri-
bution over thc weld pool surface. it can be predicted that the electromagnetic force
for the wider electrode Up is stronger. The current density distribution into the work-
piece and the tilcctromagnetic force into the weld pool for the electrode tip angles of
Radial distance, m m
Figure 4.3 Radial disiribution of the heat flux for 9.18 and 60.0 degree elec-
trode tip angles. 1 = 200 A. L,, = 2.0 mm.
Chapter 4 Weld Pool Model Ill
Figure 4.4 Radiai distribution of the currenr density for 9.18 and 60.0
degret! electtde tip mgles. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
9.18 and 60.0 degrers are shown in Figures 1.6 and 1.7. respectively. The tlow pat-
tern into the weld pool and h e liquidus and solidus lines for the two mrntioned rlec-
trode tip angles are shown in Figure 4.8. The suonger electromagnetic force produces
higher veloçity for the metal into the weld pool. and since the flow is toward the çen-
tre of the weld pool surface. the higher velocity causes deeprr penetration of the weld-
ment. It must be mentioned that the higher heat flux and curent density in the case of
Radial distance. mm
Figure 4.5 Radial distribution o f Lhe sheu suess for Y. 18 and 60.0 degree elec-
trode tip angles. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
c 4 . 0 4.0
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.0
Max. current density: 8.23 ~ . r n r n ' ~ Max. current denslty: 14.4 ~ . m r n - ~
Figure 4.6 Current dcnsity distribution into the workpiece for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 de-
eree electrode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
+
the eltxuode tip angle of 60.0 dezgrees also act to increase the depih of prneîration.
4.3.2 Buoyancy
Variation of temperature o f the molten metai causes variation in die density of
the metal which produces tlow into the weld prml due to buoyancy. The present mod-
Max. €MF. 4.38E - 4 ~ . r n - ~ Max. EMF:9.59E - 4- ~ . r n ~
-
5.eE - 4 bl.m3
..--.-....--.-.
I I I 1 I l 1
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0
Figure 4.7 Elecuomagnetic force into Ihe weld pool for a: Y. 18 and b: 60.0 degee
elecuode tip angle. 1 = 200 A. L,, = 2.0 mm.
Max. velocity . 75.8 m m s - ' Max. velocity: 135 mm .s-1
-
100 m rn.s-'
Figure 3.13 Velocity pat.tem into the weIJ pool and Iiquidus and solidus Iine:s for a:
9.18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip angle due to electrornrignetic force.
1 = 200 A. L,, = 2.0 mm.
el takes rhis efkct into account by use of the Boussinesq's approximation. The rffect
of the electrode tip angle on the driving forci: due to buoyancy is shown in Fisure
4.9. For the 200 A arc of 2.0 m m length, the buoyancy driving force is one order of
magnitude less than the elecuomagnetic force, and is acting against it. The velocity
profile and liquidus and solidus Iines for the electrode tip angles of Y. 18 and 60.0 de-
grees are shown in Figure 4.10. It is obvious bat buoyancy has a minor contribution
in convection into the weld pool and the variation in the size of the weld pool is
mostly due to the variation of the heat flux with the ekctrode tip angle (Figure 4.3).
4.3.3 Gas Shear Stress

It was found that the electrode tip angle has a significant effect on the gas
Max. BDF: 1.76E - 4 ~ . m ' Max. BDF: 2.44E - 4 ~.m'

2.OE - 4 ~ . r n - ~
0.0
E
1.0 E
....................
................
6
U
C
2.0 .- ;
-0
-
a
3.02
4 .O ( 1 1 l i l i i i i 1 4 . 0
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.0
Figure 4.9 Buoyancy driving force into the weld pool for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree
electrode tip angle. I = 200 A. Lu, = 2.0 mm.
shear stress on the top of the weld pool (Figure 4.5). This stress acts from the centre
of the weld pool surface towards the edge of the weld pool. and its magnitude increas-
es with decreasing angle of the electrode tip. This was shown in the previous chapter
Max. velocity: 18.7 rnms" Max. velociry: 19.5 .nm.sd'
2 solid & Liquid

-3 Liqu~d
Figure 1.10 Velocity pattern into the wrld pool and liquidus and solidus linrs
for a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip angle due to buoyancy
drivuig force. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
(Figure 3.24). This action tends to increase the width of the weld pool. On the other
hand, a higher heat flux in Lhe case of an elecîrode tip of 60.0 degrees promotes a
larger weld pool both in depth and in width. The overâll cffect of these two parame-
ters determines the size of the weld pool when only the shear stress is examined. The
velocity profile and the liquidus and solidus Lines for electmde tip angles of 9.18 and
60.0 degrees are shown in Figure 4.1 1. The velocity of the molten metal in cornpari-
son with the case of the alecuomagnetic force and the buoyancy drivine force is larger
by one and two orders of magnitude. respectively. The maximum temperature in the
weld pool decreases significantly by increasing the velocity. By applying individual
driving forces separately, the maximum temperature at the centre of the weld pool sur-
face for different rlectrode tip angles between 9.18 and 131.41 degrees were calculat-
ed and are shown in Figure 4.12. In the case of the shear stress, the maximum
temperature for al1 tip angles is between 2000 to 2300 K less chan the temperatures
calcuiated for the case of rlectromagnetiç force and tor the case of buoyancy this dif-
ference is even more. Accordingly. it can be predicted that for the 200 A arcs. the
shrar stress plays a significant role in detemining the tlow pattern into the weld pool
Max. velociry: 337 mm.s7' Max. veloctty: 389 mm.s-1

-
500.0 mrn.s-'
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Solid
Solid & Liquid
Liquid
Figure 4. I l Velwity pattern into the weld pool and liquidus and solidus lines for
a: 9.18 and b: 60.0 degree eiectrode tip mgie due to gas sherrr stress.
1 = 200 A. L,, = 2.0 mm.
+Electromagnetic force
-(3- Surface tension
-#- S hear stress
l I I 1 1 l I
' O ~ O ~20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Electrode tip angle. d q
Figure 4.12 V~Yiationof maximum temperature in the weld poal for

different dnving force as a function of the elecirode tip an-
-
de. 1 = 200 A. L, = 2.0 mm.
and the shape and size of the weld pool. especially for short arcs and for the elecuode
tip angle smaller than 60 degrees.
4.3.3 Surface Tension

Surface tension and its variation with temperature and composition have a sig-
nificant elfect on the determination of the tlow pattern into the weld pool [11-171. For
iron. surface tcnsion decreaxs with increasing temperature. Most commercial krrous
alloys contain small amounts o f surface active elements. such as oxygen and sulfur.
For these cases. the dope of the variation of surface tension with rempenture a n be
positive [IO]. Sllhoo et. al. [LOI demonstrated that for dilute binary metai-surface ac-
tive solute systcms, the surface tension is a function of both temperature and composi-
tion (eq. 4- 16).
By using the rquation proposrd by Sahoo et. ul. [10], the effect of surface
tension on the tlow pattern in the weld pool and the shüpe and size of the weld pool
for diffcrent électrode tip angles was studied. Variation of the surface tension coeffi-
cient ( a y / a T ) as a function of temperature for Fe-0.022 wt% S is shown in Figure
4.13. Figure 4.12 shows that the surface tension lowers the maximum tempenture at
Temperature, K
Figure 4.13 Variation of surface tension gradient as a tùnction of temperature

for FeQ.022 wt% S. Required information was derived from Sahoo
et. fll. [ IO].
the surface of the weld pool substantially compared with the electromagnetic and
buoyancy forces. The tlow patterns for 9.18 and 60.0 degrer rlecuode tip ansles is
shown in Figures 4.13. In this case the shapc: of the weld pool is comparable to the
case of the elecuomagnetic force (Figure 4.8). The pool velocity is at least one order
of magnitude higher and accordingly the maximum cmperature at the weld pool sur-
face is much lower. The Mwmgoni shrar along the surface of the pool for this case
is shown in Figure 1.15a and b. As the temperature gradient in this situation is nega-
tive. the sign of the surfice tension cortticient determines the direction of the resultant
Marangoni shear. For the sharp elrcirode. the maximum temperature at the surface of
the weld pool is kss than about 2250 K (Figure 4.15a). thus a y / aT is positive (Fig-
ure 4.13) and the Marangoni force is always negative. However. for the electrode
with wider tip angles (60 degrces), the temperature is higher dian 2250 K at the centre
of the weld pool and the Marangoni force is positive. At a distance away from the
centre of the wrld pool, the temperature is less than 2350 K and similar to the s h a -
Max. velocity: 510 rnrn.5-' Max. velocrty: 415 mms-'
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.0

Figure 4.14 Velocity pattern into the weld pool and liquidus and soiidus lines for
O: Y. 18 and b: 60.0 degree electrode tip angle due to surface tension. I
= 200 A. ,L, = 2.0 mm.
electrode case, the Marangoni forcc is positive. This contiguration of the Manngoni
force may produce çountercurrent tlows at the surtacc of the weld pool for wide elec-
m d e tip angles.
4.3-5 Combination of Driving Forces
in 4.3.1-4.3.4. the individual role of the divins forces (electromagnetic force,

buoyancy, gas shear stress and surface tension) and their variations with the electrode
tip angle in determining the weld pool shape were discussed. In this section. the mm-
bination of these forces for the stainless steel will be considered. Figure 4.16 shows
the puddle shape for al1 considered cases. The variation of the puddle shape for the
2.0 mm arc is shown in the tlrst and third rows. By increasing the elecuode tip angle.
the depth of the weld pool increases [rom 1.1 mm for the 9.18 degrees to 3.55 m m
Chapter 4 Wekl Pool Model 119
a: 9.18deg
400 I 1 I I T 2800
Li
Radial disrance, mm
b: 60.00 deg
400 I I 1 I T 2WO
200 -
O
6,
-200 - - 1600 3O L
3
cn
I
d006 5 4 3 2 1 O
Radial disrance. mm
Figure 4.15 Radiai distribution of the Mxangoni shex and surface

temperature for stainless steel AIS1 304 with the elecuode
tip mgle as the parameter.
for the 131.4 degrces. On the ather hÿnd. the width of the weld pool decreases with
the elcçtrode tip anglc from 8.8 m m for the 9.18 dcgrces to 6.3 m m for the 13 L.41
degrees. This trend in the variation of depth and width of the weld pool can d s o be
observed for the 5.0 mm arc (the second and forth rows). The surface tension obvi-
ously has an important role in deepening the weld pool, especially in welding with
electrodes with wide tip angles. This effect is more signitïcant in shorter arcs. By
considering the variation in the total suess (tst+ e
on the surface of the weld
pool. the observed behilviour cm be bettcr explained. The total stress on the weld
pool surface due to the gas shear stress and the surface tension stress for a 2.0 mm
arc for different tip angles (9.18, 60.00 and 131.41 degrees) is shown in Figure 1.17.
In this Figure, the radial distribution of tempenture at the surface of the weld pool is
also shown.
Since a y / a T beiow about 2250 K is positive (Figure 1.13), the surface ten-
sion stress (sa, ) is ne~ativeclose to the edge of the weld pool. Since the gas shcar
stress away from Ihc centre part of the weld pool surface is very small (Figure 4.3,
the total stress also will be negative and pushes the liquid metal towards the centre of
the weld pool. For wider tip angles the gas shear stress (which is always positive) is
much less than thar for the sharp electrode. Due to the surface tension, the negative
stress expands across a wider distance from the weld pool edge md its magnitude is
larger. çompcired with the positive stress due to the gas shear stress. The resultant
tlow pattern duc to the combination of the dnving hrces into the weld pool for the
stainless steel is shown in Figun: 1.18 for the three mcntioned electrode tip angles.
In çomparison with the gas shear suess ÿnd surface tension, the electromag-
netiç force and buoyancy for a 200 A an: play a minor role in the determination of
the wefd pool shape. As shown in Figures 4.17 and 4.18, for very sharp electrodes.
the cffrct of the gas shear stress is dominant. For elecuodes with wide tip angles. the
interaction of thc gas shear stress and surface tension and especially the direction OC
the surface tension determine the tlow pattem into the weld pool and thercfore its
shape and s i x . Finally, in al1 cases the heat tlux and the current density was çorre-
sponded to the relevant elecirode tip angles. Therefore the heat tlux and the current
density are the main 1'actors which determine the size of the weld pool and the tlow
dnving forces are important in the determination of the tlow pattem into the weld
pool and thercfore its shape.
Radial distance. mm
b: 60.18 deg
400 I I I I I 2800
Radial distance. mm
c: 131.41 dea
Radial distance, mm
Figure 4.17 Total surface stress (T,, + igas ) and temperature at the weld pool surface for
stainless steel AIS1 304 after GTAW with a 2.0 mm arc. The electrode tip an-
gle is 9.18, 60.00 and 13 1.4 1 degrees.
2.0 mm arc 500 m m .s-' 5.0 mm arc
Max. velacity, 379 m m s - ' Max. velocity. 362 mm.s-1
9.18
degree
1
5.0
l
4.0 30
l
2.0
1
1 .O
I 2 .O
0.0 2.9.0
m
2.04.0 3.0 1 .O 0.0
Radial disrance. mm Radial distance. mm
Max. velocity, 365 m m s - ' Max. velocity, 362 mm-s-1
60.00
degree
%
3
0! 40 3:o 210 1iO i.0
Radial distance. mm
M a x . velocity. 302 mm.s-1 n n

Max. velocity. 320 mm-s'1
131.41
deçree
0.4111 4.01 1 I I 1
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.6 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1 .O 0.0
Radial disrance. mm Radral distance. mm
Figure 4.18 Flow pattern into the weld pool for stainkss steel AIS1 304 and
different electrode tip mgles and arc lengths.
4.3.6 Cornparison with Experirnental Data
[n çhapter 3 the computed arc properties were compared with the correspond-
ing experimental data. For the heat flux and current density to the weld pool. there
are very limited data available (1 8.191 which cuver the electrodt: tip angles more than
50 degrees. For gas shear stress thrre are no experimenial data available in the Litera-
ture. The lack of experimental data shows that rncasurin_o different arc parameters is a
very difficult task. if not impossible. This is one of the reasons that justify the modrl-
ling efforts in the arc welding processes, including GTAW. In spite of this problem,
the GTAW model with tapered electrodes must be veriîied. One way to check the va-
lidity of the arc modrl data is by applying rhem into a weld pool model. and by corn-
paring the caiculated results with the weld pool related experirnrntal dam. On the
other hand, in addition to the arc variables, the workpiece material iüelf has signifi-
cant rffect on the weld pool properties.
The rffect of the electrode tip angle on the weld pool was studied by Savage
et. al. [20] for a plain carbon steel with 0.16 wt& C and 0.022 w t l S. and Key [ X i
for an MSI type 304 stainless steel. ln the c a x of Savage e t uL 1.201, rhr arc length
was 1.Y mm and the rlectrode tip angle changed from 30 to 120 degrees. The ekc-
uode was a 2 4 thoriated tungsten rod of 2.38 mm diameter. They found that increas-
ing the ekctrode tip angle from 30 to 120 degrees. decreased the weId pool width by
about 50% and increasrd the weld pool depth by about -15%. Key [ X I u x d an arc
length of L.0 mm. 150 A arc on the workpiece plate with an elrcuode tip angle of 15
to 180 degrees and uuncation diameters of 0.125 and 0.5 mm. There are differencrs
between the expenrnental conditions and the assumptions u x d in the calculation,
which are explained in section 4.2, nevertheless if is possible to qualitatively compare
the calculated with the experimrntal results. Certainly there is f ' e r work necessw
to have a quantiiatively comparable sets of experirnental and theoretical results.
The effect of the electrode tip angle on the weld pool width and depdi, re-
speçtively. are shown in Figures 4.19 and 4.20. The calculated resula of this snidy
for stainless steel AISI 304 are compared with the experimenütl results of Sava,me et.
+
+
* '4
AlSI 304, 200 A 6 2.0 mm arc Cal.
AlSI 304, 200 A b 5.0 mm arc Cal.
Steel.190A61.27mmarctExo.1 011
Figure 4.19 Variation in the weld pool width as a function of the efecuode
tip mgle. Cornparison with experimental results [ZO].
ai. [20]. In the experimental resulu for the electrode tip angles in the range of 30-120
degrees, the slope of the variation of the weld pool width with the electrode tip angle
is almost constant and çquals to about -1130 mm.degree" for the 1.27 m m and 190 A
arc. In the caiculatcd results of the 2.0 mm arc the dope of the variation of the weld
+ AlSI 304, 200 A b 2.0 mm arc (Cal.

+ AISI 304. 200 A b 5.0 m m arc (Cal.
# Steei, 190 A & 1.27 mm arc (Exp. [
Figure 4.20 Variation in the weld pool deplh as a function of the electrode
tip angle. Comparison with experimental results [20].
pool width with the electrode tip angle is 4/49 mm-degree-'. For the 5.0 mm arc, af-
ter a positive slope for very sharp electrodes. the weld pool width changes with the
elecuode tip angle with a negative slope of 4/67 mm.depree'l. These data show that
by increasing the arc length, the effect of the electrode tip angle on the weld pool
width becomes less important. The depth of the weld pool in comparison with the ex-
perimental data of Savage et. al. [20] is shown in Figure 4.20. For 2.0 mm arc there
is an increase in the weld pool depth with the electrode tip angle while for 5.0 mm
arc there is only a small increase for the electrode tip angles wider than 70 de,m e s .
The experimental results of Savage et. al. [20] which are for 1.27 mm arc show deep-
er weld pool especially for sharp electrodes. Considering the calculated and experi-
mental data suggests that the variation in the depth of the weld pool is mostly due to
variation in the configuration of the arc and especially distribution of the heat flux and
the current density over the top of the weld pool.
In comparison with Key's results [21] (Figure 3.1). the trend in the variation
of the puddle shape (Figure 4.16) is in relatively good agreement, especially for die
eIectrode with a truncation dimeter of 0.125 mm. The variation of depthlwidth of the
experirnental results [2 1 ] and the calculated values is compared in Figure 4.2 1. From
this figure, it appears that the slope of the variation of the depth/width ratio with the
electrode tip angle decreases with arc length increase. This is mostly due to variation
of the weld pool depth. For tip angles wider than 90 degrees, the slope of cdculated
results is positive, while for the experimental results is negative. To understand the
reason for this inconsistency more experimentd work is necessary.
4.4 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, a simple mode1 for the weld pool for the GTAW process is
developed. To handle the solidification phenornenon. the mode1 is based on solving
-+ AIS1 304. 200 A b 2.0 mm arc. Catculated .

+- AlSi 300.200 A 6 5.0 mm arc. kalcularedl.,
-
---
AiSI 304 150 A 6 1 .O mm
AISI 304: ,?XIA b 1 .O mm
arc. 0.125 m m dia. truncation (Ex . 21 1).
arc. 0.5 mm dia truncation. (&Q. b111.
0.00 1 I I 1 I 1 I
O 30 60 40 1 2C 1 50 180
Fisure 4.21 Variation in the depwwidth ratio as a function of the elecuocie

tip angle. Cornparison with experimental resuIts [2I].
the temperature rquations. To simulate the flow in the mushy zone, the variation in
the visçosity of the overÿll tluid containing a solid fraction has been used. The re-
quired information to simulate the tlow into the weld pool is derived iiom the arc
model drveloped in chapter 3. Thrrefore the results of the weld pool model can also
br u x d to venfy the results of the arc mode1 for angular tip elecuodcs.
To rvaluate the relative importance of the driving forces into the weld pool.
includhg buoyançy. çlectrornagnetic force. surface tension and gas shear stress. each
parameter applied in the weld pool mode1 separately. Also. the variation in these fort-
es with the rlrcuode tip angle and their effects on the weld pool shape has bren ex-
arnined. It is found that for a 200 A arc. the buoyancy and slectromagnetic forces do
not play a major role in deteminhg the How pattern into the weld pool. compared
with the gas shear stress and surface tension. The flow pattem into the weld pool, on
the other hand. is determined by the relative magnitude of the gas shear stress and the
surface tension, and also sign of the surface tension. The gas shear stress is an arc
property and changes with the arc parameters. Variation in the gas shear stress with
arc parameters is discussed in chapter 3, section 3.3.3. On the other hand. the surface
tension, is a function of temperature of the weld pool surface and weld pool composi-
tion,
Comparing the results of this study with the experimentai results of Savage et.
al. PO] and Key [21] has shown that the arc and weld pool models together c m give
a realistic picture of the weld pool s h a p and size for a range of rlectrode tip angles
from 10 to 90 degrees. For the rlectrode tip angles more than 90 degrees. although
the predicted puddle shape is realistic but there is inconsistency in variation of depth/
width ratio between the calculated results and experirnental data.
REFERENCES
I- R. T. C. Choo. S c D 7hesi.s. Dept of Materials Science and Engineering. The Mas-
2- C . R. Heiple and .J. R. Roper, 'The Geometry of Gas Tungsten Arc, Gas Metal
Arc and Submerged Arc Weld Beads", in Welding: ??zeop und Practice. edited by
D. L. Olson. R. Dixon and A. L. Liby, Elsevier Science Publishee B. V.. 1990.
pp. 1-34.
3- T. Zacharia and S. A. David. "Heat and Fluid Flow in Welding" in Muthcmnrical
Modelling of Weil Phrnomena. edited by H. Cejak and K. E. Easterling, The In-
stitute of Materials. 1993. pp. 3-23.

4- T. De broy . "Weld Pool Surface Phenornena-A Perspective" in Mufhrman'cul Mod-
rlling of WeW Phenomrna. edited by H. Cejak and K. E. Easterling. The Institute
of Materials. 1993. pp. 24-38.

5- K. Mundra. T. Debroy. T. Zacharia and S. A. David, "Role of Thermophysical
Properties in Wrld Pool Modelling". Wdding J.. 1992. vol. 7 1. pp. 3 13s-320s.
6- R. T. C . Choo and J. Szekely. 'The Possible Role of Turbulence in GTA Weld
Pool Behaviour". Wrfding J.. 1994. vol. 73. pp. 2 5 3 1s.

7- B. E. Launder and D. B . Spalding, Murhemu~culMode1 of Turbulencr. Academic
Press. 1972.
8- D. G. Thomas. 'Transport Characteristics of Suspension: VIII. A Note on the Vis-
çosity of Newtonian Suspensions of Unifonn Sphencal Particles. J. of Culloid Sci-
ence. 1965. vol. 20. pp. 267-277.
9- D. B. Spencer. R. Mehrabian and M. C . Flemings, "Rheological Behaviour of Sn-
15% Pb in the Crystallization Range". Mrtullurgicul Transactions. 1972. vol. 3.
pp. 1925- 1932.

10- P. Sahoo, T. Debroy and M. J. McNallan. "Surface Tension of Binary Metal-Sur-
Chapter 4 Weid Pool Model 130
face Active Solute Systems Under Conditions Relevant to Welding Metailurgy"

Metulhrgicul Tran.wctions B. 1988. vol. 19B. pp. -GE!-@ 1.
11- C. R. Heiple and J. R. Roper, "Mechanism for Minor Element Effect on GTA Fu-
sion Zone Geomeuy. Welding J.. 1982, vol. 6 1. pp. 97s- 102s.
12- C. R. Heiple, I. R. Roper, T. Stmger and R. J. Aden. ''Surface Active Element
Effects on the Shape of GTA. Laser and Electron Beam Welds", Welding J.. 1983,
VOL 62, pp. 73-77s.
13- W. H. Giedt. X. C . Wci and S. R. Wei. "Effect of Surfacc Convection on Station-
ary GTA Weld Zone Ternperatures. Wrlding J.. 1984, vol. 63. pp. 376s-383s.
14- P. Burgardt and C. R. Heiple, "Interaction Between Impurities and Welding Varia-
bles in Determinin- GTA Weld Shape". Wrlding /.. 1986, vol. 65, pp. 1 5 0 ~ 4 5 % .
15- R. E. Sundell. H. D. Solornon and S. M. Correa, "Minor Element Effects on Gas

Tungsten Arc (GTA) Weld Penetration- Weld Pool Physics", in Advances in Wrlrl-
irrg Science und Techntdogy TWR '86.edited by S. A. David. ASM. 1986. pp. 53-
57.
16- K. Ishizaki. "Dynamic Surface Tension and Surface Enthalpy Theory on Hear
Transfcr and Pcneuation in Arc Welding, IN Doc. No. 2 12- 736-89. July 1989.
17- T. Zacharia, S. A. David, J. M. Vitek and T. Debroy, "Weld Pool Developrnent
During GTA and Lascr Welding oT Type 304 Stainless Steel, Part iI: Experimental
Correlation". Wrlding J.. 1989, vol. 68, pp. 5 10s-51%.
L8- N. S. Tsai and T. W. Eagar. "Distribution of rtie Heat and Current Fluxes in Gas
Tungsten Arc". Metallrrrgical Transucrions B. 1985. vol. 16B, pp. 841-846.

19- M. J. Lu and S. Kou, "Power and Current Distributions in Gas Tungsten Arc".
g 1988, vol. 67. pp. 29s-34s.

W r l l i i ~ ~J..
20- W. F. Savaye, S. S. Stmnck and Y. Ishikawa, 'The Effect of Electrode Geometry

in Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding". Welding J.. 1965. vol. 4. pp. 489~496s.
Chapter 4 Weld Pool Modsl 131
21- 5. F. Key. "AnodeKathode Geometry and Shielding Gas Interrelationships in
GTAW". Wrlding J.. 1980. vol. 59. pp. 364~470s.

5.1 INTRODUC~ION
Unlike the GTAW process, mathematical modeUing of arc in GMAW process

has only recently being developed [ i l . A non-thermionic cathode. a randomly rnoving
cathode spot on the surface of the workpiece. variation of the electrode tip shape dur-
ing the welding process, presence of metal droplets in CLight between anode and cath-
ode and gas mixture are some aspects of the GMAW process which complicate the
developrnent of a model. In this chapter, a mathematicai model for GMAW will be
presented. As indicated in section L.4.2,the main objective of modeiiing the arc in
the GMAW process is to rstimate the heat flux frorn the arc to the workpiece. This
needs a better understanding of the GMAW process. To obtain this objective, several
steps are necessary. In the present chapter a model for GMAW with a Bat tip elec-
trode is developed. By comparing the obtained results with available experirnental da-
a, the validity of the model is discussed. The chapter continues with snidying the
effects of the applied current, arc length, elecuode diameter and shielding gas on the
arc properties, and then an estimation of the contributions of metal droplets and arc
into the heat flux are given. Finally, by considering an angular tip elecuode, estima-
tion for the effect of the electrode tip shape on the arc properties is presented.
5.2 PHYSICALDESCRIPTION
A schematic sketch of a DCEP gas metal arc welding is iliustrated in Figure
Chapter 5 GMAW m d e l 1 33
5.1. Tke DCEP configuration is preferred in the GMAW process because of the melt-
ing of the continuousIy fed elecuode. For this reason the workpiece is the cathode.
EIectrons, either emitted from the cathode (workpiece) or produced in the arc, con-
dense on the anode (electrode). The heat transferred by the elecuons dong with the
radiation heat and more importantly the Joule heating into the electrode raise the tem-
perature of the electrode to the meltïng point The heat content of the Calhg droplets
will be transferred to the weld pool. Other heat sources for the workpiece wiLl be ra-
diation and convection. In addition to these mechanisms, positive ions that neutralize
at the surface of the cathode transfer some amount of rnergy to the cathode (work-
piece) [2]. This is quite important in GMAW because of the non-thermionic nature of
the cathode [3]. The proportion of the ion current in the total current is not clearly
known and determining the theoretical heating rate due to ions needs much further in-
vestigation [4]. Therefore, in this study the heat due to ion bombardment is not taken
into account.
I
I Consumable electrade
1 ' {Anode)
O ;
I
I
1
I
I
Molten droplet
l
1
Figure 5.1 Schematic of the welding arc (GMAW).

Chapter 5 GMAW madel 134
To establish a model for the arc in the GMAW the mode1 which was devei-
oped for the GTAW (chapter 2). must be modified. The assumptions made in chapter
2 remain applicable. Additional assumptions are introduced to sirnplify the model.
These assumptions are as follows:
Siqce the droplet spends only a very short time in flight it is assumed that there is
no droplet between the consumable electrode and the workpiece;

The short life of the droplet in the very high temperature zone combined with the
high velocity of the plasma about the axis of symrnetry lead to the assumption that
there is no metal vapour in the space between the electrodes. A limited amount of
metal vapour enters the plasma but it c m not diffuse radiaily into the outer parts.
Theretore a smdl amount of metal vapour is present near the axis of syrnmeuy,
very close to the droplets, but the effect of this on the whole arc is insignificant.
5.3 GOVERNING
EQUATIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
In the GMAW process, there are elecirons emitted from the cathode which
paçs through the gap between the workpiece and the wire electrode to condense on the
anode (wire electrode). The interaction of the magnetic field produced by this cumnt
with the current itsell: produces an electromagnetic force which is the main driving
force for the plasma. This phenornenon is very similar to ihe case in the GTAW
process. Although in the GMAW, the electron current direction is opposite to that of
the GTAW, the change in the sign of the magnetic field results in the electromagnetic
force to act in the same direction as the case of the GTAW. The thermal effect of the
electric current which originates from the Joule heating. keeps the temperature high
enough for maintaining a stable plasma. The equations that explain the physical phe-
nomenon occurring in the arc are the sarne as those presented in chapter 2 section 2.2.
Also the same numericd method was used to solve the equations.
Chapter 5 GMAW mode1 135
The caiculation domain for dl variables is shown in Figure 5.2. A non-uni-

form grid point system is employed with finer grid sizes near the consumable elec-
trode. The distance between the electrodes is varied from 2.0 to 10.0 mm. The inflow
boundary at the top of the domain is taken at 20.0 m m above the etectrode face (an-
ode surface). The boundary at the side is 20.0 mm away from die axis of symmetry.
The corresponding bounday conditions are given in Table 5- 1.
The specification for the velocity boundary condition is not very critical. At
the solid surfaces (face and side of the electrode and surface of the workpiece) the ve-
lociùes are zero. At the mis of symmetry. the radial velocity will be zero and there is
no tlux for the axial velocity. Again the radial velocity is zero at the top inflow and
the axial velocity is constant at 2.0 rnd, which is typical of the shielding gas intlow
velocity. The side boundary is located tàr enough so that there is no axial momentum
'1 Z
- ___,
Inflow
Outflow
+
C
I
Workpiece (Cathode), 20.0 mm
Figure 5.2 Calculation domain for GMAW (schematic).

Table 5-1: Boundary Conditions.

BC1 CD1 DE EF FG GH HB
aprv
O .T= O O O O O O
U = Const.
au
O O
au O O
a;=o z=o
Inflow:
T=lW K ah
T=500 Outnow:
T=5ûûK T = Tm.,, T = Tm el,, Eq. (5-1)
-&=O
ah
a ; = O
as
, = O
a6
--&=O ' = = O Jc=- ,
KR;
I
,
ab
= CI
Eq. (5-3 Eq. (5-5)
At these boundaries, pressure is fixed to a constant value.
and mass thxes.
For the enthalpy equation, it is assumed that the remperatures at the top in-
flow and the side boundary equal constant values of 500 K and 1000 K. respectively.
At the face of the electrode. the temperature of the eiectrode is assumed to be equal to
the melting point of the deetrode material. At the side, HB. it is considered that the
temperature decreases from the rnelting point of die metai at the face of the electrode,
point H, to the temperature of the gas at the inflow boundary. 500 K, at point B line-
arly. Therefore the temperature at the anode will be:
T = T m, elec ter z = 'riec
= Tinf~ow for z = O
T = Az+B for 0< 2 c Zeleç
At the surface of the workpiece (the cathode), a cathode spot radius is defuied so that
the temperature within the cathode spot equals the rnelting point of the workpiece and
beyond that equals a constant value which is less than the metal melùng point. Thus
the temperature at the cathode is:
At the axis of symmeuy. there will be no rnthalpy gradient
Currents. axial and radial. at ail boundaries, except at the cathode and the an-
ode, are zero. For the cathode. although there is no fixed cathode spot at the surface
of the workpiece and the arc root continuously wanders from one place to another. it
is considered that there is a constant current density within a predetlned area and zero
current density beyond that area. Therefore the current density at the surface of the
workpiece c m be detintid as hllows:
Ic = O for
For the anode, die elecuic potentiai at the AB boundary is presumed to be

zero and since the lttngth of the electrode is much longer than its diameter. it is con-
sidered that the elecvic potential into the elecuode is only a function of distance from
the top surface. To evaluate the rlectric potentiai at different points into the electrode.
Ohm's law has been used. The rquation for this purpose c m be written as foilows:
where 1. and o. are local values of current and electrical conductivity of the elec-
J J
trode material resprctively. Ij in different points of the electrode c m be calculated as
Rdomain
tj = 1 - C I
j, arc (5-5)
'elcc
Similar to enthalpy and axial velocity, there is no electric potential gradient at the axis
of symmetry.
The physical properties of the gases. namely density, viscosity, thermal con-
ductivity, heat capacity and rlectrical conductivity are treated as functions of ternpera-
ture. All rhese properties are taken from the abuiated data of Boulos et al. [5]. The
physical properties of helium for temperatures more than 24000 K are taken from Lick
and Emmons [6]. Radiation loss data for the q o n is taken from Evans and Tankm
171. Since there is no data available for radiation loss for helium. the data for argon
has been used for helium as well. The electrical conductivity of the electrode metal is
also ueated as a functian of temperature and the requîred data extracted h m Toulou-
han [SI-
5.4 ~ S U L T SAND DISCUSSION
in this section the results of calculations for different cases are presented. The
heat flux to the weld pool and the estimation of the contribution of different mecha-
nisms in heat transfer are oC most concern. Additionally the main properties of the arc
including the temperature distribution and velocity pattern of the plasma and rhe rlec-
uic potential difference are considered. The computed results are çompared with rx-
pcrimental data if they are available.
The çalçulations have been performed for both pure argon and pure helium
using currents nnging from 150 to 350 A. The electrode material has been chosen to
be aluminium with an elecuode diameter from 0.8 to 1.6 mm, and the elecuode sepa-
ration from 2.0 to 10.0 mm. These are the main process variables. Having knowledge
about the effects of these variables on the arc properties will help to gain a better un-
derstanding of the arc behaviour.
Chapter 5 GMAW mode1 t 39
5.4.1 Cathode Spot Radius
One of the problems in modelling the GMAW arc is the non-thermionic na-
ture of the cathode. The current density in a non-themionic cathode cm be as high
as 10" ~ . r n - '[9]. On the other hand. the cathode root splits into a number of sepa-
nte emitting areas [91, which in GMAW is clairned to be localized to the edge of the
rnolten part of the workpiece [IO]. To overcome this problem, a mean value is con-
sidered for the current density over a specified area as the cathode spot. Therefore. it
is necessvy to examine the sensitivity of the cornputed results to the cathode current
density or in other words to the cathode spot radius.
In Table 5-2 results of the calculations for 250 A argon and helium arcs are
summarized. The variation of the maximum temperature and the maximum velocity of
the plasma and the elecvic potential difference for given arc lengths and electrode di-
ameters with cathode spot radius nnging from less than L.0 mm to more than 7.0 mm
are given. The electric potential difference can show the power consurnption of the
welding process. The maximum temperature and the maximum velocity of the plasma
give some information about the shape of the arc and the role of the anode and the
cathode mean current densities in rhe overail tlow of the plasma into the arc column.
The variations of the mentioned parameters with the cathode spot radius for 250 A ar-
oon and hrlium arcs For different arc lengths are also shown in Figures 5.3-5.5. ïhese
Ci
Figures and Table 5-2 for both He and Ar plasmas show that the cathode spot radius
for different electrode diameters for relatively long arcs does not have any effect on
the maximum temperature and velocity of the gas. In very short arcs, both maximum
temperature and velocity of the gas change with the cathode spot radius. The reason
for the variations in maximum temperature and velocity in short arcs is the effect of
the cathode spot radius on the configuration of the arc close to the anode. Therefore
the cathode spot radius is insignificant as long as the maximum temperature and the
Table 5-2: Maximum Temperature, Maximum VeIocity and Electric Pokntial Difference for a 250
A Arc of Different Cathode Spot Radius.
I
Cathode Spot Radius, mm; Max. Temperature, K;
M a x Velocity, m d ; Electrk Potential Difierence, V
3.209 3.900 4.294 4.806 5.374 5.982 -
21080 21080 21080 21080 21090 21090 - -
396.6 396.8 397.0 397.0 3972 397.3 -
13.86 13.63 13.56 13.57 13.66 13.83 -
Chapter 5 GMAW model 141
Cathode spot radius. m m

m
Cathode spot radius, mm
Figure 5.3 Variation in the maximum temperature with the cathode spot radi-
us for 250 A Ar and He arcs as a function of arc length.
maximum velocity of the plasma are concerned.

On the other hand, the electric potential difference is a function of the cath-
ode spot radius for ail 250 A arcs. There is dways a minimum in the elecuic poten-
tial difference-cathode spot radius curves. For the other two applied currents. 150 and
350 A. the sarne trend in the variation of the electric potential difference with cathode
spot radius has been observed. Therefore. the present calculations reveal that there is
an optimum cathode spot radius which is at least a function of the applied currenr. the
arc length and the shielding gas. The minimum electric potential and its comspond-
ing cathode spot radius for different cases are listed in Table 5-3. Accordingly it is
reasonable to consider that the cathode spot radius is related to the minimum electric
potential difference, which corresponds to the lowest energy consumption by the sys-
iem, as the optimum value. Thus for aii cases the cathode spot radius i s the value thar
Cathode spot radius, mm
400 I 1 i I
200 - O - * - O
-
O00 - -
800 - -
600:/-- 1
400
200
0.0 1O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Cathode spot radius. mm
Figure 5.4 Variation in the maximum velocity with ttie cathode spot radi-
us for 250 A Ar and He arcs as a hction of arc length.
5.4-2 Mode1 Verification

n i e reliability of the predictions must be demonstrated before any discussion
and conclusions based on the results of the present calculation. The best way to deter-
mine the validity of the mathematical simulations is to compare the predictions with
the correspondhg experimental data. However, one reason for performing mathemati-
cal modelling, specifically in the present case. is to circurnvent the difficulties associ-
ated with the experirnental study of the GMAW process. Therefore obtaining accurate
experirnental data is not a simple task.
I I I I 1
1 I 1 I
1 .O 2.0 3.O 4.0 5.0
Figure 5.5 Variation in the electric potential ciifference with the

cathode spot radius for 250 A Ar and He arcs üs a
t'unction of arc length.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The latest experimentd measurement of temperature in a GMAW arc is re-

ported by Smârs and Acinger [ 1 11. In their study they measured the radial distribution
of the temperature at 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 mm frorn the cathode plate in a GMAW arc
protected by argon as the shielding gas. Both electrodes were aluminium and the con-
sumable electrode diameter was 1.2 mm. In Figures 5.6 and 5.7 the radial distribution
of the temperature at different distances from the cathode plate, obiained from the cal-
culation for 150 A and 250 A arcs is compared with the experimental results [L 11. It
can be seen that the agreement between the two sets of results for 150 A arc is better
than for the 250 A arc. The largest difference in al1 cases is related to the cenual part
Table 5-3: The Corresponding Cathode Spot Radius wiih the Minimum Elecuic Potential Differe-
nce for Different Cases.
Applied Elect rode Arc Minimum Electric Cathode
Current Diameter Length Potential Difference Spot Radius
(A) (mm) (mm) (v) (mm)
0.8 10.0 11.88 3.664
of the arc, and this difference is greater for higher applied currents. The most proba-
ble reason for this is the existence of a local higher current density at the surface of
the droplets due to the large difference in electrical conductivity of metal and gas mix-
ture around the droplets. Also at temperature less than 10000 K, the expenmental and
\
Dashed Ilne: Experimental \
\
I 1 I I
1 .O 2.O 3.0 4.0 5.0
Radial distance, mm
20000 l i I I 1
hd
P 15000 - -
3
u
l
u
g i o w ~ o-
E
aJ
4
'" 5000 -Solid line: Calculated

G Dashed Iine: Experimental
\
\
\
O I I I
1 l '.
0.0 1 .O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5 .O 6.0
Radial distance. m m
20VOO
m-
l i 1 I I 1
hd
L'
3
L
<O
g 10000 -
E
a, -.
Y
5000 -Solid line: Calculated

\
\
\
-
u \
Dashed Iine: Experimental \
I 1 I l I I '-
O00 1 .O 2 .O 3.O 4.0 5.O 6.0 7.0
Radiai distance. mm
Figure 5.6 The radial distribution of temperature at different distances from the cath-
ode plate in cornparison with the experimental data [ I I ] . 1 = 150 A. Dis-
tance from the cathode plate a: 7.5 mm; b: 5.0 mm; c: 2.5 mm.
theoretical predictions differ significantly. The difference at this region can be due to
absorption of the radiated heat from the arc core. the heat released becaux of recom-
bination of ions and electrons and deviation from L E condition at the outer part of
\
-Solid line: Calculated \
\
\
Dashed line: Experimental \
I I 1 I \ ,
1 1 .O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Radial distance. mm
20000 È - _ -- -
, I I I 1 T
--
Y
oi
3
Y
-- 2-9- -9
--_
4
% ioooo -
z
0
w t -
m
a
5000 -Solid line: Calculated I
\
s
Dashed line: Experimental 1
\
I I I 1 '
O * 6.0
0.0 1 .O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Radial distance, mm
20000 I
- - - - - - _ _--
I I 1 1 I I
El
LL -- ------- -
-
2-
15000
- - 9
- ---_- - - - - - - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _
9
-.
---_
-
d
m
g 1O000 - \ \
\
d
-Y
g 5000 -Soiid line: Calculated
\
s
8
\
-
u Dashed Iine: Experimental
\
\
I I l I I 1 \\ L
O 0:o 1 .O 2 .O 3.O 4.0 5.0 6.0 7 .O 8.0

Radial distance. mm
Figure 5.7 The radiai distribution of temperature at different distances from the cath-
ode plate in cornparison with the experimental data [ I l ] . 1 = 250 A. Dis-
tance from ihe cathode plate a: 7.5 mm; b: 5.0 mm: c: 2.5 mm.
the arc. Thus. some of the previous assumptions need to be revised.

The caiculated maximum Cas velocity at the centre üne of the arc is corn-
pared with the experimental results of Sm5s and Acinger [11] in Figure 5.8. The ex-
perimental values were estimated based on the drag force of the plasma sueam and by
knowing the acceleration and size of the droplets. The reported experirnental values
are in fact the mean values and in spite of their lower values compared with the
present theoretical predictions. which are the maximum velocities. it can be concluded
that the theoretical values are not far from the real gas velocities.

Three major properties of the argon arc. i.e. maximum temperature, maximum
velocity and electric potential difference, for different arc lengths and different currents
are summarized in Table 5-4. The corresponding caihode spot radius is also @en. It
c m bi: seen that by decreasing the elecirode diameter. the maximum an: temperature
and maximum gas velocity increase, which indicate that the anode current density has
a critical role in determining the arc properties. The anode current density depends on
the t o d current at the tip of the electrode. The variation of total current at the tip of
the electrode with the electrode diameter and applied current is illustrated in Figure
5.9. The importance of the total current at the tip of the electrode in determining the
500 I I I I I I
Solid line: Calculated
7
400 - Single dots: Experimental -
E 300 - -
r
O
-
O
$ 200 - d
m
Q
u
100 - O
d
0 2
I I I I I I I
O 100 200 300 400
Applied current. A
Figure 5.8 Variation in gas velocity with applied current for 10.0 mm
arcs in cornparison with experimenlal results [ 111.
Table 5-4: Arc Properties for Different Arc Lcngths and Applied Currents.
(T., (Kk u ., (m-s"); A@.(V); Rc. m m )
Applied Current (A)

150 1 250 1 350
metd transfer mode wiU be discussed later.
Typical isotherms for 10 mm arcs of different currents are shown in Figure

5.10. In al1 cases the bell-shaped characteristic of the arc c m be seen. Unlike the
GTAW arcs the maximum tempenture occurs at the front of the anode. In cornpari-
son with the other calculated results [ l ] these temperatures are lower. The reason for
the difference in the two calculated rcsuits is not known. but by considering the exper-
imental [12,13] and theoretical [12,l4-161 datri for the GTAW arc, the results of this
study are more reasonable.
Variation of the arc voltage with the arc length and current is shown in Fig-
Applied current. A
Figure 5.9 Variation in the total current at the tip of the electrode as a
function of applied m e n t for different elecuode diameters.
Numbers are the elecuode diameter in mm.
ure 5.11. It c m be seen that the arc voltage increases with both an: length and applied
current. The values presented in Figure 5.11 are the arc voltage plus the cathode fall
which are calculated from Equation (2-8). For 10 mm arcs of different currents the
cathode fall changes from 1.58 V for 150 A arc to 2.84 V for 350 A m.and for 250
A arcs its value changes h m 2.92 V for 2 m m arc to 2.52 V for 10 mm arc. By
considering the cathode Ml it c m be seen that the electric field increases with the
current and decreases with the arc length (Figure 5.12). On the other hand, it must be
mentioned that the cathode fail, in the case of the non-thermionic emission is found to
be between 10-20 V [9.17] which is much higher than the estimated values.
To extend the arc model to a joint model for the whole process including the
arc and the weld pool, the heat flux io the workpiece must be calculated. Several
mechanisms are involved in heat transfer from the arc to the workpiece. It is well un-
derstood that the ion impinging on the surface of the cathode at current densities as
high as log ~ . r n - ' can transfer energy in the order of 105 M W . ~ - 'to the cathode [4]-
Cha~ter5 GMAW mode1 150
El El
1 9000 K
Interval 2000 K Intemal 2000 K
- 6.0 U]
ü
10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
Fladial distance, m m Radial distance, mm
El
7 900 K
lnterval 2000 K
Figure 5.10 Isotherrns of 10.0 m m

ruçs with different applied
currents. a: 1 = 150 A; b: 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
1 = 250 A; c: i = 350 A. Radial distance, mm
In GMAW of aluminium, it is found that 12% of the total efficiency is due to the
cathode heating [18]. Essers and Walter [19] concluded that 65-754 of total heat in-
put to the workpiece is due to the arc, which includes radiation, convection and ion
cathode heating. The remainder is due to the molten droplet from the wire. These re-
16 - I I I I I
14 - -
>
6
12 - -
0
=
(O
O
IO - 6
-
>
2 8 - -
a
6 - 2 -
4 I I I I I
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Applied current. A
Fisure 5.1 1 Variation in the arc voltage with appIied current and
arc Iength. Numbers are arc Iength in m.
sults are in good agreement with the results of Lu and Kou [18]. Watkins e t ai. [20]
measured the heat trmsferred to the workpiece in machine welding of steel and report-
ed that the total heat input cfficiency was 85%; 40% due to droplets and 4 5 8 due to
arc.
In the present study by usiq the same approach as the GTAW (chapter 2 ) . a
Applied current, A
Figure5.12 Variation of electric

field with a: applied cur-
rent of 10.0 m m arcs; b:
arc length of 250 A arcs.
Arc length. mm
fist order estimation of the heat llux from the arc to the workpiece and the wire elec-
trode was performed to determine the relative importance of the different heat transfer
mechanisms. The estimation made in this study includes convection and radiation to
the workpiece and electron heating uansferred to the anode. It is found that the heat
transferred to the workpiece due to radiation increases with both the arc length and the
current. Also, the contribution of convection increases with the current, while the vari-
ation in the arnount of heat due to convection with the arc length is not significant.
The variation in the heat transferred to the workpiece due to radiation and convection
with the current and the arc length is shown in Figure 5.13.
The heat transferred to the anode does not depend on the arc length but in-
creases with the applied current. Figure 5.14 illusuates the variation in the heat to the
Applied current. A
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 O0 200 250 300 350 400
Applied current, A
Figure 5.13 Variation in the thermal power transferred to the cathode due to a: radia-
tion and b: convection with the applied current as a function of arc length.
600 1 I I I l I 1
1O0 150 200 250 300 350 400
Applied current. A
Figure 5.14 Variation in the transferred heat CO the anode due to

elecuons condensation with the applied current.
anode from the arc per unit time as a function of the applied current. By considering
the total absorbed heat by the anode (wire electrode), dong with the transfer of drop-
lets to the weld pool. the ratio of droplet contribution to radiation and convection con-
tribution for different cases is cdculated and presented in Tabb 5-5. By comparing
these data with expenmenüil data [18-201, it cm be concluded that only part of the
absorbed heat by the anode wire transfers to the weld pool. However. the contribution
of the droplet to the total heat input is more than what is found expenmrntally. This
shows that the cathode heating due to the bombardmrnt of ions rnust have a signifi-
cant contribution to the heat transferred to the workpiece.
Table 5-5: The Ratio of Droplet Contribution to Radiation and Convection Contribution.
AppIied Current (A)

de (mm)
150 250 350
1.2 10.64 6.51 4.99
1.2 5 .O6 3.69 2.90
0.8 3.4 1 2.53 2.06
12 3.73 2.82 2.29
1.6 4.08 3 .O2 2 .52

The dectrons that mach the electrode (anode) can condense on both the side
and the tip of the electrode. It is found that in the globular mode of metal transfer,
the majority of the electrons condense on the tip of the electrode (anode). In other
words, the tapering of the electrode starts when the electrons condense on the side of
the electrode [21]. Based on the results of this study, the percentage of the applied
current that reaches the tip of the electrode decreûses with increasing applied current
(Figure 5.15). This leads to a higher arnount of heat entering the side of the electrode.
On the other hand, it is known that there are several forces involved in metal transfer
to the weld pool including gravitational force, aerodynamic drag force, electromagnetic
force, surface tension and vapour jet force [22]. Among these forces, the aerodynamic
drag force and the electromagnetic force usually act to detach the droplet and the sur-
Applied current. A
Eiectrode diameter. mm
Figure 5.15 Variation in the percentage of current which reach the tip of the
electrode with the a: applied current; and b: electrode diameter.
C hapter 5 GMAW model 155
face tension and the vapour jet forces oppose the droplet detachment Depending on
the welding position, the gravitational force can have both effects. An electromagnetic
force parallel to the electrode (Figure 5.16) which can accelerate gas tlow in this re-
@on can be created by having a side entering current Hence by increasing the per-
centage of elecuon entry at the side of the electrode, there will be an increase in both
drag force due to hizher velocity, and electrornagnetic force due &O variation in the
electrons path (Figure 5.17). Therefore the higher side heating and the elecuomagnetic
force paralle1 to the electrode (anode) can be two major reasons for changing the
mode of metal trmsfer from globular to spray. A decrease in die diameter can also
increase the percentage of side heating of the electrode (Figure 5.15).
5.4.4 Effect of the Shielding Cas

The calcuiation has been performed for both argon and helium as the shield-
ing gas. Helium, becaux of its higher ionization potential than argon. produces some
El T i - 1.5
- - 1.0
. . . . . .
--
. . - ...
- 0.5 6
E
* 0 , # l l U
c
ru
0.0 g
Y
-s
- - \\\- 0.5 a
r r .. -------<
l i
1 .O
1.5 1 .O 0.5 0.0 1 .s 1 .O 0.5 0.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
Radial distance. m m Radial distance, mm Radial distance. mm
Figure 5.16 Effect of the applied current on the electromagnetic force

around the elecaode tip. a: 1 = 150 A; b: 1 = 250 A; c: I =
350 A.
Figure 5.17 Schematic of elecuons path when there is

side curent into the consumable electrode.
problems in an: stability and arc initiation [23.24]. On the other hand. GMAW with
helium shielding gas produces a deep, broad and parabolic weld bead [23] and produc-
es additionai heat which makes it suitable for metals with higher thermal conductivi-
ties such as aluminium and copper (22.24.251. In this section. the effect of shielding
oas on the cathode spot radius, temperature into the arc, gas velocity, electrons path
C
around the anode, and the heat uansfer to the weld pool will be studied.
It is obxrved that the cathode spot radius changes with the arc eiecrric poten-
tial using He shielding gas just as with Ar (Figure 5.5). In helium, due to its lower
electrical conductivity (Figure 5-18), the cathode spot radius corresponds to the mini-
mum elecuic potential and is smaller than in argon. Similar to the analysis performed
for Ar gas in section 5.4.1. the cathode spot radius which produces the minimum arc
voltage drop is adopted as the reference cathode spot radius on the basis of minimum
energy considerations. In Table 5-6 the computed arc properties for 2 and 10 mm arcs
at different currents for heliurn are presented. In c o m p ~ s o nwith argon (Table 5-31,
the maximum temperature in helium is higher, due to the higher ionization potentid of
C hapter 5 GMAW mode1 157
4000 8060 12000 16000 20000 24000

Temperature, K
Figure 5.18 Elecuical conductivity of Ar and He as functions of temperature. [ 5 ]
helium. The velocity of gas in helium in most cases is two to three times higher than
that in argon due to the lower density of helium. Although the velocity in He is very
high, it is still well below the sound velocity. To calculate the sound velocity the fol-
towing equation c m be used [26],
Table 5-6: Arc Properties for Different Arc Lengths and Applied Currents in Helium.
(Tm,,, tKk u ,,,,
(rn.s''j: Rc.(mm))
L- de Arc . Applied Current (A)

1
(mm) (mm) Properties 150 250 350
1
Tm 21520 236 i O 25120

2.0 1.2 umax 58.99 579.7 1490
Rc 1 .O83 1.400 1-400
Tmp, 22550 30630 35830
0.8 Um, 823.4 3520 5602
Rc 1.316 2.370 2.57 1
Tmax 2 1430 23910 25 120
10.0 1.2 "ma 382.1 1152 2344
Rc 1.235 2.176 2.625
Tma* 20080 220 1O 24230
1.6 Umax 238.0 697.2 1402
Rc 1.273 2.139
- - 2.67 1
.
In this equation a is sound velocity, k is Cp CV R is he universai Cas constant. M
is the molecular mass and T is temperature. For temperatures between 10000 to
35000 KTthe sound velocity changes from 5000 to 10000 m d , which is at least two
Urnes higher than the gas velocities in the corresponding temperatures.
ln Figure 5.19 isotherms of the helium arcs of 10 mm with three different
currents are shown. The bel1 shape characteristic of the an: cm not be seen in the he-
lium arc, especially in the low current arc. This is due to the cathode jet in the heli-
um arc (Figure 5.20). In cornparison with argon plasma the conductivity of helium at
temperatures less than 20000 K is much lower (Figure 5.18). which leads to a srnaller
cathode spot radius and thus a higher mean current density. By increasing the current,
the anode jet becomes stronger and can overcome the cathode jet This trend is ex-
plicitiy shown in Figure 5.20. In this figure the velocity profiles for the helium arcs
of Figure 5.19 are shown.
With pure argon as the shielding gas. there is a transition current below
which the metal uansfer mode is globular while above it, a very stable, spatter-free
axial spray transkr mode can be obtained (Figure 1.3). However, arcs shielded only
by helium do not exhibit tme axial spray transfer at any current leveis [23]. It was
mentioned zarlier (section 5.4.4), that the elec~odeside current in the argon shielded
arcs c m play an important role in the transition of the metal transfer mode. In pure
helium, on the other hand, di the electrons condense at the tip of the electrode (an-
ode), in other words there is no current at the side of the electrode regardless of the
applied currents. The variation in the total current into the electrode with distance
from the tip of the elecuode for both argon and helium with 10 mm arc gap of differ-
ent currents is shown in Figure 5.21. The main reason for this is that the temperature
Figure 5.19 Isotherms of 10.0 mm

helium arcs with differ-
ent currents. a: 1 = 150
A; b: 1 = 250 A; c: 1 =
350 A. Radial distance. mm
at the side of the elecûode (anode) never reaches the ionization temperature for He
which is more thm 8000 K (Figure 5.18). cornpared with the argon ionization temper-
P
d
2 P P
O
a
P O O 8
g ?
3 O O
Axial d~stance,mm
Axial distance. mm
Distance from the electrode tip. mm
Distance from the electrode tip, mm
Distance from the electrode tip. mm
Figure 5.2 1 Variation in the current into the elecuode with ihe applied current
and distance from the eiectrode tip. a: 1 = 150 A; b: I = 250 A; c:
1 = 350 A.
a t m of about 4500 K. regardles of the arc current Due to its high ionization poten-
tial. He gas acts as an insulator.

In cornparison with argon. in the case of helium the higher temperature of the
arc results in a higher thermal content being transferred to die workpiece (rhe cathode)
and electrode (the anode), dirough radiation. convection and electron condensation. As
an example, the heat transferred to the cathode and to the anode for 10 mm arcs of
different currents for both helium and argon is plotted in Figure 5.22. On the other
hand. it is found that helium c m significantly improve the shape of the weld pool
[23]. The shape of the weld pools for helium and argon shielded arc are shown in
Figure 5.23 schematicÿlly. This figure shows the bead shape in the case of argon as a
"fin@' type penetration whereas in the case of helium there is a deep, broad and par-
abolic weld bead. This difference is atuibuted to the higher thermal conductivity of
helium [23]. It has to be mentioned that the "finger" type penetration is the character-
istic of argon shielded welds. rspecially when the metd uansfer is in the spray mode.
In this case the kinetic enrrgy of droplets plays a very important role in determinhg
the shape of the wetd pool. Moreover, the elecfron contribution to the heat transfer to
the weld pool. which is associated with droplets. in argon shielded weld is higher than
the electron contribution in the helium shieided weld. The variation of the electron
contribution for the two shielding gases as a function of applied current is shown in
Figure 5.24. This graph shows that radiation and convection. which are more spread
over the weld pool surface play more imporîant roles in the heliurn shielded welds
than the argon shielded welds.
One of the problerns in using helium as the shielding gas is the large arnount
of spatter produced. The mechanism of formation of spatter is not clear. Eickhoff and
Eagar analysed the spatter formation mechanism in the GMAW of Ti in pure argon
with low currents [27]. They concluded that localhg the cathode spot at the top of
the droplet as it approaches the surface of the weld pool and before incorporating into
die weld pool is responsible for s p a t t e ~ gin the case of Ti welding in argon. In this
case, since the electron emission mechanism is themionic. the cathode spot is small
oai
'E
2.z
Applied current, A
Applird current. A
1 I J I I 1 1
O0 150 200 250 300 350 400
Applied current. A
Figure 5.22 Variation in the heat wmsfcrred to the workpiece or the efectrode
in unit Ume with the applied current in helium and argon. a:
Elecuon heat transfer to the elecuode; b: Convective heat trans-
fer to the workpiece; c: Radiative heat tmnsfer to the workpiece.
enough to be able to locate at the top of the droplet Then the Lorentz-type forces ex-
pel portion of the metal droplet from tbe weld pool. Because of its low melting point
Argon Helium
Fi,we 5.23 Effect of the shieiding gas on the geomeuy

of the weld pool is shown schematically. [23]
aluminium does not show a thermionic cathode spot However, during welding under
the protection of helium. a mean cathode spot radius of 1.235 mm for 150 A and 10
m m arc has been observed. It should be kept in mind that in non-thermionic emission
there are severai very srnall ernitting sites which move on the surface of the cathode
and most probably into the mean cathode spot radius continuously. For a very s m d i
cathode spot radius, it is quite possible for the cathode spot sites to be located at the
top of the unincorporated weld droplet as it touches down on to the weld pool. There-
fore the same mechanism of spattering as in the case of the welding of Ti in pure ar-
con is quite possible. By increasing the current, the cathode spot radius increases and
C
80 I - --- I I
75 -
---*
-- --- -
-*
----_-----
70 - -- ---- Ar -
65 - -
He
1 1 I
60
150 250 350
Applied current. A
Figure 5.24 Variation in the electroa contribution to the total heat trans-
ferred to the weld pool in He and Ar as a fùnction of appIied
ment.
the possibility of locating the emitting sites on the droplet decreases. However, the
velocity of the impinging droplets on the surface of the weld pool increases simultane-
ously. Both a decrease in the possibility of locating the emitting sites on the top of
the droplet and or increase in the velocity of the droplet impinging on the weld pool
surface resuIt in a decrease in the spatterïng.
5.4.5 Effect of the Electroàe Tip Shape

In previous sections. a model for GMAW process was developed and the ef-
fect of the arc variables on the arc propenies was discussed. In the model, the elec-
trode tip was considered to be flat It has also been shown that the electrode tip angle
c m change propeities of the arc in the GTAW process and even in its weld pool sig-
nificantly (chapters 3 and 4). n i e shape of the electrode c m not stay tlat d u ~ the
g
welding process. Thus. it is worthwhile to snidy the effects of the variation in the
electrode tip shape on the arc propertïes.
The metal uansfer mode c m change from almosr semi-sphencal to conical de-
pending on the ÿn: current Figure 5.25 shows the shape of the electrode tip for two
metal iransfer modes. globular and spray. To simulate the arc in the case of the spray
Figure 5.25 Schematic shripe of the elecirode tip in two different

metal transfer modes. a: Globular; b: Spray.
uansfer mode, a conical electrode tip shape with an angle of 10 degrees is considered.
Assuming a quasi-steady state, all the equations explained in section 5.3 with the s m e
boundary conditions as for the tlat tip electrode and including some modification at
the anode boundary conditions are used to handle the new configuration. To observe
the effect of the electrode tapenng more clearly. caiculations have been performed for
a flat tip electrode too. In both cases a 10 mm and 200 A arc was considered. The
electrode diameter is 1.2 mm and the cathode spot radius was considered to be 4.806
mm for both cases.
Figure 5.26 illusuates the effect of the electrode tip shape on the temperature
distribution into the arc. The clifference in the maximum tempenture for these two
cases is about 2% and this shows that the anode current density entering the electrode
does not change from one case to the other one. Therefore the anode surface is al-
most constant and in the case of the conicai electrode, the arc must move up to cover
enouph surface area of the electrode. On the other hand. the variation in the current
flow around the electrode tip. due to its shape, changes the electromagnetic force con-
tiguration which leads to a higher velocity for arcs with the conical electrode tip.
Figure 5.27 shows the velocity profile for the two cases. The maximum ve-
locity in the case of the conical electrode is more than three times higher than that in
the other case. This causes a higher heat convection. especially around the axis of
syrnmeuy, shown by the lengthened tempenture contours. Also. Figure 5.26 shows
that the temperature near the weld pool in the conical electrode case is higher, due to
more efficient convection. High velocity also produces higher pressures at the surface
of the weld pool. The gas pressure at the surface of the weid pool can increase by
more dian three times (Figure 5.28). This is important from the point of view of the
shape of weid pool surface.
Radial distance. mm
Radiaf Distance, mm
Figure 5.26 lsotherms of 10.0 mm. 200 A arcs for two electrode tip angles.
a: a = 10 deg; b: a = 180 deg.
Figure 5.28 Effect of the electrode tip angle on the distribution of the pressure
in 10.0 mm, 200 A arcs. a: a = 10 deg; b: a = 180 deg. Nurnbers
are pressure di fference in P a
corne the problem of the non-thermionic nature of the cathode, a cathode spot is de-
fined such that inside the cathode spot the current density is a constant value and
outside that the current density is zero. Although the plasma temperature and velocity
are almost constant over a wide range of the cathode spot radius, especially for longer
arcs. it is observed that the elecvic potential between the electrodes highly depends on
the size of the cathode spot. The optimum value for the cathode spot radius is ob-
tained by considering the minimum energy consumption by the arc. This optimum
value is a function of applied cunent, arc gap, electrode diameter and the shielding
gas.
By cornparing the results of this study with the available experimental data, it
is found that the mode1 for temperatures higher than 10000 K is reiiable, although
there are sorne modifications that must be considered for future studies, such as the
interaction between plasma and metai droplet, continuous variation in the shape of the
electrode tip and presence of metal vapour in the shielding gas.
Evaluation of the heat transferred to the workpiece and the electrode shows
that there must be some other mechanisms, in addition to convection, radiation and
electron condensation, for the heat transfer to the workpiece. It is likely that one of
the rnost important mechanisms will be the impingement of the positive ions on to the
cathode surface. Amongst the three mechanisms, the electronic energy goes to the
electrode and along with the metal droplets will be transferred to the workpiece, and
the two others, convection and radiation, go directiy to the workpiece. In both aqon
and helium arcs, the electron condensation on the wirc electrode (the anode) is the
major contributor in heat tnnsfer to the weld pool. This portion of hear flux is associ-
ated with droplets falling into the weld pool. The contributions of radiation and con-
vection depend on the applied current and arc length. In pure argon, radiation
increases with both arc length and applied current. but convection only increases with
the current and remains alrnost constant with increasing arc length.
It is found that the anode spot in pure argon c m extend to the side of the
electrode. This leads to a side flow of electrons which c m have a signifiant role in
drtermining the metal transfer mode. In pure helium, in which there is no m e transi-
tion of the globulÿr mode of metal transfèr to the spray mode, even at cwents as high
as 350 A the side current density cm not be observed.
Due to a higher ionization potential and lower electrical conductivity. the
cathode spot radius is much smaiier in pure helium than in argon. This leads to a
higher cathode current density and consequently a cathode jet which injects the plasma
toward the anode. This produces an upward flow toward the anode in low current
arcs. By increasing the applied curent, since the anode jet is dominant at higher cur-
rents, the upward flow disappears.
By adopting a quasi-steady state, the effect of the electrode tip shape on the
arc properties in the GMAW process is addressed for the t-mt time. This preliminary
study shows that variation in the arc properties, especiaiIy dose to the elecuodes, due
to variation in the shape of the electrode tip is signitïcant. Therefore variation in the
shape of the electrode tip can not be neglected in future studies on th& subject.
REFERENCES
1- P. G. Ionsson, ScD niesis, Dept of Materials Science and Engineering, The Mas-
2- J. D. Cobine, Gaseous Conductors, Dover Publication Inc., 1958.
3- A. Lesnewich, Tontrol of Melting Rate and Metal Transfer in Gas-Shielded Metal

Arc Welding, Part 1: Control of Electrode Melting Rate", Welding J., 1958, vol.
37, pp. 343s-353s.
4- W. L. Morgan, L. C. Pitchford and S. Boisseau, "The Physics of Ion Impact Cath-
ode Heating", J. Appl. Phys., 1993, vol. 74, pp. 6534-6537.
5- M. 1. Boulos, P. Fauchais and E. Pfender, T h e m l plasma, fundamentals and ap-
plications, vol. 1, Plenum Press, 1994.
6- W. J. Lick and H. W. Emmons, niermodynomic Properties of Helium, Harvard
University Press, 1962.
7- D. L. Evans and R. S. Tankin, "Measurernent of Emission and Absorption of Ra-
diation by an Argon Plasma*', Physics of Fluids. 1967, vol. 10, pp. 1 137-1 144.
8- Y. S. Touloukian, Thermophysical Properties of High Temperature Solid Materi-
ais, vol. 1: Elernents. McMi1la.n Co. 1967.
9- J. F. Lancaster, The Phpics of Welding, 2nd edn, Pergamon Press, 1986.
10- P. Boughton and M. Amin Mian, "Aspects of Arc Root Behaviour in Welding".
2nd International Conference on Gus Discharges, 1972, 1 1- 15 Sep., pp. 130- 131.
11- E. A. Smhs and K. Acinger, "Material Transport and Temperature Distribution in
Arc Between Melting Aluminium Electrodes", IZW Document No. 212-162-68,
1967.
12- K. C. Hsu, K. Etemadi and E. Pfender, "Study of Free-Buming High-Intensity Ar-

gon Arc", J. Appl. Phys.. 1983, vol. 54, pp. 1293-1301.
13- G. N. Haddad and A. J. D. F m e r , "Temperature Deteninations in a Free-Bum-
Chapter 5 GMAW rnodel 173
ing Arc: 1. Experimental Techniques and Results in Argon", J. P@s. D: Appl.

P@, 1984, vol. 17 pp. 1189- 1196.
14- P. Kovitya and J. I. Lowke. 'Two-Dimensional Analysis of Free-Burning Arcs in

Argon", J. Phvs. D: Appl. Phys., 1985. vol. 18, pp. 53-70.
15- C. Delalondrc and 0. Simonin. "Modelling of High Intensity Arcs hcluding a
Non-Equilibrium Description of the Cathode SheathT', Coiloque De Physique. 15
Sep. 1990, Colloque CS, Supplement Au n 18. Tome 5 1. pp. 199-206.
16- J. J. Lowke, P. Kovitya and H. P. Schmidt, "Theory of Free-Burning Arc Columns
Including the Influence of the Cathode", I. P h y . D: Appl. Phys.. 1992, vol. 25,
pp. 1600-1606.
17- R. Hajossy and 1. Morva, "Cathode and Anode Fails of Arcs with Fusible Elec-
trodes", J. Phys. D: Appl. Ph-, 1994, vol. 27. pp. 2095-2101.
18- M. I. Lu and S. Kou, "Power Inputs in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Aiuminum-
Part II", Wei@ J., 1989. vol. 68, pp. 452s-456s.
19- W. G. Essers and R. Walter. "Heat Transkr and Peneuation Mechanisms with
GMA and Plasma-GMA Welding", Wefding J.. 1981, vol. 60, pp. 3 7 ~ 4 2 s .
20- A. D. Watkins, H. B. Smartt and C. J. Einerson, "Heat Transfer in Gas Metal Arc
Welding", in Recrnr Trends in Wefding Science and Technology TWR'89. edited
by S. A. David and I. M. Vitek. American Society for Metals, 1990, pp. 19-23.
21- Y. S. Kim and T. W. Eagar, "Analysis of Metal Transfer in Gas Metd Arc Weld-
ing", Welcling J., 1993, vol. 72, pp. 269s-278s.
22- J. Norrish, Advanced welding processes. institute of Physics Publishing, 1992.
23- Welding handbook. 8th edn. vol. 2. American Welding Society, 1991.
24- K. A. Lyttle and W. F. G. Stapon, "Selected the Best Shielding Gas Blend for the
Application", Welding J.. 1990, vol. 69, pp. 21-27.
25- W. Lucas, "Choosing a Shielding Gas- Part 2", Welding und Meral Fabrication,
1992, vol. 60, pp. 269-276.
26- M. H. Aksel and 0.C . Eralp, Gus clynamics, Prentice Hall. 1994.
27- S . T. Eickhoff, and T. W. Eagar, "Chiuacterization of Spatter in Low-Current
GMAW of Titanium Alloy Plate", Wrlding J.. 1990, vol. 69. pp. 382s-388s.
C H A P T E R 6
O N AND FUTURE STIJDM
6.1.1 GTAW Process
1 For the GTAW with a tlat tip electrode. a constant current density over the
cathode spot c m give reliable resulb for temperature, velocity and even heat
tlux and anode current density. This cathode current density increases with the
applied current. However for GTAW with angular tip electrodes. a constant
current density over the cathode spot gives a maximum temperature that is not at
the axis of symmetry for sharp electrodes.

2 A dominant rnechanism for the heat transfer to the workpiece is the electron
contribution. For arcs wiih a flat tip electrode, the electron contribution changes
from 63% for a 12.7 mm arc and 300 A current to more than 92% for a 2.0 mm
arc and 100 A current. The convection component increases from -48 to - 15%
with the applied current from 100 to 300 A and arc length Krom 2.0 mm to 12.7
mm. The increase in the radiation component with the current and the arc length
in the mentioned r a q e s is from -3.56 to -22%.
3 A model is proposed for the variation in the cathode spot surface area on the
tungsten e:ectrode with the electrode tip angle, based on experimental t-uidings of
other investigators. According to this model, the cathode spot surface area is
constant for electrode tip angles l e s than 60 degrees and then increases with the
Chapter 6 Conclusion and future studies 176
electrode tip angle linearly. The arc mode1 developed is based on the new
approach for the cathode spot surface area. It can give reliabie results for arc
voltages, gas velocities, temperature profiles (even very close to the cathode),
anode current densities, heat tluxes to the workpiece and pressures on the
surface of the weld pool, for 100-250 A arcs of 2.0 to 10.0 mm Iength.
4 It is found that the electrode tip angle has signif-ïcant effect on the arc shape.
The wider electrode tip angle gives more constrict arcs, such that the anode
surface area on the workpiece surface is srnail. By decreasing the electrode tip
angle (sharper electrode), the arc was expanded and accordingly the anode
surface area was increased. This increase in the surface area with decreasing
electrode tip angles leads to higher current densities for arcs with wider electrode
tip angles. Since the main contributor to the heat tlux to the workpiece is the
electron contribution, this variation in the angle of the electrode fip can affect
the distribution of the heat flux significantly. It is observed that an increase in
the heat t7ux due to an increase in the electrode tip angle leads to a larger weld
pool.
5 It is also found that a decreâse in the electrode tip angle cm increase the axial
gas velocity two to three times, deprnding on the arc length. and the radial gas
velocity at the surface of the weld pool up to four times. hcrease in the radial
gas velocity c m be mslated into an increase in the gas shear stress applied to
the surface of the weld pool. The gas shear stress. among the tlow dnvuig
forces into the weld pool, can have significmt effect on the weld pool free
surface and accordingly on the flow patterns in the weld pool.
6 For the first time, the effect of the electrode tip angle on the heat flux from the
arc to the weld pool and its contributors, including electron contribution,
convection and radiation. is evaluated. It is found that, for example for a 5.0
mm. 200 A arc. increasing the electrode tip angle from 10 to 60 degrees
increases the maximum heat transferred to the anode due to electron contribution
from -50 to more than 70 Wmm-'. Further increase to 150 degrees decreases it
by about 30%. The maximum heat transferred to the mode by convection
decreased more than three times when the electrode tip angle was increased from
10 to 150 degrees. The variation in the maximum heat due to radiation is about
20%. In spite of the significant variation in the maximum heat due to different
mechanisrns, the total heat transferred to the anode by a convection mechanism
changes only slightly with the elecuode tip angle.
7 A simple model is developed for the weld pool based on the variation of
viscosity of a mixture of varying fraction of solid and liquid. In this rnodel.

instead of using a pre-detked anode current density and heat flux, the data from
the arc model are used. Therefore, for the tkst time it was possible to study the
effects of the electrode tip angle on the weld pool shape quantitatively. The
estimations show that the arc and the weld pool models together c m give
reasonable results for tlow pattem in the weld pool, although there is some
inconsistency between calculated and experimental data for the elecuode tip
angle wider than Y 0 degrees. Also, some modification regarding the free suface
of the weld pool is nrcessary, especially for very sharp electrodes.
8 The main tlow dnving forces into the weld pool in welding with a 200 A arc of
2 and 5 mm lengths are the gas shear stress and the surface tension. Direction
of the surface tension which is a function of the temperature and the

composition of the workpiece material. is very important in determining the flow
pattern in the weld pool and therefore its shape and size.
6.1.2 GMAW Process

1 By defining a cathode spot, a niodel for the arc in the GMAW process is
developed. For the t - i t tirne, it is found that there is an optimum radius for the
cathode s p o ~for which the energy consumption of the arc is a minimum. This
optimum radius is a function of arc length, applied cunent, wire electrode
diameter and shielding $as. The model c m give reasonable information for
temperature distribution and gas velocity for arcs shielded by argon for
temperatures higher than 10000 K. For the cold parts of the arc at the edge of
the stable plasma. because of recombination of the çharged particles (the ions
and the rlecuons) and absorption of the energy emitted from the centre of the
arc column, the assumptions of the existence of the LTE condition and an
optically thin for the plasma are not valid.
2 It is found that the anode spot surface area for arcs shielded by argon increases
with the current, thus some fraction of the electrons enter the anode (wire
elecuode) through its side. For arcs shielded with helium, however, electrons
aiways enter the mode through its tip. This different behaviour for the gases is
due to their difference in ionization temperature and therefore in elecuical

conductivity. The transition in the metal trruisfer mode with increasing in the
current obxrved in GMAW under argon protection. can be atîributed to the
presence of side currents.
3 Evaluation of the heat transfer from the arc to the workpiece for the GMAW
process reveals that in addition to convection, radiation, and electron (which is

transferred to the weld pool through metal droplets) contributions, there must be
another mechanism(s) for heat transfer in this process. The positive ion
bombardment of the cathode (weld pool) is the most probable mechanism.
4 It is shown by simulating the arc in the GMAW process that the electrode tip
shape has a significant effect on die arc properties. For example, for a 10 mm,
200 A arc, the maximum axial velocity c m be increased by more than three
times. This shows that, although the model for GMAW with a flat tip elecuode
cm give very valuable information about the GMAW arc. the variation in the
shape of the electrode tip must be considered.
6.2 SUGGESTIONS
FOR FüTURE STUDIES
6.2.1 GTAW Process

1 Although the angle of the electrode tip has been successfully taken into account
in the present model, diere are some possibilities to make the model more appli-
cable. For exmple. using a body-fitted coordinate to rernove the difficulties and
the uncertainties related to the stepwise electrode tip. By using a body-fitted
coordinate. it will be possible to extend the mode1 for angular etectrodes up to
the flat tip rlectrode. In the present model, the results related to angles wider
than 130 to 150 degrees is less reliable and for more thm 150 degrees there are
no results available, that are based on the mode1 for angular electrodes. Also, it
shiiuld be possible to consider the uuncation ar the tip of the electrode easily
and accurately.
2 The availability of experimental data for checking the validity of the results
obtained from the arc model is very poor, especiaily for different electrode tip
shapes. From the welding point of view. the important experimental data are
those which are uansferred to the workpiece. including anode current density.
heat flux and gas shear stress.
3 Variation in the shape of the weld pool surface in modelling both the arc and the
weld pool must be considered in more detail. The best way to handle this varia-
tion is by combining the arc and weld pool models. The interface of the arc and
the weld pool c m probably be determined by balancing the applied forces on the
top of weld pool surface and the variation in the metal volume due to the melt-
ing and to the increase in temperature. The balancing of the applied forces on a
liquid surface in not an easy task and mus&be developed from very simple
cases.
4 Apparent viscosity of mixtures of liquid and solid is a function of the relative
amounts of solid and solid panicle shapes. Therefore in order to use this prop-
erty in the modelling of a melting or solidifying body of metal which is under
the influence of liquid motion, it is necessary to obtain a more realistic expres-
sion for the viscosity variation by variables of the system.
6.2.2 GMAW Process
1 Variation in the shape of the electrode tip is continuously occumng dunng the
welding in the GMAW process. Thus, in order to obtain more reliable resu1t.s
from the theoretical calculations, development of a coupled model of the con-
sumable electrode and the arc is necessary. In this rnodel. Joule heating into the
wire. melting of the metal and fonnation of the metal droplet, detachment of the
metal droplet, heat transfer to the consumable electrode due to the elecaon bom-
bardment and the wire feed speed should be considered. In a more advanced
model, the effect of current on dl of these, and especially on the metal transfer
mode must be addressed. Regarding the arc, the presence of metal droplets in
flight between the electrodes must be considered. Heat transferred to the droplet
t'rom the arc, vaporization of metai from the droplet surface, distribution of metal
vapour into the plasma, and current density at the surface of the droplet should
be addressed.
2 One of the problems in modeIlhg the arc in the GMAW process is the
availability of the physical and transport properties of the shielding gas. Usuaily
a mixture of two or three gases is used to protect the welding parts. The
information about the properties of the gas mixtures and their variation with
temperature and gas composition (due to presence of metai vapour) is rarely
available in the published iiterature. Therefore to extend the applicability of such
models for more practical applications. there is a need for these information.
3 Evaluating the optimum cathode spot radius requires a very long time for
calculation and this limits the applicability of the model. [n order to extend the
model applications, a joint model for the arc and the weld pool and ultirnately
for the consumabk electrode. arc and weld pool is required. Regarding the wetd
pool part. there are severd things that must be investigated. Heat transfer frorn
the arc to the weld pool is one of the mosr important issues that needs to be
solved. For the Ume being, the information about heat transferred to the weld
pool (cathode) due to the positive ion bombardment is very limited. Extending
the reliablr and applicable information regarding the role of ions in heat trmsfer
requires knowledge of the contribution of the positive ions to the curent density
in non-thermionic cathodes. Also. it is very i m p o m t to know the magnitude of
the momentum that c m be transferred to the weld pool due to the impingement
of metal droplet. To have a realistic evaluation for this, it is necessary to snidy
the interaction of die metai droplets and the arc, and the momentum that can be
transferred to the droplets due to the electric tield in the plasma, the c w e n t at
the surface of the metal droplets in flight and sven from the elecuomagnetic
forces at the moment of detachment.
Appendix I Solution Technique and lmpiementation 182
!%LUTION CH NIQUE A N D LMPLEMENTATION

The PHOENICS code was employed for both arc md weld pool models. This
is a commercial control volume code based on SIMPLE algorithm [l], and has been
used to study plasma related phenornena and solidification problems [2-51. The de-
tailed of description of the PHOENICS c m be found in CHAM documents f6-91. In
this appendix some of the numerical settings imposed for different models presenred in
this thesis are explained. All computations were performed on a SUN SPARC work-
station.
1 Grid Configuration
In al1 cases of arc modelling, a non-uniform tïxed grid configuration was
used. The number of cells in the radial direction for GTAW tlat tip electrode, GTAW
tapered rlectrode and GMAW models were 50. 62 and 52 respectively. In the axial
direction the number of cclls is function of the arc length and the electrode tip angle
(in the case of GTAW with a tapered electrode). For the tlat tip electrode (GTAW)
the number of cells in the axial direction varied from 17 for a 2.0 mm arc to 52 for a
12.7 mm arc. For a GTAW tapered electrode, this number depended on the arc length
and the electrode tip angle and m g e d from 50 to 87. The number of cells in the axi-
al direction in the arc region is only a function of the arc length. For the GMAW
process. the number of cells chanpd from 25 to 48 with the arc length. In al1 cases
the finest grid was immediately below the electrode tip face.
For weld pool modelling, a single gnd configuration, 58x35, was used for all
cases. The finest cells were put in the liquid region of the calculation domain. This
was done by estimating the limits of the weld pool using very coarse grid size. For
weld pool also a uniform time grid was used with time intervals of 0.01 S.
Appendix I Solution Technique and lmplementation 183
II Initiai Conditions
For the weld pool case. the calculation staned from room temperature and ze-
ro velocities and zero elecuic potential into the workpiece.
In the case of arc modelling, since the conductivity of gases, argon and heli-
um. at room temperature is aimost zero, obtaining convergence of the results by start-
ing from room temperature, especially for the electric potential is very difficult.
Therefore to overcome this problem a predefined temperature field between the elec-
uodes was used which allowed the results for the elecuic potential field to converge
much faster. It must be emphasized that as long as there is a path way for electrons
between the electrodes, the condition of the predefined temperature field does not have
any effect on the results converging. Also, it is worthwhile to mention that the results
do not depend on the initial conditions.
III Convergence Criterion
To insure convergence, the residual values of al1 the variables were moni-
tored, and the sweep numbers were considered to be high enough such that the residu-
al values of al1 variables. with respect to the fist sweep, becarne at least two orders
of magnitude smaller. Also. in al1 models, in some selected cases the spot values of
the variables were monitored to make sure that these values, by continuing the calcu-
Mons, remain constant.
IV Under Relaxation Factors
In arc modelling convergence of the results was obtained in dmost al1 cases
by using under relaxation technique. This was due to the very sharp temperature gra-
dient and also to significant changes in the gas properties, especially density. Momen-
tum and pressure fields were most sensitive to these variations. Therefore in order to
obtain convergence in the results, it was necessary to appiy variation of the different
Appendix I Solution Technique and Implementation 184
variables from one node to the another one only slightly. This was possible by in-
creasing the ce11 numbers and by using under relaxation, or by a combination of these
procedures. Usually, a combination of these techniques was necessary and the re-
quired combination was obtained by trial and error. As examples. in the appendices
[II and IV the q l and the gr0und.f files, respectively, for the argon shielded 100 A arc
of 2.0 mm length in the GTAW process with the tiat tip electrode are presented.
For the weld pool mode1 it was also necessary to use under relaxation. In
this case one of the main factors which led to difficulties in convergence was the par-
tial melting of the workpieçe followed by the initiation of flow. Another factor was
the variation of the surface tension coefficient with temperature. Remedies that cm be
applied are as follows;
8 increase the number of cells;
decrease the tirne intemals;
utiiize under relaxation technique.
Finding the best combination of these remedies to obtain convergence is possible by
trial and error.
Appendix l Solution Technique and lmplementation 185
References:
1- S. V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Trunsfer and Fluid Flow. Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, 1980.
2- P. C. Huang, J. Heberlein and E. Pfender. "A Two-Fluid Mode1 of Turbulence for
a Thermal Plasma Jet", Plasma Chernistry and Plasma Processing, 1995, vol. 15,
pp. 25-46.
3- W. P. Hu and J. D. Lavers, "Coupled Electro-Thermal-Flow Mode1 for Very Long
Electric Arc", Accepted for publication in IEEE Transaction of Magne tics.
4- V. R. Voller and C. Prakash, "A Fixed Gnd Numerical Modellinp Methodology
for Convection-Diffusion Mushy Region Phase-Change Problems", ?nt. J. Heat

Mass Transfer, 1987, vol. 30, pp. 1709-17 19.
5- C. Prakash, M. Samonds and A. K. Singhal, "A Fixed Grid Numerical Methodolo-
gy for Phase Change Problems Involving a Moving Heat Source". Int. J. Heur
Mass Trunsfer. 1987, vol. 30. pp. 2690-2694.

6- CHAM, TR100- A Guide to the PHOENICS Input Language.
7- CHAM, PHOENICS Instruction Course, Unit 1, Introductory Course, Module 1- 1,
Introduction to PHOENICS.
8- CHAM, PHOENICS Instruction Course, Unit 1, Introductory Course, Module 1-2,
The Main Ingredients in a PHOEMCS Simulation.

9- CHAM, PHOEMCS Instruction Course, Unit 2, Advanced Course, Module A-2,
The Use of Subroutine GROUND.

Appendix Il Arc Modelling Assurnptbns 186
ARC MODELLING ASSUMPTIONS
1 Axial Symmetry
It is assumed that the arc is axially symmetric, so that the equations can be
written in two-dimensional cylindrical coordinates. The fust attempt to expand the arc
model to a three dimensional case was made by Kaddani et. al. [ l J. In their model
which is restricted to the arc column, they showed that as long as the arc is stable, re-
sults of the two dimensional and the three dimensional calculations are in good agree-
ment with each other. In fact the main advantage of the 3-D model is in studying the
conditions of having a stable arc and also studying the effects of the external factors
such as extemai magnetic field on the arc properties.
II Steady State
It is assumed that the arc is in steady state so that the variation of different
parameters with time is eliminated. To justify this assumption. it must be shown that
the residence tirne of the working gas in the calculation domain is much less than the
period of any fluctuation imposed upon the system due to the external variables. Tak-
ing a typical velocity of 100 m . d and an arc length of 10 mm, the residence time for
the gas is about 0.1 ms which is much shoner than any extemally imposed fluctua-
tions.
111 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Optically Thin

It is assumed that the arc is in local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE)and
the plasma is optically thin. This requires that the collision processes (and not radia-
tive processes) govem transitions and reactions in the plasma and that there will be a
microreversibility among the collision processes [2]. This definition is applicable for
Appendix Il Arc Modelling Assumptions 187
optically thin (which means chat the plasma does not absorb its own emitted energy)
and atmospheric plasmas. One of the consequences of the LTE state is that almost
complete energy exchange between the different gas particles iake place. The impor-
tant finding is that the temperatures of the elecuons. Te, and heavy particles (atoms
and ions). Tg, are the sarne. Aithough LTE conditions do not exist very close to the
electrodes [3] and ar the cold part of the arc [4-71, and therefore the plasma is not op-
tically thin, LTE occurs at the core of the arc and arc is optically thin at very high
tempentures. The results of this study also show the validity of this assumption for
tempentures higher than 10000 K.
IV Laminar Flow
I t is assumed that the tlow is Iarninar. McKeiIiget and Szekely [8] justified
this assumption based on the laminar-turbulent transition for a free jet. Taking the
typical velocity of gas as 200 m.s-', the characteristic length as 0.01 m and the kine-
matic viscosity of argon at 20000 K as 0.0045 m2.s-' lead to a Reynolds nurnber of
about 450. This value is much kss than a Reynolds number of about 100000 where
the rnnsition to turbulent tlow for a free jet occurs. On the other hand the agreement
of the calculated results of this study with experimental data presented in the thesis.
especially for the heat flux. is a suong proof to show that this assumption for the case
of the welding arc is valid.
Appendk Il Arc Modelling Assumptions 188
References:
1- A. Kaddani, S. Zahrai, C. Delalondre and 0. Simonin, 'Three-Dimensional Model-
iing of Unsready High-Pressure Arcs in Argon", J. Phys. Dr Appl. Phys.. 1995.
vol. 28, pp. 2294-2305.
2- M. 1. Boulos, P. Fauchais and E. Pfender, 7?zermol plasma, fùndamenruls and ap-
plications, vol. 1, Plenum Press, 1994.
3- H. A. Dinulescu and E. Pfender, "Analysis of the Anode Boundary Layer of High
Intensity Arc", J. Appl. Phvs., 1980. vol. 5 1, pp. 3 149-3 157.
4- K. C. Hsu, PhD Thesis. Dept of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minneso-
ta, 1982.
5- A. J. D. Farmer and G . N. Haddad, "Rayleigh Scattering Measurements in a Free-
Burning Argon Arc", J. Ph- D: Appl. Phys., 1988. vol. 2 1, pp. 426-43 1.
6- L. E. Crarn, L. Poladian and G. Roumeliotis, "Departure from Equilibrium in a
Free-Buming Argon Arc", J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 1988, vol. 21. pp 418425.
7- A. J. D. F m e r and G. N. Haddad, "Rayleigh Scatterin; Measurements in a Free-
Buming &son Arc", J. Phys. D: Appi. Phys. 1988, vol. 2 1. pp. 426-43 1.
8- 1. McKeliiget and J. Szekely, "Heat Transfer and Huid Flow in the Weldinz Arc",
Metalliirgicul Transactions A. Juiy 1986. vol. 17A. pp. 1 139- 1148.
Appendix I I I q l file, example 189
In this appendix, as an example, the q l fiie for the argon shieided 100 A arc
of 2.0 m m length in the GTAW process with the flat tip electrode, is presented.
* * * QI File for GTAW arc with f l a t electrode
TALK=F; RUN ( I , 1 ) ;VDU=VGFMOUSE
* C o n s t a n t values
R E A L ( PI) ;P I = 3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 4
REAL(TOl,T06,T03)
+ T01=1000;T02=3000;T03=10900
R E A C ( H O I , H O 2 , HO31
+ H01=3.6524E+05; H02=1.-1059E+06; HO3=5.9663E+96
REAL ( H M I N , HMF.X)
+ HMIN=HOl;HMAX=8.Z946E+07
* Applied c u r r e n t , A
R E A L (ACUR) ;ACUR=100.
REAL (CCRD) ;CCRD=6.5 E + 0 7
* * D i m e n s i o n of calculation domain, m
+ Radial direction
REAL ( PAHNA , ELSHOA ,CFSHOA
+ PAHNA=l.SE-2;ELSHOA=l15E-3
+ CASHOA=A.CUR/ ( PItCCRD 1 ;CASHOA=SQRT (CASHOAI
* Axial direction
REAL (GHAD , ELGHF.D, GHOS 1
+ ELGHAD=3.1E-3;GHOS=220E-3;GHAD=ELGffAD+GHOS
REAL ( CATLAY, C A T F A L , ANOLAY
+ CATLAY=l.E-4;CATFOL=f.E-3;.4NOLAAi=I.E-4
+* Grid nunbers
Radial direct ion
INTEGER ( M Y , MYE, MYC1
+ Mtf=50;MYE=15;MYC=9
* A x i a l direction
TNTEGER (MZ,MZE)
+ M2=17;M?E=7
GROUP 1 . R u n title a n d other prelirninaries

T E X T ( G T A W , Ar, F . E . l . S i 4 , 2 . 0 , 1 0 0 . ( X )
GROUP S. Transience; time-step specification

STEADY =T
GROUP 3 . X-direction grid specification

CARTES = F
14X= 1
GROUP 4 . Y ( Radial 1 -direction grid speci f ication

Appendk III q l file, example 190
NY =MY
SUBGRD(Y, 1, W C , CASHOA, 1 . )
SUBGRD(Y, MYC+l, MYE, ELSHOA-CASHOA, 1.)
SUBGRD(Y, MYE+1, MY, PAHIJA-ELSHOA, 1.2)
GROUP 5 . ?(Axial)-direction g r i d specification

NZ=MZ
SUBGRD(Z, 1, MZE, ELGHAD, - 2 . )
SUBGRD(Z, MZE+l, MZE+3, S.*CATLAY, 1.1
SUBGRD(Z, MZE+4, MZE+7, CATFAL-S.*CATLAY, 1-15]
SUBGRD(Z, MZE+8, MZ-1, GHOS-(CATFAL+2.*ANOLAY),l.)
SUBGRD ( 2 , MZ, MZ, 2 . *P.EIOLAY,1.1
GROUP 7. Variables stored, solved t named

SOLUTN(Hl,Y,Y,Y,N,El,N);NAME(Hl)=EElTA
" use harmonic averaging for POTA
SOLUTN(Cl,Y,Y,Y,N,M,Y);NAME(Cl)=POTA
SOLUTN(PI,Y,Y,Y,N,N,N)
SOLUTN(Vl,Y,Y,N,N,N,N);NAME(Vl)=RVEL
SOLUTN(Wl,Y,Y,N,N,N,N);NAME('EJI)=AVEL
STORE(RHOl,TMPl,ENUL)
STORE(CSfC3,C4)
+ NAME ( C S )=RCR;NAME (C3)=RCZ;NAME ( C d ) =BTA
STORE(CS8C6,C7,C8)
+ NAME(C5) =COEiQ;NFME(C61=ELEQ;NAME(C7) =RADQ;EIFME(c8)=TOTQ
STORE ( C g 1
+ EIAME(C9) =NOOR
STORE(CIO,C11,ClS,C13,C14,C1S)
+ NAME ( C I O ) =DVIS;NAME (Cl11 =CP;NAME(C12)=EC
+ NPME(c13) = T H D F ; N . ~ M E ( C=~T~H)C O ; N A M E ( C ~=ELDF
~)
STORE(C25,C30)
+ NAME(c~~)=SHER;NFJIE(C~O)=ACD
STORE(C21,C22)
+ NAME(C~I)=EMFY;NME(C~~)=E~~FZ
GROUP 8.Terms (in differential equations) & devices

DENPCO=T
DIFCUT=O.O
TERMS(Pl,Y,Y,Y,N,Y,Y)
TERMS(RVEL,Y,Y,Y,N,Y,Y)
;TERMSIAVEL,Y,Y,Y,N,YIY)
TERMÇ(ENTA,N,Y,Y,N,Y,Y);TERMS(POTA,N,N,Y,N,N,N)
GROUP 9. Properties of the medium

TMPlzGRND; RHOl=GRND;ENULzGRM
PRNDTL ( ENTA) =-GRND; PRNDTL ( POTAI =-GRND
GROUP 11.Initialization of variable or porosity fields

* * Blocking the electrode domain
CONPOR(ELECT,ZERO,CELL,l,NX,l,MYE,1 , M S E )
* * Initial values
Appendix III q l file, example 191
IEIIADD=F
FI INIT ( Pl ) =ZERO; FI INIT (RVEL)=ZERO;F I I M I T (AVEL)=ZERO
FIINIT (TMP1) =TO3; F I IMIT (ENTA) =HO3 ;FI INIT ( POTA)= Z E R O
GROUP 13. Boundary conditions and special sources

* * * AB Boundary - Electrode current input
PATCH(CLWl,LXALL,1,NX,l,MYC,MZE+1,MZE+l,l,I)
COVAL (CLW1,ENTA, l.OE+O3,HO21
COVAL (CLW1,RVEL,l.OE+O3, ZERO)
PATCHtCATSA,LOW,l,NXI~8MYC,MZE+1,MZE+l,l,l~
COVAL ICATSA , POTA, FI XFLU ,GRND 1
C0VP.L (CATSA,ENTA, FIXFLU,G R N D )
* * * BC Boundary - Electrode surface
P~.TCH(CLW2,LWALL,1,~IX,M'~C+l,MYElM~E+l,MZE+l,~,~)
COVAL(CLW2,EMTA, 1 .OEiO3 ,HO21
COVAL (CLWS,RVEL,1.OE+O3,ZERO)
* * * CD Boundary - Electrode side wall
PATCH(CSW,SWALL,I,NX,MYE+l,FlYE+l,l,MZE,l,I)
COVAL(CSW,ENTA,1 . O E + O 3 , HO21
C O V A L ( C S K , A V E L , l.OE+r)3,ZERO)
* * * DE Boundary - Top inflow
PATCH(TOP,LOW,1,NX,M'fE+18b!Y, 1,1,1,1)
COVAL (TOP,Pl,1. E+O3* FIXP, ZERO)
COVAL (TOP,EMTA,ONLYMS,HO 1 1
COVAL(TOP,AVEL, 1.0,2-0)
* * * EF Boundary - Side inflow/outflow
PATCH(SIDE,NORTH,1,[JX,Mff,MY8 1,MZ, 1,I)
COVAL(SIDE,Pl,l.E+03*FIXP,7ERO)
COVAL(SLDE,ENTA,ONLYMS,HOl)
* * * FG Boundary - Xeld pool (anode)
PATCH ( APIBG,HWALL, 1,NX, 1,MY,MZ MZ, 1,l)
COVAL(ANBG, POTA,1.OE+03,ZERO)
COVAL (ANBG,RVEL,1 .O E + O 3 , ZERO)
PATCH(ANH,HICH,1,EIX,l,tIY,bI3,ML,l,l)
COVAL (A.I\IH, ENTA, F I X F L U , GRbID)
* * * HA Boundary - Symrnetry axis

phoenics default condition is symmetry conditions
* * SOURCE TERPliS
* * RVEL and AVEL sources due to Lorentz Force
PATCH(STERM,VOLWE,l,NX,1,MY,l,MZ,I,l)
COVAL(STERM,RVEL,FIXFLU,GRND);COVAL(STERM,AVEL,FIXFLU,GRND)
* * RVEL viscous source term = -2.*emu*v/r"2
PATCH (SVlVIS,VOLUME,1,EIX,1 ,MY-1,1,MZ81,l)
COVAL(SVIVIS,RVEL,CRNDISERO)
* * RVEL viscous stress terms
PATCH(WISTRS,VOLUME81 , NX, 1,MY-1,l,M7,1,1)
COVAL ( W I S T R 2 , RVEL,FTIXFLU,GRND)
Appendix III ql file, example 192
* * AVEL viscous stress terms

PATCH(r~ISTRS,VOLIIME,l,EIX11,W~,11M7-L,l,I)
COVAL ('ilrNISTRL,AVEL, FI:CFLU,GREID)
* * ENTA. radiation s i n k
PATCH(HRADIAT,VOLWE,l,FIX,L,M'i,l,MZ,l,l)
COVAL ( HRADIAT ,ENTA., GP.ND , ZERO 1
* * ENTA joule-heating source
PATCH(HJOULE,'/OLUME,l,NX,l,MY,I,MZ,l,1)
COVAL (HJOULE,ENTA,FIXFLU,GRPJD)
* * ENTA source due to electron drift
PATCH ( ELECOENS , SOUTH,1,EIX, 2,MY,1,MZ ,1, 1)
COVAL ( ELECOEIV S, ENTA,GRND ,GRND)
PATCH(ELECONVN,NORTH,l,NX,LIMY-1,1,M2,T,1 )
COVAL ( ELECOEMV,EEITA, GRND,GRND)
PATCH (ELECOETVL,LOV,1,NX, 1 ,MY,2 , M7,1,1)
COVAL ( ELECOENL,ENTA,SREID,GRND
P*TCH(ELECOEF/H,HIGH,l,EIX,1,MY,Lt~3-1,1,1)
COVAL ( ELECOWH,EbITA, GRND,GREID 1
GROUP 15. Termination of sweeps

LSXEEP=2500;LITER( POTA) = 2 S ; LITER (ENT-5
RESREF(PI)=l.E-8;RESREF(RVEL)=1.€-8;RESREF(AVEL)=l.E-Q
EESREF(ENTA)=l.E-2;REÇREF(POTA)=l.E-5
OVRRLX=1.7
GROUP 17. Under-relaxation devices

PATCH1RELXT, PHASEM, l,l~iXI I I M Y II,MZ, I l l )
CO71P.L (RELXT,RVEL,2. E + 0 3 , SAME)
COVAL (RELXT,Ai/EL, 2 . E+03 ,SAME)
COVAL ( R E L X T , POTA, 2 . E t O L , SAME)
RELAX(TMP1,LINRLX,0.01)
RELAX ( R H O I , LINkLX,O. 3 )
GEOUP 18. Limits on variables or increments to t h e m

VARM 1 N ( ENTA ) = KbI 1El ;' J A M 4 X ( EEITA 1 = HKaX
GROUP 19. Data communicated by satellite to GROUND

RG ( 1 ) =PI;RG ( 2 ) =ACUR; F.C ( 3 ) =APIOLAY
RG ( 4 1 =PAHNA;RG ( 5 } =ELSHOF.;RG ( 6 1 =CASHOA
RG(7)=GHAD;RG(8)=ELGHAD;RG(9)=GHOS
RG(1O)=TOl;RG(11)=TOî;RG(12)=T03
RG(l3)=HOl;RG(14)=H02;RG(1s)=H03
RG(l6)=CfMIN;RG(17)=HMAX;RG(18)=CCRD
GROUP 20. Prel irninary print-out

ECHO=F
GROUP 22. Spot value print-out

Appendix III ql file, example 193
GROUP 2 4 . Durnps f o r r e s t a r t s
STOP
Appendix IV ground-f file, example 194
G R O ~ D .FILE
F
In this appendix, as an example, the ground-f file for the argon shielded 100
A arc of 2.0 m m length in the GTAW process with the flat ûp electrode, is presented.
c F I L E NAME GROUND.FTN-------------------------------- 011093
SUBROUTINE GROUND
INCLUDE 'lpS/d-includ/satear'
INCLUDE 'lp2/d-includ/grdloc'
INCLUDE 'lpS/d-includ/grdearl
INCLUDE ' Lp2/d_includ/grdbfc '
C EQUIVALENCE ( 17, IZSTEP)
CXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX USER SECTION STARTS:
C
PARAMETER (NLG=20, NIG=20, NRG=100, NCG=10)
PARAMETER(MZ=17,MY=5OII0l=1,J1=5OIJ2=28)
C
DATA BK,ECH/1.38E-23,1.602E-I9/
COMMON/LGRND/LG(NLG)/IGRND/IG(NIG)/RGRND/RG(NRG)/CGRI4D/CG(NCG)
TXL=IABS ( I X L )
IF(IGR.YQ.1) GO TO 1
IF(IGR.EQ.9) GO TO 9
IF(IGR.EQ.13) GO TO 1 3
IF(IGR.EQ.19) GO TO 19
RETURN
C************t****t*********t******t******************************
c--- GROUP 1. Run title and other preliminaries
C*****************************************************************
1 GO TO (1001,1002),ISC
1001 CONTINUE
C
CALL MAKE ( DYG2 D l
CALL MAKE (DYV2 D 1
CALL MAKE ( R G S D )
CALL MAKE(RV2D)
C
Appendix IV gr0und.f file, example 195
IF (IGR.EQ. 1 .AND. ISC. EQ. 1 .AND. ,MOT. N U L L P R THEN

CALL h'RYT4O('GROUND file is GROUND-FTN of: 111093 ' 1
END1 F
C
RETWRli
1 0 0 2 CONTINUE
RETURN
C********************************1t******t***********t************
c - - - GROUP 9. Properties of the medium (or media)
C********+**************t**************************************t**
9 CONTINUE
C For TMP1 .LE.GE?ND--------- phase-1 temperature Index TEMPl

IF(ISC.EQ.101 THEN
LOHl =LOF (Hl1
LOTMP=LOF ( T E M P 1 )
DO 60000 IY=l,MY
ENT=F (LOHl+IY1
C A L L DAMA(ENT,TEM,101,J I )
F ( L O T M P + I Y )=TEM
60000 CONTINUE
RETURN
C * ------------------- SECTION 1 ----------------
C For RHO1.LE.GRND--- density for phase 1 Index DEN1
ELSE IF(ISC.EQ.1) THEN
LOTMP=LOF (TEMPI
LODEN=LOF(DENl)
DO 70000 IY=l,MY
TEM=F(LOTMP+IY)
CALL RHOAR(TEM,DENS,IOI,fl)
F ( LODEN+ IY)= D E W
30000 CONTINUE
RETURN
C * ------------------- SECTION 6 ---------------------------
C F o r EIJUL.LE.GRI.ID--- reference L a r n i n a r kinematic v i s c o s i t y
C Index ' J I S L
ELSE IF(ISC.EQ.6) THEN
LODEN=LOF ( D E N l )
LOVISL=LOF ( ' J I S L )
LODVIS=LOF ( C I O )
DO 9 0 0 0 0 I Y = l , M Y
TEM=F(LOTMP+IY)
CALL VISAR(TEM,VISVlIOl,J1)
F(LODVIS+IY)=VISV
F(LOVISL+TY)=VISV/F(LODEN+IY)
80000 CONTINUE
RETURI4
C * ------------------- SECTION 7 ---------------------------
C F o r PRNDTL ( 1 . L E . GRND--- l a r n i n a r PRANDTL n o s . , o r diffusivity
C I n d e x LAMPR
E L S E f F ( I S C . E G . 7 ) THEN
LODEN=LOF ( DEI41 1
LODIF=LOF (LAMPR)
IF(INDVAR.EQ.Hl1 THEN
LOC14=LOF ( C l 4
LOCP =LOF ( C l 1 )
LOC13=LOF (Cl31
CO 9 5 0 0 0 I ' f = I , MY
TEM=F f LOTMP+IY)
CALL TCAR (TEt4, TC'J, 101,JI
CALL CPAR (TEM, CP'/, 1 0 1 , JI i
F(LOCP+X'O =CPV
F (LOC14+IY)=TCV
F (LODIF+ IY) = T C V / ( C PVtF ( LODEN+ IY 1
F(LOC13+IYl = F ( L O D I F + I Y )
85000 CONTINUE
RETURN
END 1F
IF(INDVAR.EQ.Cl) THEN
LOEC=LOF ( C l Z )
LODPOT=LOF(C25)
DO 88000 1 Y = l , M Y
TEM=F ( LOTMPt [Y)
CALL ECAR(TEM, ECV, 1 0 1 , JI1
F ( L O E C + I Y ) =ECV
F ( L O D P O T + I Y ) =F(LOEC+IY) /F(LODEN+IY)
F ( LODIF+ IY 1 = F ( L O D P O T + I Y
88000 CONTIIJUE
R ETUR1.I
Appendk IV gr0und.f file, example 197
ENDI F
RETURN
ENDIF
RETURN
C**************tt*t*****t**tt*t******ft***t******************t****
c--- GRGUP 1 3 . Boundary conditions and special sources
C i n d e x for Coefficient - CO
C Index f o r V a l u e - :/AL
1 3 COI-ITIIJUE
IF(ISC.EQ.1) THEN
c------------------- SECTION 1 ------------- coefficient = G R N D
I F ( I N D V A R . E Q . V l 1 THEN
IF(NPATCH.EQ. 'SVIVIS') THEN
LORG=LOF ( RG2D)
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
LOVTSC=LOF ( C I O
[jr, 1 3 0 1 1 I T i = I Y F , I Y L
'!IS=F ! L O 1 l I S C + IY 1
F ( L O C O + T ' f ) = 2 . *'!IS, ( F ( L d R G + I ' i ) ' * Z + l . E-:O1
13011 CONTI!>IUE
END I F
ELSE I F ( 1 N D V A R . E Q . H l ) THEIi
IF ( NPhTCH . EQ . ' H R A D I A T ' 1 THEN
LOTMP=LOF ( T E l 4 P l )
LOHl=LOF ( H l 1
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
LORr?D=tOF ( C 9 1
DO 1 3 0 1 2 I Y = I P F , I Y L
TEM=F (LùTMP+IY1
CALL RADAh(TEM,AFUD, I O 1 , J Z )
F ( L O C ( > +I ' f ) f F ( L O H l + I l i +1.E - 2 0
F I LÙRAD+ 1';) =ARAD
13012 CONTTIJUE
E L S E 1F (NPATCH. EQ. ' E L E C O W ' 1 TWEN
COEFH=2.StBKIECH
LORCR=LOF ( C 2
LOCP=LOF ( C l 1 1
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
DO 13013 I Y = I Y F , I Y L
F (LOCO+ 11')' =COEFHfAMAXl I - F (LORCR+ I'i 1 , O . O 1 /
1 ( F ( L O C P + I Y )+ 1 . E - 2 0 )
13013 COtU'IIJUE
E L S E I F ( IJPATCH . EQ . ' ELECONVIJ ' 1 THEN
COEFH=S.5*BK/ECH
LORCR=LOF ( C S
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
LOCP=LOF ( C l 1 1
DO 1 3 0 1 4 I Y = I Y F , I Y L
F ( L O C O + I Y ) = C O E F H * A M A X l ( F I L O R C R + T Y + I ) , ~/ I
(FILOCP+IY)+1.E-20)
CONTINUE
ELSE I F (IJPATCH. EQ. ' ELECONVL ' 1 THEN

COEFH=2.SfBKiECH
LORCZ=LOF(C3)
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
LOCP=LOF (Cl1 )
DO 13015 IY=IYF,IYL
F ( L O C û + IY) =COEFHtAMAXl ( -F (LORCZ+I'i) , O . O 1 ;'
(F(L0CPtIY)t1.E-20)
13025 CONTI LIU E
E L S E 1F (NPATCI-1. EQ . ' ELECONVH ' THE14
COEFH=î.5'BK/ECH
LORCZH=LOF ( M I G H ( C 3 1 1
LOCO=LOF ( C O )
LOCP=LOF(Cll)
DO 13010 IY=IYF,IYL
F ( LOCOc IY) =COEFH*AMAXI ( F (LORCZH+IY 1 , 13 - 0 1 /'
L (F(LOCP+IY)+ l . E - 2 0 )
IF ( IIeIDVAR. EQ . H l THEN
1F!NPATCH.EQ.'HJOULE8) THEN
IF(ISWEEP.EQ.1) THEN
CALL FIJI ( 'JAL , O .O 1
ELSE
LORcR=LOF ( C 2 1
LORCI=LOF ( C 3
LODVY=LUF(DYVSD)
IF(I7.EQ.MI) THEM
LORCZH=LORCZ
ELSE
LORCZH=LOF (HIGH(C3 1
END1 F
LOEC=LOF(CZz)
LOVAL=LOF ( V A L
DO 13121 IY=I1fF,MY
fF(IY.EQ.MYI THEN
GRCRP=F (LORCR+IY)
ELSE
GRCRP=(F(LORCR+IYI * F A R Q l ( I Y )+ F ( L O R C h + I ' f + l l "FARQL ( I ï )1
/F(LODVY+IY)
END 1 F
1
GRC7P=(F(LORC7tIY)*FAZQl(IZ)+F(LORCZH+I'~)*FAZQZ(IZ)
/ DZ
IF(F(LOEC+IY).LT.l.E-10) THEN
F ( LOVAL+ IY I =O. O
ELSE
F ( L O V A L + I Y ) = (GRCRP*GRCRP+GRCZP*GRC3F) ,IF ( LOEC+ I ' i 1
END 1 F
13121 COEIT 1EJU E
ENDIF
E L S E 1 F (EIPATCH. E Q . ' ELECOENS ' 1 THEEI
CALL FM0 (VF.L, SOUTH ( H l 1
ELSE I F (NPATCH. EQ. ' ELECONVEI ' t THEEI
C A L L FNO ( V A L , NORTH ( H l 1
ELSE 1F (NP.A.TCH. EQ. ' E L E C O W L ' 1 THEN
CALL FNO ( :;AL, LOX ( H 1J
ELSE 1F (NPATCH. EQ. ' ELECONVH' I THEN
CALL FNO ( '/>.LI H I G H ( H I 1 1
E L S E IF (PIFATCH. EQ. ' A N H t1 THEN
LOVAL=LOF (VAL)
LOCONQ=LOF ( C S 1
LOhCZ=LOF ( C 3 1
DO I 1 r = I Y F , I Y L
CLJEDEN=-F ( L : J R C Z c I Y 1
ELE=CURDEN*Z. E-O6*.I. 3
F ( LO1;AL+ I'i 1 =- ( ( F I LOCONQ+ I Y ) +ELE I ) '1 . E+O 6
ENDGO
EtJD I F
ENDIF
TIEL=(F(LOV1+IY)+FiLOVI+IY-1))/2.
END1 F
A3 =PMAXl ( V E L , O . O 1
A4=(5.7633E-5*0.48672*A3/F(LORC+IY)l t t ( 1 - 5
F ( L O C O N Q + I Y ) = ( A l f A S f A 4 * ( F ( L O H l + I Y ) -HO11 ) "1 . E - O 6
13122 CONT T NUE
END 1F
C
I F (IJPATCH. E Q . ' S T E R M ' THE14
IF(ISWEEP.LE.L O O ) THEN
C A L L FtJl ( ' J A L , O . O 1
ELSE
I F ( I I J D V A R . E Q . V l ) THEN
LORCZ=LOF ( C 3 1
LOBTA=LOF ( C d )
L 0 E M F q i = L O F( C 2 1 )
LOVAL=LOF ( ' / A L )
1FIII.EQ.MZ) THEN
LORCZH=LORCZ
ELSE
L O R C X = L O F ( H I G H ( C ~1)
ENDIF
ENDLF
ENDIF
T E R M I = ( PAIN-BALA) / D Z
I F ( I Y . E Q . 1 ) THEN
SHEEB ( I'i) = F ( L O V l i I Y ) / F ( LODVY+IY)
END 1F
IF(IY.EQ.MY) THEN
' J I Ç C H = F ( LODVIS+IY)
SHIBCH=SHEEB ( IY
ELSE
VISCH=(F(LODVIS+IY)~FARQ~(IY+~)+F(LODVIS+IY+~~*
F A R Q l ( 1 Y ) /F(LODGY+IY)
S H I B C H = ( S H E E B ( I'{+l) *FP.RQl ( I Y )+ S H E E B ( I ' I ) 'F.4hQ2 ( I Y + l ) 1

/F(LODGY+IY)
EldG I F
I F ( f ' f . E Q . 1 ) THEN
'IISPA=F I LODVIS+ f Y
SHIBRA=O . O
ELSE
T~ISRA=(F(LODVIS+IY)*FARQ1 (IY-I)+F(LOD~fIS+(IY-1)*
FARQ2 ( IY) 1 / F ( L O D G Y + I T f - 1 )
S H I M R A = ( S H E E B ( I ' ~ ) + F A R Q ~ ( I Y - ~ ) + S H E E B ( I Y - I ) * € P( I.YR)Q1~
/F(LODGY+IY-11
END I F
CHAP=VISCH*ÇHIBCH*F(LORV+IY)
I F ( I Y . E Q . 1 ) THEN
W.ST=O. O
ELSE
F-A.ST=VISRA*SHIBRA*F (LORTf+I'f-I 1
EPJD 1F
TEFMS=(CHAP-RAST)/ ( F ( L O R G + I Y ) + F ( L O D ~ / ' f + I Y )1
F ( LOVAL+IY = T E R M I + T E R M ~
CONTIbIUE
EEID I F
ENDIF
I F (NPATCH. E Q . ' h V I S T R 2 ' ) THEN

L O D T f I S = L O F( C I O 1
L O D V I S L = L O F (LOW ( C l 0 1
LODVISH=LOF(HIGH (CIO) 1
LOI11 = L O F i '11
LOV1L=LOF(LOW(VZ)
L d W 1 = L O F ( h l1
LO'rilL=LOF(LO'N'(:N'1)
LOR1/=Li3F ( R 7 / S G )
L O R G = L O F i RGSD)
LODVY=LilF ( DYT/ZD1
LODGY=LOF ( G Y G S D )
LOVAL=LijF ( ' J A L )
DO 1 3 1 2 7 I q f = 1 Y F , M Y
I F ( I Z . E Q . 1 ) THEN
SHEE", (IY, 1 7 ) = 0 . O
ELSE
Ç H E E z ( I Y , TZ)= ( F ( L O W l + I Y ) - F ( L O W 1 L + ( I 7 f ) ) !DZ
EEID 1F
I F ( I 3 . E Q . l ) THEN
VISB=F(LODVIS+IY)
ELSE
V I S B = IF ( L O D V I S L + I Y ) F A b Q 2 ( I Z ) + F ( L O D V I S + ( I Y 1
1 * F A Z Q l ( 12-1 ) 1 / D Z G L
ENDIF
I F ( I Z . E Q . M 7 ) THEN
VISP=F ( LODVIScIY 1
Appertdix IV ground-f file, example 204
ENDIF
CHAP=V1SCH+SHIRCH*F(LORV+I7f)
IF(IY.EQ.1) T H E N
R4ST=O. O
ELSE
RAST=VISRA*SHIRRA*F(LORV+IY-1)
ENDIF
1 1
TERMî=(CHAP-RAST)/ (F(LODVY+IY)*F(LORG+I1f
F(LOVAL+IY)=TERMl+TERK
13127 COI,JT1EIU E
ENDI F
ENDIF
C
RETURN
C*****~***t******"******t*t"**"****ttt************t*************
c--- GROUP 19. Special c a l l s to GROUND €rom EARTH

19 G O TO (191,19S,193,194,195,196,297,198,199,1910),1SC
1 9 1 CONTINUE
c * ------------------- SECTION 1 ---- S t a r t of tirne s t e p .
CALL GETZ ( DIGN7, DG7 ,MZ
CALL G E T Z i DZ:2;147, DWZ ,MZ 1
CALL GETZ ( 3 G W , ZGZ, MZ
CALL GETZ ( 2hT17,ZWZ ,MZ
C
LORV =LOF ( R1f2D1
LORG =LOF (RG2D)
DO 19011 IY=l,MY
FARQ1 ( I Y )=F(LORV+IY)-F(LORG+IY)
IF(IY.EQ.1) THEN
FARQ2(IY)=F(LORG+IY)
ELSE
FARQ~(IY)=F(LORG+IY)-F(LORV+M)
END 1F
19011 CONT I NUE
C
DO 19012 IZ=l,MZ
FAZQl(I7)=ZWZ(IZ)-ZGZ(IZ)
IF(IZ.EQ.1) THEN
FASQZ ( 1 1 ) =ZGZ(I?)
ELSE
FAZQî(1I)=ZGZ(IZ)-ZWZ(Iz-l)
ENDIF
19012 CONTINUE
C
RETURN
192 CONTINUE
C " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SECTION 2 ---- Start of sweep.
RETURN
193 CONTINUE
c c ------------------- SECTION 3 ---- S t a r t of iz slab.
RETURN
1 9 4 CONTINUE
c " ------------------- SECTION 4 ---- S t a r t o f iterations over slab.
RETURM
1 9 9 CONTINUE
c e ------------------- SECTION 9 ---- S t a r t o f solution sequence for
C a variable
RETURN
1 9 1 0 CONTINUE
c ------------------- S E C T I O N IO---- Finish of solution sequence f o r
C a variable
RETURN
1 9 5 CONTINUE
c * ------------------- S E C T I O N 5 - - - - Finish o f itsrations over slab.
RETURN
196 CONTINUE
c * -------a-----------SECTION 6 ---- Finish of iz slab.
IF(INDVAR.EQ.9) THEN
LORC"LOF(C3 1
LORCZH=LOF(HIGH(C3)1
LORCR=LOF ( C S 1
LOBTA=LOF i C 4 1
LO D W = LO F ( DYVS D 1
LODGY=LOF ( D Y C Z D )
LORG=LOF (RCZD)
LOPOT = L O F ( C l I
LOPOTL=LOF(LOW(C1)
LDEC =LOF ( C l 2 1
LOECL =LOF ( L O W ( C 1 2 )1
LOTMP=LOF TLMPl
c calculate axial c u r r e n t density & self-induced magnetic field
BT=iI. i>
DO 1 9 0 6 1 I ï = I Y F , M Y
I F ( I Z . E Q . 1 ) THEN
GFCFJl=F ( LOEC+ IY 1
SHI P=O . ù
E L S E 1FrIZ.EQ.MZ) THEN
GEGAA=F ( LOEC+ IY 1
S H I P = - F ( L O P O T + I Y ) /ANOLAY
ELSE IF(IZ.NE.1.AND.IZ.NE.MI) THEN
GRCAM= ( F ( L O E C L + I Y 1 * FA7Q2 ( 17.1 +
F ( LOECtIY) *FAZQl( I Z - 1 ) 1 / D 7 G L
SHIP=(F(LOPOT+IY)-F(LOPOTL+lY))/D%GL
ENDIF
GRCIN=-CRGAM*SHI P
IF(F(LOTMPcIY).LE.4000.) GRCZN=O.O
I F ( IZ.L T . MIE+^) . A N D . I Y . L T . ( M Y E + I ) 1 GRCZI\I=O.O
I F ( 1 2 . E Q . M Z E + l . A N D . I Y . L E - M Y C ) GRCZI?=-ACUR/ ( PI*CASHOA**S)
F (LORCC+ I Y ) =GRCZN
I F ( 1 2 . E Q . M Z ) THEN
ZCUR=GRCZI.I
ELSE
ZCUR= (GRCZN*FAZQl (IZ)+ F (LORCZH+IY1 *FAZQZ (IZ)1 / G Z

END I F
BT=BT+ZCUR*F (LORG+IY)* F ( LODW+IY)
F(LCBTA+Iqf =PI*4 .E-7*BT/F(LORG+IY)
19061 COEJT1NUE
DO 19Q62 IY=l,MY
RADIO ( IY)= F (LORG+IY)
FASY (IY)= F (LODVY+IY)
19062 CONTIbIüE
IF(I7.EQ.MZ) THEN
IF(ISXEEP.GE. 1 .OR. IS'VVEEP.EQ. LSKEEP) THEM
CURSUM=O.O
DO 19903 IY=l,MY
AB=;. 'PI*F r LORCZ+IY) *FADIO( I'i *F?.Sqf( 1.1')
CURSülI=CURSüM+AB
19063 COEIT IIW E
ENDIF
ENDI F
c calculate radial current density
c z e r o current on a x i s
F(LORCR+Z) = O . O
DO 19054 IY=IYF+l,MY
GRCFJi= (F(LOEC+IY-1)*FARQ2 (IY)+
1 FILOEC+IY)*FARQl(IY-1)1 ,'F(LC)DG'i+I'i-'1)
GRCR4=-GRG;?M* (F(LOPOT+IY)-F(LOPOT+IY-1) 1;
1 F (LODGY+IY-1i
IF ( F (LOTMP+IY) . LE. 4 0 0 GRCRM=O. O
I F ( I ~ L T . ( M Z E + l ) . A N D . I Y . L T . ( M Y E + î I ) GRCRl*I=F(LORCR+IY-1)
F (LORCR+ ZY =GRCRM
19064 CONTIIWE
ENDIF
IF(ISWEEP.EQ.LSWEEP.PFbIDDI2.EQ.MZ) THEN
L O V 1 =LOF ( ' d l
LODVIS=LOF ( C l 01
LORCZ=LOF ( C 3
LORG=LOF ( RG2D)
LODVY=LOF ( D Y V 2 D )
LOSH=LOF ! C 2 S 1
LûACD=LOF ( C 3 O )
LOCONQ=LOF ( C 5 )
LOELEQ=LOF ( C o 1
LORADQ=LOF (C7)
LOTOTQ=LOF ( C 8
FASSHAD-3GZ (M31
DO 19065 IY=I,MY
TF(IY.EQ.1) THEN
VELO=F(LOVl+IY) 1 ' 2 .
ELSE
VELO=(F(LOV~+IY)+F(LOV~+IY-11)/2-
END 1 F
V I S O = F ( LODVZS+I1i)
T T V A L = F ( LOTMP+IqY)
TFILM= ~TTVAL+lOOO. / 2
CUF.DEFI=-F ( LORCZ+IrY 1
F ( L O R A D Q + I Y ) = T A B E S H ( IY1 *1. € - O 6
F(LOELEQ+IY)=CURDENt1.E-6t(443+34~03tBK
1 * T F I L M / ECH)
F ( L G T O T Q + I ' ~ )= F ( L O E L E Q + I Y ) + F ( L O C O N Q + I Y ) + F ( L O P . A D Q + I ' l )
F(LOSH+IY)=VISO+VELO/FAS
F(LOACD+IY)=-F(LORC~+TY)*~.E-O~
19065 C O N T 1 NUE
ENDIF
C
LOMD=LOF ( C 91
DO 19066 I'f=L,MY
AFTAB(TY, 1x1 =F(LOhAD+TY)
19066 CONTINUE
c
ERTEFA ( 131 =GHAD-ZGZ IZ1
FASZ ( 1 2 ) =D7
C
RETURkI
1 97 CONT 1 NUE
c * ------------------- SECTION 7 ---- Finish cf sweep.
DO 1 9 0 7 1 J Z Z = l , M S
L O C l = L O F (ANv{=( C l , J73))
LOTMP=LOF t MII'fZ ( TEPIIP1 ,J 3 Z 1 1
DO 1 9 0 7 1 J Y 7 f = 1 , MY
I F ( F ( L O T M P + J 1 i Y ) .LE..IOOO. 1 F ( L O C ~ + J Y Y ) = O . ( )
1 9 0 7 1 CONTINUE
DAGH=O . O
DO 1 9 0 7 2 J32=1,MZ
LOTMP=LOF (AFIYI (TEMPI ,J Z Z )
G T C L = F (LOTMP+ 1 )
DAGH=FJiL?..XI ( G T C L DAGH
1 9 0 7 2 CONTINUE
L O T M ~ L O(ANYZ
F t TEMPL ,~3Ec2
GARM=F ( L O T M P c l )
C
FAST=O . O
LOV=LOF (ANYI( V I , M 7 ) 1
DO J Y Y = l , M Y
VEL=ABS ( F ( L O V + J Y Y 1 1
FAST=AEL4Xl( FAST,V E L 1
ENDDO
I F ( ISKEEP. EQ. L S X E E P ) THEbJ

GWlMAX=O. 0
DO 1 9 0 7 3 J Z Z = L r M 7
LOWI=LOF(ANYZ(XI,J Z 7 )
GWlMF.X=AMAXI (GWCL, GWlt4AjO

19073 CONTIWE
C
LO P l = L o F (AIJYZ ( Pl, M X 1
CPANOD=F(LOPI+l)
LOPf=LOF(ANY3( P l , M Z E + I )
GPCATH=F ( L O P 2 t l )
C
LOPOT=L(lF ( A N Y Z(Cl,MLE+11 1
LOEC=LOF(AI~JYI(ClS,MLE+L)
DELPHI=-CATCD*DGZ(MZE+l)iF(LOEC+l)
GVARC=F(LOPOT+l)+DELPHI
CALL GETSOR('CATSA',HI,GHSORJ
CALL GETSCR('CATSA',CI,CPSOR)
LOT=LiJF (.ANY? ( C a , M Y 1
LOR=LOF ( A I W Z ( C 7 , M 2 )
LOE=LOF (.AFJ'fT ( C 6 , MC 1
LOC=LOF ( AldYZ i C S , M 2 i 1
TOTHEAT=O . O
RADHEA r=O . O
ELEHEAC=O . O
CONHEAT=O. O
DO 1 9 0 7 4 I Y Y = 1 , M Y
TOTQT=F ( LOT+ IYY) *1.E6
hADQT=F ( L O R + I Y ' t ' 2 . E6
ELEQT=F ( L O E + I ' t Y ) *1. E 6
CONQT=F ( LOCc I Y Y 1 '1 . E 6
DSATH=S.*PI'RADIO ( IYY 1 *FF.SY (IYY)
TOTHEAT=T(1'rHEAT+TciTQrï' DSATH
RADHE3T=RADHEAT+RADQTfDSATH
ELEHEF.T=ELEHEhT+ELEQT*DSATH
COt\lHEAT=COt~IHEAT+CONQTfDSATH
29074 CONTINUE
TOTPOWER=ACURfGVOLT
E F F I C A B S (TOTHEAT*lOO/'TOTPOWER)
RADPERC=RADHEATfIO0 /TOTHEAT
ELEPERC=ELEWEAT*lOO/TOTHEAT
COWPERC=CONHEAT'100 /TOTHEAT
CALL XRITSR ( ' TMAX ' , DAGH, ' TANOD ' , XANTM)
19077 CONTINUE
19076 CONTINUE
TABESH ( IYI i =T?.BID
l'AB1 D=O . O
1 9 9 7 5 CONTIIJUE
c
RETURN
1 9 8 CONTI PJUE
C * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SECTION 8 ---- F i n i s h of time step.
SUBROUT II!IE ARGON

DIMENSION RHOTPB ( 5 0 , VISTA0 ( 5 0 1 , TCTAB ( 5 0
DfMENSION ECT.A.BtSO) ,CPTAB(SO)
C
L" - - - - - - - DENS I TY
DATA RHOTAB
1 j9.7353E-01, 9.7353E-(31, 4.8672E-01, 3.2450E-01, 2.4338E-01,
2 1.9471E-01, 1.6226E-01, 1- 3 9 0 8 E - 0 1 , 1.2170E-01, 1.0818E-01,
3 9.736lE-02, 8.8510E-02, 8.1133E-02, 7.4888E-02, 6.9527E-02,
4 6.4865E-02, 6.0757E-02, 5.7083E-02, 5.3740E-02, 5.0639E-OS,
5 4.7696e-02, 4.4838E-02, 4.S003E-02, 3.9145E-02, 3.6243E-02,
6 3.3310E-02, 3.0387E-02, S.7556E-02, 2.4906E-02, 2.2539E-02,
7 2.0510E-02, 1.8133SE-OS, 1.7477E-Of, 1.639fE-02, 1.5516E-OS,
8 1.4795E-02, 1.4187E-02, 1.3660E-02, 1.320iE-02, 1.2775E-02,
9 2.2369E-02, 1.1977E-02, 1.1590E-02, 1.12!11E-02, '1.0802E-OS.
+ 1.039SE-02, 9.9693E-03, 9.5460E-03, 9.1103E-03, 9.1103E-03/
Appendix IV gr0und.f file, example 21 0
c - - - - - - -V I S C O S TTY
DATA V I S T A B
I / 3 - 4 S t J E - 0 5 , 3.4224E-OS, 5.7633E-05, 7 -3960E-05, 8.9715E-05,
2 1 .O5LlE-O4, 1.1987E-04, L .3389E-04, 1- 4 7 1 S E - 0 4 , 1.5972E-04,
3 1.7169E-04, 1.8314E-04, 1.9415E-04, 2.04dlE-04, 2.1527E-OJ,
4 2.25S9e-04, 2.3518E-04, 2.4480E-04, S.540LE-04, 2.6252E-04,
5 2-6965E-04, ï.7431E-04, f.7489E-04, 2.6947E-04, 2.5043E-04,
6 2.3552E-04, S.0811E-04, L.7748e-04, 1.4715E-04, 1.S038E-04,
7 9.8656E-05, 8.2258E-05, 7.0625E-05, 6.Sd38E-05, 5.7957E-05,
3 5.5177E-05, 5.3865E-05, 5.3537E-05, 5.4238E-05, 5.4779E-05,
9 5.5304E-05, 5.5537E-05, 5 . S219E-05, 5.4140E-65, 5.2186E-OS,
+ 4.938LE-05, 4.5896E-05, 4.2296E-05, 3.825OE-95, 3.825OE-OS/
- -
c - - - - - THERM3.L CONDUCTIVITY
DATA TCTAB
1 /2.6712E-OS, 2.6712E-OS, 4.4982E-OS, 5 . 7 Ï L 5 E - 0 2 , 7.00SSE-02,
2 8 .;O38E-OîI 9.3561E-02, 1.0458E-01, 1 . Z682E-OLt 1 . 4 6 3 9 E - 0 1 ,
3 2.8105E-01, 1.437RE-01, 1 -5J94E-01, 1.7il12E-01, 1 . 3 1 9 8 E - 0 1 ,
4 2.2278E-01, î.6555E-01, 3 -2480E-01, 4 .OSlSE-01, 5.105ZE-01,
5 6 .-l-l28E-OlI 8 . 0 7 5 9 E - 0 1 , 1.0023E+00, l . L ; l ~ E + O ~ l ,L . 4 6 5 0 E + 0 0 ,
O l.7239E+OO, 1 .97S2E+00r 2.1970E+00, 2.3633E+00, S.46ZSE+00,
7 2.4899E+00, 2.4671Etd0, 2.4262E+00r 2.3958E+00, 2.3920E+0Ut
3 2.4197E+00, 2.4767E+00, 2.5582E+0O1 2.65d4E+00, 2.7740E+001
9 2.9003E+00, 3.0350Et00, 3.1747E+00, 3.3L73E+0OI 3.4610E+0OI
+ 3 . 6 0 4 4 E + 0 0 , 3.74613E+d0, 3.8895E100, 4 .0294E+O(j, -1.OS94E+OO/
c - - - - - - - S P E C I F l C HE>-T
DATA clPT.4B
1 !5. 2 0 3 3 E ~ O 2 , 5 . 2 0 3 3 E + 0 2 , S . 2041E+02, 5.2036E+02, 5 .S034E+02,
2 5 .;033E+OL, 5 . 2 O 3 3 E + 0 î r 5 .2033E+OS, 5.2033E+92, 5 .S034E+02,
3 5.2(345E+02, 5.2095E+OSI 5 . LS76Et02, 5.2801E+02, 5 . .CO9lE+OZ,
4 5.6859EtO2, 6. C 1 3 3 E + 0 2 , 7.t51SE+OSI 8.&'dSE+OS, 1.1027E+03,
5 1 . 4 5 7 7 E c 0 3 , 1. 3-169Ec03, 2.60H7E+03, 3.3854Et03, 4.3?4SE+U3,
6 5.7430E403, :.0625E+03, Y -3336Ec03, 9.CRQHE+03, 9.7118E+O3,
7 9.4447E+03, 3.5005E+03, 7.3119E+03, 5.9933Et03, 4 . d178E+03,
i3 3 . 8 8 4 6 E c 0 3 , 3 . 2 1 1 1 E + 0 3 , 2.7777E+03, .Z.3449E+03, 2 . S358E+O3,
9 2 . 7 1 1 6 E + 0 3 , 3 . i3901E+03, 3.6837E+O3, 4.4994E+(33, 5.5275E+(13,
+ 6 . 7309€+03, ;3.0393E+03, 9.3495EcO3, 1.0553E+0-1, 1.0553E+C)4/
- -
c - - - - - ELECTRliAL COI4DUCTf I T Y
DATA ECT.3-B
1 /3.0784E-23, 3.0784E-23, 3.9216E-23, 1. Ï 5 7 5 E - L B , 1.6592E-11,
2 2.3956E-07, 5.4577E-05, 2.9073E-03, 0.2R85E-OS, 7.1816E-01,
3 5.L61SE+00, 2 . 3 6 4 6 E + 0 l I 7.6821E+01, L,8290E+O2, 3.5808E+02,
4 6.2440E+0S1 9.9034Ec02, 1.4378Ei-03, 1.9358E+03, 2.4584E+03,
5 2.9900E+03, 3.5S31E+03, 4.0544E+03, 4.582SE+03, 5.1049E+03,
6 5.6199E+03, 6.1243E+03, 6.6134E+03, 7.0844E+03, 7.5322E+03,
7 7.9561E+03, 8.3565E+03, 8.7361E+03, 9.0985€+03, 9.4470E+03,
8 9.7843E+03, I.OlllE+04, 1.0428E+04, 1.0728E+04, 1.1014E+04,
9 1.1275E+O4, 1.15OSE+04, 1.1687E+04, 1.1819E+04, 1.1893E+04,
+ L.l91SE+04, 1.1882E+04, 1.1813E+04, 1.1735E+04, 1.1735E+04/
C
ENTRY RHOAP (TEM , DESV , 1I JJ)
CALL JOST(TEM,DESV,RHOTAB,1, JI
RETURN
C
ENTRY VTSAF(TEM,'JISV, I I , J J )
CALL JOST(TEM,';IS'J,'IISTA.B,1, JI
RETrJP.N
C
ENTRY TCAR(TEM,TC'/, I I , JJ;
CALL J O S T ( TEM, TCV, TCTAB, T,J 1
RETURN
C
ENTRY CPAR (TEM, C P V , I I , 3 3 )
CALL JOST ( TEM, C PV ,C PTAB, 1, J
RETURN
C
EEITRY ECAh ( TEM, EC'J , 11, JJ
CP-LL 30ST ( TEM, EC'I , ECTAB, 1, J
RETUREI
END
C*~**+*++**tt+*+r******tf~tt*********X*t*X****t*+***************
SUBROUT I M E J O S T ( TEM, VALUE, YTAB? JBOT , JTOP
DIMENSION YTAB(5O) ,TTAB(501
TEMPEFS-TURE
DATA TTAB
1 / l .e-20, 500, 1000., 1500. , 2000. ,
2 2500., 3(300., 3500., -1000.. 4500.,
3 5OOO. , 5 . O . , 6500. , ~ 0 0 0 ,.
4 7500., 0 0 , SSOfl., 9000., 9500.,
5 O , L O O . , Lli300. , 1 1 5 0 0 . , L Z O O O . ,
6 12500., 13000., 3 S O O 14000., 1450O.,
7 15000., 15500., 16OùO., 16500., 17000. ,
8 17500., L O O . 18500., 19000., 195OO.,
9 ïC30(>0., 2 0 5 ~ > 0 . , l O O . , 21500., 22000.,
+ 225OO. , O , 235OO. , î4OOO. , 1 . e;O/
JBOT= 1
JTOP=LSO
10 J = ( J T O P + J B O T )) 2
IF(TEM.LT.TT>-B(J)
1 THEN
JTOP=J
ELSE
JBOT=J
END1 F
f F ( J T 0 P - J B O T . E i E . 1 ) GO TO 1 0
VALUE=YTAB(JBOT)+(YTAB(JTOP)
- Y T A B ( J B O T ) ) *(TEM-T'TAB(JBOT1 1 /
L ( T T A B ( J T O P ) -TTAB ( JBOT) 1
RETURN
END
C*****t**+*********t*r*********************~***************+****
SUBROUT I N E DARAJEH
D I M E N S I O N TThB(Sd1
DATA TTRB
L/ ÇOO., SUO., lOOO., 1500.,
2 2500. , 3O('iO. , 3SOO., 4000..
3 5 0 , 5 0 0 0000.~ 0500.~
4 7500., 8000., i3500., 9000.,
5 10000., 1 0 5 0 0 . , LlOOO., L1500.,
6 12500., 13000., 13500., 14000.,
7 15000., 15500., 16000., 16500.,
3 17500., 18000., 18500,, 19000.,
9 20000., Z0500., 21000., 21500.,
+ 22500., S3iiOO., ;3500., 24000.,
C
ENTRY DAMA (EEIT, TEM, I I , J J )
C A L L GARD ( E N T , TEM, TTAB, 1 , JI
RETUREJ
END
SUBROUT 1 PIE EEITIlAL P'iI

DIMENS TOP1 ENT.3.B ( 5 0
c------- EFITHALPY
DATA EPiTAE3
L /1 .O499E+OS, 1.0499E+05, 3.0524E+05, 6 .îS42E+05, 8.8559E+0Çr
2 1.145dEcÙ8, 1.4059E+06, 1.6661Et06, 1.92b3E+O6, î . 1864E+06,
3 ;.446aEtOS, 2.7070E+06, 2.4679E+06, 3.2307E+06, 3.4981E+06,
4 3.7761EcO6, 4.0750E+06, 4.41îOE+06, 4.8127E+06, 5.3141E+O6,
5 5 -9603E+ilb, o . d323E+06, 7.9937E+06, 9.53Z6E+06, 1.1558E+07,
6 1-4176E+O7, L. 7-4SlEt07, S . 1341E+07, 2.5777EttI7, 3 .0575E+07,
7 3.5379E+07, 3.9856E+07, 4.3770E+07, 4 . ;lISSE+07, 4.9664E+07,
8 5 - 17YLE+07, 5 . 3 5 2 3 E + 0 Ï 1 5.4979E+07, 5.6273Et07, 5.7537E+07,
9 5.8849E+07, 8.0310E+07, 6.2025E+07, O. JlOZEtO7, 8.6053E+07,
+ 6.9771E+07, 7.3527E+07, 7.7903Et07, 1.S948E+0iI â .2946E+07/
(3
EE1TP.Y GARMP. ( TEM, ENT, 1 1, JJ 1
CALL SOAL ( TEM, ENT , Ei.JTA.8, 1 , 3 1
RETURN
END
C*********tt****t*tt******t***f******************************t**
SUBROUT INE SOAL ( TEM ,'JALUE , ENTA6 , JBOT,JTOP 1
DATA TTAB
-1 /
L
500.,
2500.,
500.,
3000.,
1000.,
3SOO.,
1500.,
4000.,
200ù.,
4500.,
3 5000., 5500., 6000., 6500., 7000..
4 7500., 8000., 8500., 9000., 9500.,
5 10000., 10500., 11000., 11500., 12000.,
6 1 2 5 0 0 . , 1 3 0 0 0 . , 1 3 5 0 0 . , 1 4 0 0 0 . , 1450O.,
7 1 5 0 0 0 . , 1 5 5 0 0 . , 1 6 0 0 0 . , 1 6 5 0 0 . , 17000.,
8 1 7 5 0 0 . , l8OOO., 1 8 5 0 0 . , 1 9 0 0 0 . , 1 9 5 0 0 . ,
9 2 0 0 0 0 . . 2 0 5 0 0 . , î l O O O . , LlSOO., 2 2 0 0 0 . ,
+ 22500., 2 3 0 ( ! 0 . , S3500., 24000., 24000./
C
JTOP=50
JBOT= 1
100 J=(JTOP+JBOT)iS
IF(TEM.LT.TT.WIJ)) THEN
JTOP=J
ELSE
JBOT=J
ENDI F
IF(JTOP-JBOT.NE.1) GO TO 100
'/ALUE=ENT.A.B ( J B O T ) + ( EI.IT.4B ( J T O P ) -ENTAI3 ( J B O T i " ( TEM-TTAB ( J B O T )
1 I/(TTAB(JTOP)-TTXB(2BOT)i
RETURN
END
Ctt***t***+*t********t*Ct*t**t***tt*****************************
SUBROUTII4E GAiID(EIJT,'J.ALUE,TT.~.B~JBOT,J T O P )
D I M E N S I O N TTAB ( 50 1 , ENTA-6 ( 5 0
DF-TA EîJTAB
1 / 1 . 0 0 0 0 E - ~ ~ 1, . 0 4 9 9 E + 0 S 1 3 . 6 5 2 4 € + 0 5 , 6 . 2 5 4 2 E + \ 2 S I 8 . 8 5 5 9 E + 0 5 ,
2 l . l 4 S 8 E + O 6 , 1 . J 0 5 9 E + 0 6 , 1 . 6 6 6 1 E c 0 6 , 1 . 3 2 6 3 E + n 6 , 2.2864E+06,
3 î . . 1 4 6 0 E + 0 6 , 2 . ÏO70E+O6, 2 . 9 6 7 9 E + 0 6 , 3 . 2 3 0 Ï E t 0 6 , 3 . .1982E+06,
4 3.7761E+0G1 -l.O750E+06, 4.41SOE+06, 4 . 8 1 2 Ï E c 0 6 , S.3241E+06,
S 5.9663E+06, 0.3323E+06, '7.9937€+06, 9.5326Ec06, 1.1558E+07,
6 I . 4 E o E + O 7 , L.74SlE+O7, 2 . 1 3 4 2 E + 0 7 , 2 . 5 7 7 7 E c 0 7 , 3 . 0 5 7 5 E + 0 7 ,
7 3 . 5379E+Oi, 3.9858EcO7, 4 . 3 7 7 0 E + 0 7 , 4 . 70St3Et07, 4.9664E+r)7,
8 5 . L ï 8 2 E + O I , 5 . 3 5 1 3 E + 0 7 , 5.4979E+r)7, S . 6 2 7 3 E t 0 7 , 5.7537E+(37,
9 S . YH4?E+07, 6 . 0 3 1 0 E + 0 7 , 6 .SOSSE+07, 6 . - 4 1 0 2 E t 0 7 , a . 6 6 5 3 E + 0 7 ,
+ 6 . 9 7 7 1 E t 0 7 , 7 . 3 5 2 7 E t 0 7 , 7 . 7 9 ( 1 3 E + 0 7 , 8.2946Et07, l.Oi)l)OE+20/
C
JTOP=50
JBOT= 1
100 J = ( J T O P t J B O T ), S
KF(EI\IT.Lr.ElJT.r?B(J)1 THEIJ
JTOP=J
ELSE
JBOT=J
END 1 F
IF(JT0P-JBOT.[JE.1 ) GOTG L O O
VALUE=TTAB ( J B O T 1 + ( T T A B ( J T O P -TTAB ( J B O T '( €147'- ENTAI3 ( J B O T 1
1 / ( E I \ I T A B ( J T O P )-EI\ITA.B(JBOT) )
RETURN
END
IV
SUBROUTINE RADP-RGOIJ
DIMENSION RADTAB ( S 8 )
C
c - - - - - - - RADLbTIOI\I
DATA RADTAB
1 / O . O O e c ) O , O . OOeOO, 0 .(3Oe(30, 0 . 0 0 e 0 0 , 0 . 0 0 e 0 0 , O . OOe00, 0.00e00,
2 0 . 0 0 e 0 0 , 8 . 0 0 e 0 6 , 1 . 8 0 e 0 7 , 4.50e07, 2 . S8e08, 3.70e08, 8.80e08,
3 2.26e09, 3 . 3 7 e 0 9 , 4 . 6 5 e 0 9 , 5.40e09, 5 . 5 3 e 0 9 , 5.91e09, 6.54~209,
Appendix IV ground-f file,example 214
4 8.17e09, 1.01e10, 1.19e10, 1.26e10, 1.32e10, 1.35e10, l.E20/

C
ENTRY RADAR (TEM,RADV, I I , JJ)
CALL JOSTRAD ( TEM , RADV ,RADTAB , i , J 1
RETURN
C
END
P
SUBROUTINE JOSTRAD(TEM,VALUE,YTAB,JBOT,JTOP)
DIMENSION YTAB(28),TTAB(28)
c------ TEMPERATURE
DATA TTAB
1 /l.e-20, SOO., 1000., 2000., 3000., 4000., SOOO.,
2 6000., 7000., 8000., 9000., lOOOO., 11000., 12000.,
3 13000., 14000., 15000., 16000-, 1 7 0 0 0 . , 18000., 19000,,
4 20000., 21000., 22000., 23000., 2 4 0 0 0 . , 25000., l.eZO/
JBOT=l
JTOP=28
10 J = (JTOP+JBOT}/ S
IF(TEM.LT.TTAB(J)) THEM
JTOP=J
ELSE
JBOT=J
ENDIF
IF(JT0P-JBOT.NE.l) GO TO 1 0
VALUE=YTAB ( JBOT) + (YTAB(JTOP)-YTAB ( JBOT) ) **(TEM-TTAB(JBOT) } /
1 (TTAB(JTOP1-TTAB(JB0T))
RETURN
END
IMAGE NALUATION
TEST TARGET (QA-3)
APPLIED - IMAGE. lnc

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Mathematical Modelling of GTAW and GMAW

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Mathematical Modelling of GTAW and GMAW

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Mathematical Modelling of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

(GTAW) and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Processes

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirernents

@ Copyright by Massoud Goodarzi 1997

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du

Master ol the Day ol ~udgmcnt.(4)

ior help. (5)

The p t h of those on whom THOU hast lestowed THY La-

who have not gone sçtray. (7)

Mathematical h,fodelling of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and

Doctor of Philosophy, 1997

Depanment of Metallwgy and Materids Science

Withciut them, I would not be here today.

3.2 hd0DEL DESCRIPTION 70

5.3 GOVERNINGEQIJATIONS AND BOWDARY CONDITIONS 134

Table 3- 1: Boundary Conditions.

Table ;!-3: The Corresponding Qumtities for the Different Conservation

Table 5- 1: Boundary Conditions.

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the GTAW process.

rent. Numbers are applied current in A.

Figure 3.18 Variation of a: maximum anode current density, and b: maximum

Figure 5.1 Schema~icof the welding arc (GMAW). 133

the cathode plate in comparison with the experirnental data [ l Il. I

A~ Currcnt cross section near cathode [m-'1

Bo Azimutai component of magnetic field [Tl

C~ Specific heat at constant pressure [J.(kg.K)-II

G~ Generation o f turbulent energy [kg.(m.s3)-'1

Hf Latent heat of fusion of the metai [J.kgl]

I. Total current in die rlecuode at slab j [ A ]

Ij, arc Total current in the arc at slab j [AI

Jc Cathode current density [~.rn-'1

K Turbulent kine tic energy [m2.s2]

Anode heat due to electrons w]

Calcula tion domain radius [m 1

T m. wp Melting point of the workpiece materiai [KI

Tr Reference temperature [ 1523 K]

Ts Solidus temperature of AISI 304 stainless steel [ 1523 KI

vc Cathode faIl voltage [VI

"s Activity of sulfur [-wt% S]

*e Elcctrodt: diameter [mj

l Liquid fraction [-j

hr Enthalpy of the gas at Te [J.kgl]

1 Entropy Factor in y equation [0.00318 (wt%)-'1

k, Boltzmann constant [1.38x J.K1]

keff Eflcctive thermal conductivity [W.(rn. K)"]

qa Total anode heat flux [ ~ . m - ' ]

9, Anode heat flux due to convection and conduction [ ~ . r n - ' l

9, Anode hrat tlux due to electrons [W-rn-']

qr Anode heat flux due to radiation [ ~ . r n - ' !

r Radial coordinate, Radial distance [rn]

rt Radius of current conducting zone [ml

u Axial velocity [ms-'1

General çonserved property [-1

Work function of the anode matenal [VI

Permeability of free space [Jirx lW7 NA-?]

Dummy function [ml

Gas density at Te [ko_.mb31

Gas density at Tw [kg.m-31

Elccuode electrical conductivity at slab j [S.m-']

Shear stress due to surface tension [ ~ . r n - ? ]

1.1 GAs TUNGSTEN A R C WELDWG (GTAW)

GTAW is a welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten (nonconsum-

Shielding gas inlet

Figure 1.1 Schrmatic diagram of the GTAW process.