INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY b. Anglo – American Philosophy (U.S.

OF THE HUMAN PERSON and U.K.)

1. Doing Philosophy 2.) Eastern Philosophy
2. Method of Philosophizing a. Chinese Philosophy (Meng Jia)
3. The Human Person in their Environment b. Indian Philosophy (Nyaya School)
4. Freedom of the Human Person
5. Intersubjectivity PERIOD ATTITUDE BEING-
IN- PROPONENTS
6. Human Person in Society CONTEXT
Early Scientists:
7. Human Persons as Oriented Towards 1.) Pre-Socratic (Milesians,
their Impending Death Ancient Cosmocentric World Ionians, Eleatics, Atomists)
2.) Socratic (Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle)
Blind Men and the Elephant Fathers of the Church:

 American poet John Godfrey Saxe

- Saint Ambrose
- St. Anselm
(1816-1887) based this poem, on a fable Medieval Theocentric God - St. Thomas Aquinas
- St. Bonaventure
that was told in India many years ago. It - Theresa of Avila
- John of the Cross
is a good warning about how our Rene Descartes:
sensory perceptions can lead to Cogito Ergo Sum
1.) Rationalist
misinterpretations. Descartes
Leibniz
Modern Anthropocentric Man Espinoza
Aristotle, “All men naturally desire to know.” 2.) Empercists
Locke
Berkeley
PHILOSOPHY Hume
Hobbes
1.) Etymological 1.) Charles Sanders Peirce
PHILO – love / charity 2.) Ludwig Wittenstein
SOPHIA – wisdom Contemporary Dialogical Narratives 3.) Ferdinand de Saussure

Philosophy means “love of wisdom.”

2.) Real Definition
PHILOSOPHY – the science of things
by their ultimate principles and causes,
as known by natural reason alone.
a. As science
 Deals with methods and processes
where the mind is the laboratory
b. Of things
 Material and non-material beings
c. Ultimate causes / principles
 Origin and beginning of all things
d. Human reason
 Attains knowledge by the use of the
principles of natural reason
WHAT IS FALLACY?
I. Nominal Definition
Nt: from fallo meaning “I deceive;” therefore a
deceptive judgement, i.e., an argument THAT
SEEMS TO BE CORRECT BUT IS
ACTUALLY INCORRECT.
II. Real Definition
 A mistake in reasoning or a logical
defective / faulty argument that is
capable of misleading people into
thinking that it is logically correct, the
motive being to persuade but falsely i.e.,
illegitimately.

CRITERIA FOR LEGITIMATELY

TWO APPROACHES IN STUDYING
PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT
PHILOSOPHY
Criteria Terms Used for
1.) Historical – involves time and place
Success in Satisfying
2.) Thematic – the prevailing thoughts in
1. Structural Design Validity
different epochs and cultures
2. Foundation Truth of Premises
1.) Western Philosophy 3. Convincing (Legitimate)
a. Continental Philosophy (Europe) Audience Persuasiveness
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION
Formal Fallacies
- mistakes in deductive reasoning since
they violate the formal principles (rules) of
deductive reasoning
Informal Fallacies
- involve false assumptions, misuse of
language, violations of the principles of charity,
and other practices that fail to meet the standards
of good reasoning.
Existential Fallacy
 A particular conclusion is drawn from
universal premises. The idea is that
some universal properties, need not be
instantiated.
Ex. All brakless trains are dangerous. (even if
there are no brakeless trains in reality.)
Fallacy of Purported Conditionals
 It is committed when there is no formal
relevance of the expressed antecedent on
the expressed consequent.
Ex. If God is the universal cause of everything,
then He is also the cause of sin.
Fallacy of Relevant Irrelevance
 It involves the presentation of a
proposition as a valid conditional major
premise, when in reality it is not a
genuine conditional proposition, owing
to the reason that the expressed
antecedent does not bear on relevantly
and logically the expressed consequent.
Ex. If cigarette smoking were harmful, then
many people would not be smoking cigarettes.
Many people are smoking cigarettes.
Cigarette smoking is not harmful.
A. Fallacy of Language / Ambiguity
- it expresses lack of preciseness in the
words, phrases or sentences used to express
thought.
1. Equivocation
- it is committed when a word
carrying different meanings is used in the same
context in a particular argument.
Ex. A bishop moves diagonally, but a
cleric empowered to confer holy orders is a
bishop. Therefore, a cleric empowered to confer
holy orders moves diagonally,
2. Amphiboly
- it is committed when the awkward
construction of one’s sentence allows a double
meaning caused by inexactness of expression.
3. Accent or Prosody
- this fallacy arises from a false
accent or a false emphasis in speech in order to
mislead, confuse, or produce a wrong
interpretation.
Ex. A dessert is a course of fruit served
after the meal, but a dessert is a forsaken region.
A forsaken region is a course of fruit served
after the meal.
4. Composition
- this fallacy arises when a property of
the parts is illicitly taken to belong to the whole.
Ex. Each of pebbles in this jar is light.
Therefore, the entire jar must be light.
5. Division
- this fallacy consists in taking
individually what should be taken collectively.
Ex. The human person is wonderfully
made by God; his nose is wonderfully made by
God.
B. Fallacy of Relevance
- this kind of fallacy arises when something
about an argument tempts us simply to overlook
the fact that there really is no connection
between the premises and the conclusion.
1. Accident
- this fallacy is committed when an
exception to the general rule is ignored.
Ex. Cutting people with a knife is a
crime; surgeons cut people with knives;
surgeons are criminals.
2. Petitio Principi (begging the question)
- it fails to prove anything because it
somehow takes for granted what it is supposed
to prove. The premise of the argument is simply
a restatement of the conclusion.
Ex. Why are you late? Well, because
I’m not early.
3. Argumentum AD Hominem (Attack Against
Man)
- this fallacy is an attack on the
character of the person rather than a challenge to
the merit of his argument.
A. Abusive
- this fallacy consists in attacking the
person instead of proving or disproving the point
at issue.
Ex. Don’t believe him! He’s gay.
B. Circumstantial (poisoning the well)
- it attempts to attack a claim by
asserting that the person making the claim is
making it simply out of self-interest or owing to
his personal circumstances.
Ex. Of course, Christine would favor
extended vacation --- she’s a student!
4.) Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to People)
 This fallacy consists in asserting that a
claim is correct just because people
generally believe it is (if many believe
so, it is so).
Ex. Since scientists cannot prove that global
warning will occur, it probably won’t.
5.) Argumentum ad Mesiricordiam (Appeal to
Pity)
 It consists in pleading for mercy and
disregarding the point in question. The
appeal must be irrelevant to the
conclusion being sought.
Ex. We can’t condemn this man, because he is
the only one that supports his family.
6.) False Cause
- it consists in arguing that because
some events happened after another event, the
former event must have been caused by the latter
event.
Ex. Charmee became crazy because she took a
bath during her menstrual period.
7.) Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Appeal to
Misplaced Authority)
 It is an illegitimate appeal to a
questionable or illegitimate authority as
a support for a conclusion.
8.) Argumentum ad Buculum (Appeal to
force)
 This fallacy appeals to physical force or
moral pressure rather than the merit of
the point at issue to own an argument.
Ex. I know your phone number and I know
where you live. So you still don’t want to
have a date with me?
9.) Appeal to Advantage
 An appeal is made to a person (or
persons) to adhere to a policy, or
perform an act contrary to the person’s
will.
Ex. A suspect for the crime of rape is
offering the witness five million pesos
produced that this witness promises not to
testify against him.
10.) Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to
Ignorance)
- This argument is committed whenever one
argues that something must be true on the
basis that it has not been proud true.
Ex. If you can’t prove me wrong, then I
must be right.
11.) Fallacy of Slippery Slope (Domino
Fallacy)
- It is committed when the conclusion of
an argument rests on an alleged chain
reaction and there is not sufficient reason to
think that the chain should necessarily occur.
12.) Repeated Assertion
- It is mind-conditioning by repeating a
statement and again in the form of catchy
slogans or commercial jingles.
Ex. Just do it./ Think differently./ the
right for smart shoppers like you./ We
find ways.
13.) Red Herring
- It is diverting from the real issue of an
argument or view into side issues.
Ex. Vicky has sent this letter arguing
against the construction of a fast food
restaurants in her neighborhood. But,
look at all her spelling errors, the typos
and the awkward grammar that she uses.
I don’t think that we should take her
 seriously until we get a more respectable
presentation of her views.
14.) Two wrongs make a right
- It is justifying a wrong action as being
right because someone previously had
acted wrongly, you commit the fallacy
called ‘’ two wrongs make a right”
Ex. Oops, no paper this morning!
Somebody in our condominium building
probably stole my newspaper. So, that
makes it OK for me to steal one from
my neighbor’s doormat while nobody is
out here in the hallway.
INTRODUCTION TO PLATO’S
“ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE”
Allegory of the Cave (Analogy of the Cave)
What is an allegory?
It’s a story that teaches you about something
other than what is in the story.
What is an analogy?
A comparison made to show a similarity
PURPOSES OF THE ALLEGORY
Plato’s Cave Allegory has a number of purposes:
1.) Distinguish appearance from reality.
a. It is possible to have the wrong
understanding of the things we
see, hear, feel, etc.
WHAT IS A HUMAN PERSON?
1.) Human person is just essentially just
his/her body and nothing more.
2.) Human person is just essentially just
his/her spirit and nothing more.
3.) Human person is just essentially the
unity of his/her body and spirit.
TWO APPROACHES ON HOW WE
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE HUMAN PERSON
1.) Metaphysical Approach
- It focuses on the kinds of substances or
materials and capacities that uniquely make
up of a human person
- Dealing with the WHAT of a human
person
2.) Existencial Approach
- it focuses on the kind of life, or made
of existence, that is unique to human person
- dealing with the WHO of a human
person
MIND – emphasizes its consciousness
SPIRIT – emphasizes its life giving function
COMPONENTS OF HUMAN PERSON
 Unspirited Body View
 Disembodied Spirit View
 Embodied Spirit View
1.) Unspirited Body View
- Human person is just essentially just
his/her body and nothing more.
Supporters: Mind-Brain Identity Theory
- Mental state or neutral state of the
brain
2.) Disembodied Spirit View
- Human person is just his/her spirit and
nothing more.
Plato
 Soul
Rene Descartes
 Mind & Matter
Plato and Rene Descartes both believed that:
 Spirit or soul is independent with the
body
 Immortality of the spirit
Dualism
 Physical and Non-Physical
3.) Embodied Spirit View
- Human person is just essentially the
unity of his/her body and spirit
According to Thomas Aquinas, “human soul is
subsistent” rather that “substance.”
According to Aristotle, “SOUL is the cause of
life
is a form
MIND is a matter”
Plants are called “vegetative / nutritive soul”
Animals are called “sensitive soul”
People are called “rational soul”
PERCEPTION (illusion of reality)
- The process of sorting out,
interpreting, organizing and integrating
sense impression. Perception depends on
the sensory stimuli, past experience,
present feelings, desires, attitudes and
goals.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PERCEPTION
AND SENSATION
Sensation – the process of detecting a stimulus,
such as:
 Light Waves (Vision),
 Sound Waves (Hearing),
 Chemical Molecules (Smell and Taste),
 Heat or Pressure (Touch)
Perception – the process of integrating,
organizing, and interpreting sensations. It is the
process of receiving sense impressions.
ATTENTION
- the perceptual process of choosing a stimulus
that one has to attend us. According to Ribot, as
cited by Amparo and Tuazon, attention is the
anticipating behavior or postural set for a
stimulus. Attention can be voluntary,
involuntary, habitual, and selective.
Voluntary Attention – requires effort and
concentration on a required work. It directs to
the completion of the work.
Involuntary Attention – requires the potency of
the stimulus
Habitual Attention – comes from constant
practice.
Selective Attention – a process wherein the
person chooses a stimulus to listen to.
TYPES OF PERCEPTION
1.) Gesalt Law of Organization – maintains that
the basic perceptual process operates on the
basis of a series of principles that describe how
to organize bits and pieces of information into a
unified whole which includes closure, proximity,
similarity, simplicity, continuity.
Law of Closure - closure states that when a
figure has a gap, one tends to see it as closed or
complete.
Law of Proximity – this is the tendency to group
together those elements that are close together.
Law of Similarity – the tendency to group
together those elements that are similar in
appearance falls under the law of similarity.
Law of Continuity – the tendency not to break
the continuous show of lines or design in one’s
perceptional awareness allows continuity.
2.) Simplicity – the tendency to perceive a
pattern in the most basic, straightforward,
organized manner possible is simplicity.
OTHER TYPES OF PERCEPTION
Visual Perception – depends on one’s
physiological views to the adjustment of the
eyes.
Illusions – perception of appearance, a sound or
other sensory experiences, which at times do not
corresponds to realities. These are false or
distorted perceptions which can be erroneous,
therefore illusions are misperceptions of the
eyes.
Illusions of Length by Miller – Lyer
- 
(a) (b)
 Figure (a) and (b) are of the same length, yet
(a) seem shorter while (b) seems longer.
By: Wundt Illusion

Wundt states that we tend to overestimate the
vertical line when we compare it with horizontal
line because the eyes move less often and less
easy vertically than horizontally.
Illusion by Direction by Pongendorff Illusion
(di ko kabalo mo drawing)
This explains the tendency to overestimate big
angles and underestimate small ones.
After Image – an optical experience which
happens to persist after the removal of the
stimulus.
Positive After-Images – evident when the bright
stimulus is immediately followed by dark after
field.
Negative After-Images – when the color or
brightness of the object is a complement or
opposite of the original.
Auditory Perception – the interpretation of
sound. It is concerned with the location and
source of sound  the distance and direction.
As a rule, the nearer the source, the louder the
sound.
Depth Perception – the ability to perceive the
world in three dimensions. It allows the person
to accurately gauge the distance of an object.
Haptic Perception – a Greek word (haphe)
meaning sense of touch. This is the earliest sense
to develop in fetus, and the development of other
senses like vision.
Perception of Time – it is said that time can be
perceived either longer or shorter.
SPECIAL KINDS OF PERCEPTION
There are special kinds of perception that some
people possess. These are called Extrasensory
Perception (ESP) or Sixth Sense. Extrasensory
perception comes in many forms.
Telepathy – the transfer of thought from one
person to another without the regular use of the
senses.
Clairvoyance – the ability to see without the use
of the eyes and can reveal information that may
have not been received by ordinary or regular
sensation.
Precognition – the ability to foretell future
events.
Psychokinesis – the ability to make object move
by thoughts process alone.
BUDDHISM
What is Buddism?
Buddhism is a religion to about 300
million people around the world. The word
comes from “budhi” to awaken. It has its origins
about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama,
known as the Buddha, was himself awakened
(enlightened) at the age of 35.
How can Buddhism help me?
Buddhism explains a purpose to life, it
explains apparent injustice and inequality around
the world, and it provides a code of practice or
way of life that leads to true happiness.
Why is Buddhism becoming popular?
Buddhism is becoming popular in
Western countries for a number of reasons. The
first good reason is Buddhism has answers to
many of the problems in modern materialistic
societies. It also includes (for those who are
interested) a deep understanding of the human
mind (and natural therapies) which prominent
psychologists around the world are now
discovering to be both very advanced and
effective.
Who was the Buddha?
Siddhata Gotama was born into a royal
family in Northern India, in 563 B.C. At 29, he
realized that wealth and luxury did not guarantee
happiness, so he explored the different
teachings, religions and philosophies of the day,
to find the key to human happiness. After six
years of study and meditation, he finally found
‘the middle path’ and was enlightened. After
enlightenment, the Buddha spent the rest of his
life teaching the principles of Buddhism  called
the Dhamma, or Truth  until his death at the
age of 80.
Was the Buddha a God?
He was not, nor did he claim to be. He
was a man who taught a path to enlightenment
from his own experience.
Do Buddhists worship idols?
Buddhists sometimes pay respect to
images of the Buddha, not in worship, nor to ask
for favors. A statue of the Buddha with hands
rested gently in its lap and a compassionate
smile reminds us to strive to develop peace and
love within ourselves. Bowing to the statue is an
expression of gratitude for the teaching.
Why are so many Buddhist Countries Poor?
One of the Buddhist teachings is that
wealth does not guarantee happiness and also
wealth is impermanent. The people of every
country suffer whether rich or poor, but those
who understand Buddhist teachings can find true
happiness.
Are there Different Types of Buddhism?
There are many different types of
Buddhism, because the emphasis changes from
country to country due to customs and culture.
What does not vary is the essence of the
teaching  the Dhamma or truth.
Is Buddhism the only true religion?
Buddhism is also a belief system which
is tolerant of all other beliefs or religions.
Buddhism agrees with the moral teachings of
other religions but Buddhism goes further by
providing a long term purpose within our
existence, through wisdom and true
understanding. Real Buddhism is very tolerant
and not concerned with labels like ‘Christian,’
‘Moslem,’ ‘Hindu,’ or ‘Buddhist’; that’s why
there have never been any was fought in the
name of Buddhism.
Is Buddhism Scientific?
Science is knowledge which can be
made into a system, which depends upon seeing
and testing facts and stating general natural laws.
The core of Buddhism fit into this definition,
because the Four Noble truths can be tested and
proven by anyone in fact the Buddha himself
asked his followers to test the teaching rather
than accept his word as true Buddhism depends
more on understanding than faith.
What did the Buddha teach?
The Buddha taught many things, but the
basic concepts in Buddhism can be summed up
by the Four Noble Truths and the Noble
Eightfold Path.
How do I become a Buddhist?
Buddhist teacings can be understood and
tested by anyone. Buddhism teaches that the
solutions to our problems are within ourselves
not outside. The Buddha asked all his followers
not to take his word as true, but rather to test the
teachings for themselves. In this way, each
person decides for themselves and takes
responsibility for their own actions and
understanding. This makes Buddhism less of a
fixed package of beliefs which is to be accepted
in its entirety, and more of a teaching which
each person learns and uses in their own way.
Siddhartha Gautama (founder of Buddhism)
15.) Born in the Brahmin Caste (he was a
prince)
16.) He led an extremely sheltered life in the
royal compound.
What did he do?
 For the next six years he wandered the
forests of India looking for
enlightenment
 Enlightenment means wisdom.
 He becomes Buddha.
One Day... HOW HUMAN PERSON IMPOSES LIMITS
 At the age 25 he left the walls of the AND POSSIBILITIES FOR
palace TRANSCENDENCE
 He saw 4 men: old mean, sick man,
dead man, poor man 1.) The Concept of ‘Dread’
Man is simply thrown into the world and
What did it mean? is left alone to face what he can do because he
This made him understand that every did not will for it.
living thing experience old age, sickness and 2.) The concept of ‘Being with Others’
death. Man has to establish relationship with
BUT! ONLY religious life can save others in the world.
someone from suffering
3.) The Concept of ‘Concern’
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS Human person’s relatedness to entitles is
basically things which he encounters in the
First Noble Truth world. He is always ‘together’ with others.
Everything in life is suffering or has
sorrow. 4.) The concept of ‘Guilt-Feeling’
In philosophy, guilt feeling is something
Second Noble Truth that is lacking or missing in a person. As such,
What causes suffering is people’s desire human person is a guilty creature.
for material things.
5.) The Concept of ‘Conscience’
Third Noble Truth Conscience plays a primary role in
The only way to end suffering is to give recovering from being ‘lost or fallen’ in the
up all desires. world.

Fourth Noble Truths 6.) The Concept of ‘Resoluteness’

The way to get over these desires is to Resoluteness is man’s readiness to be
be enlightened by following the eight fold path. called by conscience.

7.) The Concept of ‘Temporality’

EIGHT FOLD PATH Temporality imposes limits to one’s
 Steps you must take in order to reach human body.
NIRVANA
8.) The Concept of ‘Death’
Nirvana – release from all selfishness and pain The human person’s temporal existence
will find its end on death.
Eightfold Path:
 Right View INTERSUBJECTIVITY
 Right Intention - it is the condition of man, a subject, among
 Right Speech other men, who are also subjects.
 Right Livelihood - it refers to the shared awareness and
understanding among persons.
 Right Action
- it is made possible by the awareness of the self
 Right Effort and the other
 Right Mindfulness
 Right Concentration SOCIAL vs. INTERHUMAN

- The social refers to the life of a group hound

together by common experience and reactions.
 ESSENTIAL CHARATERISTICS OF LOVE
- The interhuman refers to the life between and
among persons; it refers to the interpersonal, that
is, a life of dialogue. because the other is a
Love is historical concrete particular
Obstacles to Dialogue Contrasted With person with his/her own
Seeming Being being history
Speechifying Personal Making Love is total because persons are
Present indivisible
because love is not
Imposition Unfolding
Love is eternal given only for a limited
period of time
1.) Seeming because in love,
- it is a way of approaching the other Love is sacred persons are valuable in
governed by the image one desires to impress on themselves
the other.
- it involves deliberately playing up or
hiding aspects of yourself to appear more TENDENCIES THAT MAKE DIALOGUE
desirable or impressive. AND PERSONAL MAKING PRESENT
DIFFICULT
2.) Speechifying
- it refers to one’s talking past another Analytical Thinking when we break person
- it is hearing without listening to what into parts
one says. Reductive Thinking when we reduce the
richness of a person to a
3.) Imposition schema, a structure,
- it constitutes holding one’s own and/or a concept
opinion, values, attitudes and oneself without Derivational Thinking when we derive the
person from a mixed
regard for those of another.
formula.
- it is telling the other how he or she
should act, behave and respond to things.
Ich Es (I-It) Relationship
- it refers to the world of experience and
Unfolding
sensation where there are objects.
- it constitutes finding in the other
- the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the “I”
disposition towards what one recognizes as true,
confronts and qualifies an idea, or
good and beautiful.
conceptualization, of the being in its presence
- it involves seeing the other as a unique,
and treats that being as an object.
singular individual capable of freely actualizing
- an individual treats other things, people, etc., as
himself / herself
objects to be used and experienced. Essentially,
this form of objectivity relates to the world in
WAYS BY WHICH PEOPLE ADDRESS
terms of the self  how an object can serve the
LONELINESS
individual’s interest.
Escapism Use of drugs,
- it is in fact a relationship with oneself; it is not
rituals,sex, and alcohol a dialogue, but a monologue.
to find one’s self
Conformity with groups Joining group, Ich-Du (I-Thou) Relationship
organization, club or - it refers to the world of encounters and
fraternity relationships where there are persons.
Creative and productive Planning, producing - it is a concrete encounter without any
work or activity and seeing the result of qualification or objectification of one another.
a hobby, pastime or - it is a dialogue
passion