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Abstract
Designing, engineering, and fabricating glass projects for public use present unique safety challenges. Difficulties
compound when traditional engineering methods do not apply to complex designs or materials with no historical data.
This study reviews the engineering, modeling, and testing of two custom glass projects: nine-foot structural laminated
glass treads for a staircase for the Jazz at Lincoln Center venue in New York City, and 56 vertical monolithic
borosilicate monuments for the 9/11 Memorial in New Jersey. New and untested laminated glass materials were used.
Methods: Jazz at Lincoln Center included testing for glass optics, reflectivity, anti-slip, public traffic patterns,
concentrated point load, and live load distribution on a full-scale mock-up, with 24-hour testing after breakage to
measure deflection. Testing for 9/11 vertical glass panels included thermal shock, stability in extreme weather,
concentrated loads, and wind forces on an engineering model and full-size mockup. Results: Jazz at Lincoln Center
testing confirmed deflection and predicted engineering analyses for breakage and concentrated load. For 9/11, initial
tests were mixed. Further testing resulted in modifying 9/11's adhesive to increase stability and control movement,
and harder setting block material. Conclusion: Engineering models cannot alone adequately predict performance
with new laminated glass materials. Unique glazing projects in varied environments require physical testing and full-
scale mockups.
Keywords: case study, structural glass, glass engineering, laminated glass.
1 Introduction
Combining the variables of laminated glass with unknowns inherent in designing public art creates complex problems.
Considerations include:
Manufacturing variables
Interlayer type
Interlayer thickness
Type of adhesive (UV, silicone, urethane, etc.)
Setting material
Glass impurities
Float-side adhesion vs. airside adhesion
Quality control of autoclave cycles and
Bond strength of glass into interlayer
Micro-fractures, scratches from drilling, cutting, polishing and other secondary manufacturing artifacts
New glass chemistries, interlayers, and adhesives with no historical test data
Site variables
UV exposure
Freeze/thaw cycles, moisture, and wind loads (if located outside)
Post-installation scratches, fractures, and fisheye damage
Unanticipated public use and abuse
Sustained dead loads over a prolonged period
Human interface and interactions with physical and emotional responses
Inadequate analyses can have implications beyond structural failure. For example, in 1989, despite in-depth structural
engineering, our insurer dropped coverage after installation of a glass staircase in a Banana Republic clothing store in
Chicago claiming no data existed for understanding glass staircase performance. Moreover, structural calculations do
not cover emotional responses. On that same project, feedback was received that people didn't feel comfortable
“walking on air,” causing the client to replace clear glass treads with frosted glass.
There is a long history of using tempered glass in architectural applications.[1] This paper presents case studies of
two unique laminated glass structures, one horizontal, the other vertical. Both required new engineering and testing
methods. Design constraints for each project included public use under a variety of known and unknown conditions
and structural resistance to potentially unforeseen forces.
Assumptions were made and accompanied by digital prototypes, which were then transformed into full-scale
mockups. Point and lateral load tests were developed and administered to understand stability and resistance against
forces of use, nature, and public assembly..
2 Case Studies
2.1 Case Study 1 - Laminated nine-foot structural glass stair treads for a monumental interior staircase, Jazz
at Lincoln Center, New York City, New York
The first project was a monumental public staircase with nine-foot-long, five-layer laminated treads [Figures 1 and 2].
0.4
0.35
0.3
Deflection (Inches)
0.2
Movement at Minute 2 (Pre Break)
0.15
0.1
Movement Post Break
0.05
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Force (Pound Force)
2.2 Case Study 2 -Laminated exterior seven-foot high monolith glass for 9/11 Memorial, City of Hoboken, New
Jersey
The second project was a 9/11 Memorial comprised of 56 inscribed and illuminated glass monoliths. Each panel
represents local lives lost during the 9/11 attack. Monoliths were supported by a stainless steel structural base and
bracket system. The memorial, aligned with the World Trade Center Site in Manhattan, was unveiled at an interfaith
th
ceremony on September 11, 2017 (the 16 anniversary of the attack) at Pier A Park on the Hudson River. Location at
water’s edge exposed the materials to varying weather cycles [Figures 9,10].
2.2.1 Background
In 2002, the City of Hoboken hired architect Demetri Sarantitis to design a memorial for local lives lost at the World
Trade Center. The city purchased one-inch Pyrex slabs from a factory in upstate New York for use in the memorial.
However, no one with knowledge and experience using Pyrex for this purpose was found, so the glass was stored in
an unconditioned warehouse for over a decade in New Jersey. Since borosilicate glass melts at a higher temperature
than ordinary silicate glass, its manufacture requires different ovens than required for float glass with extremely high
heat and melting points; double the requirement for normal glass manufacture. When the Pyrex factory burned to the
ground, no other facilities existed that could produce more of the material, and therefore became irreplaceable. In
2015, the stored glass was moved to a laminator for testing, mockups and a feasibility study.
Figure 14. Lateral pull-tests with laser line on ruler to show lateral deflection.
2.2.3 Test Results
Initial results from testing were mixed. Some components passed, while others only marginally passed. For example,
preliminary engineering indicated 0.375 inches thick adhesive with 0.375 inches deep caulk glue joints would be
adequate [Figures 15,16]. After testing and peer review, the depth surface area of the adhesive was tripled and a
thinner application used to increase stability and control movement.
Figure 19. Lateral movement recorded with laser line on ruler at top of panel.
3 Conclusion
Due to internal material variables and external site conditions—and the multitude of problem combinations they can
create—unique glazing projects in varied environments require physical testing and full-scale mockups. These are
critical to assessing performance, materials, visual effect, optics and esthetics, and provide a level of assurance not
obtainable through virtual engineering models. When projects include complex engineering problems, only full-scale
testing can confirm, refine, or redirect creative problem-solving.
The industry should consider establishing standards and protocols for testing complete applications. These would not
only prove the engineering but ensure that quality control in the float, tempering and laminating processes are within
specifications.
Engineering alone cannot adequately predict performance in catastrophic failure. Mockups can aid in visualizing not
only structural but emotional and other considerations not considered initially
4 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Gloria Jaroff, AIA and Richard Buday, FAIA for their assistance reviewing this paper.
References
[1] ASTM E2751/E2751M-13 Standard Practice for Design of Laminated Glass Walkways.
[2] Laura Galuppi, Gianni Royer-Carfagni. The effective thickness of laminated glass plates. July 2012, Journal of Mechanics of
Materials and Structures 7(4):375-400. DOI: 10.2140/jomms.2012.7.375
[3] Laura Galuppi, Gianni Royer-Carfagni, Enhanced Effective Thickness of multi-layered laminated glass. Composites Part B:
Engineering,. Volume 64, 2014, Pages 202-213. ISSN 1359-8368, DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.04.018.
[4] New York City Building Code 2010, Chapter 16, Structural design/Sections 1601-1613.
[5] ASTM E1300 Standard Practice for Determining Load Resistance of Glass in Buildings.