DESIGN LOADS

Based on:
Duration (permanent or temporary)
Direction (vertical, longitudinal, etc)
Deformation (creep, expansion)
Effect (shear, bending, torsion)

I. PERMANENT LOAD
Loads that always remain and act on a bridge throughout its life

A. DEAD LOAD
Aggregate weight of all superstructure elements
B. SUPERIMPOSED LOAD
Placed on superstructure after the deck has cured and begun
to work with primary members in resisting loads
C. PRESSURE
Pressure due to earth or water

II. TEMPORARY LOAD

.Placed on bridge for only a short time

A. VEHICLE LIVE LOAD

.hypothetical design vehicles based on truck loadings

o 1935 AASHTO LOADING SCHEME

.H20-35
.H15-35

[1935 AASHO LOADING SCHEME]

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
O 1944 AASHTO LOADING SCHEME
.Have two and three axles
.two truck classes are the H and HS

H 15 – 44 (30 KIP) 133 KN

H 20 – 44 (40 KIP) 178 KN

HS 15 – 44 (54 KIP) 240 KN

HS 20 – 44 (72 KIP) 320 KN

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
 O AASHTO LFRD specifications
.Accepted in 2007
HL loading
HL –93 - composed of a truck (identical to HS –20
or tandem) which ever gives a larger force,
combined with a 0.64 k/ft lane load

o Permit Design Load (P loads)

.California
.Deal with extralegal loading conditions
.Consist of a steering axle and two six pairs of tandem
.In configuration with the maximum stress produced in a
span

NOTE:
.For higher loading conditions, HS 25 is used (25% increase over
HS 20-44)
.H, HS & Military loadings were used until the AASHTO LFRD
Specification
.H, HS & HL are not actual representation of truck loading but are
only approximations

B. PEDESTRIAN LOAD
.A 0.075 KSF (3.59 kPa) is applied to sidewalks
simultaneous with the vehicular live load
.If sidewalk is designed for vehicular load, pedestrian load
need not to be considered concurrently
.a design live load of 0.085 ksf (4.07 kPa) is used if bridge
is designed only for pedestrian (including bicycle traffic)
C. NATURAL FORCES
O EARTHQUAKE LOAD
.a product of natural forces dependent on geographic
location
a function of the following factors:
Deadweight of the structure
Ground motion (acceleration)
Period of vibration
Type of soil present
Bridge seats at expansion bearings should provide minimum support
length
N = ( 8 + 0.02L + 0.08H ) ( 1 + 0.000125S² )
Where : N = minimum support length normal to bearing line, in
L = length of bridge deck to expansion joint, ft
H = average length if piers, ft (0 for single span bridges)
Seismic Load Analysis Methods Based on:
seismic zones
Number of spans
Complexity of structure
Importance of structure

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
The methods:
Uniform Load Elastic Method (UL)
Single –Mode Spectral Elastic Method (SM)
Multimode Spectral Elastic Method (MM)
Time History Method (TH)

SEISMIC PERFORMANCE ZONE

ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT SEISMIC ZONE
A > 0.09 1
0.09 <A < 0.19 2
0.19 < A < 0.29 3
0.29 < A 4

ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
CRITICAL BRIDGE
SZ REGULAR BRIDGE IRREGULAR BRIDGE
1 - -
2 MM MM
3 MM TH
4 TH TH

ESSENTIAL BRIDGE
SZ REGULAR BRIDGE IRREGULAR BRIDGE
1 - -
2 SM / UL MM
3 MM MM
4 MM MM

OTHER BRIDGES
SZ REGULAR BRIDGE IRREGULAR BRIDGE
1 - -
2 SM / UL SM
3 SM / UL MM
4 SM / UL MM

O WIND LOADING
.offers complicated set of conditions
.Considered as static load being uniformly distributed over the
exposed regions of the bridge (aggregate surface areas of all
elements)
.AASHTO loading is based on assumed wind velocity of 100mph
(160kph)

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
O CHANNEL FORCES
.loads imposed on a structure due to water course-related
features
Stream flow(pressure) – risk of sliding or overturning
of supports
Floating ice – static pressure due to thermal movements
of ice sheets
Buoyancy – general for very large hollow structure;
produce uplifting force on pier footings
and piles

O BRAKING FORCE
. aka longitudinal force
. Transfer of vehicle load to the bridge deck as the truck brakes
(from wheels) in the longitudinal direction

. AASHTO specifies Braking force as

greater of 5% of design truck and lane load
25% of the axle weights of design truck
25% of the axle weights of Design tandem

. applied 6ft (1.8m) above the top of the deck surface

. All travel lanes are assumed going in the same direction
. Resisted by piers and/or abutments that support fixed bearings

O CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
. structures on horizontal curves
. Stimulates a vehicle traveling along The bridge
. Applied 6ft (1.8m) above the top of deck surface
𝐯²
Computed as 𝐂=𝐟
𝐠𝐑
Where:
C = centrifugal force, percent live load without impact
V = design speed, ft/s
F = 4/3 for other than fatigue limit, 1.0 for fatigue
G = gravitational acceleration
R = radius of curve

O DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE

. An impact factor is used as multiplier for certain structural
elements
. AASHTO specifies the impact (IM) as;
. 15% for fatigue and fracture limit states
. 33% for all other limit states
. 75% for all limit states, for deck joints
. 1 + IM , for truck and tandem live loads
. 0 , for buried structures such as culverts
. No impact applied on pedestrian loads or lane loads
. No impact applied on timber structures and foundation
below ground level

O CONSTRUCTION LOADS
. induced by construction equipment or other types of loads
during construction

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
 DEFORMATION AND RESPONSE LOADS
I. SHRINKAGE
. Natural change in volume of concrete
. Usually caused by moisture loss during drying/curing

. Sensitive (Affected by) to:

.Water-cement ratio
.Member size
.Humidity condition of air

. How to Minimize/Limit Effected

. Add perpendicular reinforcements account to tensile
stress
. Proper curing
. EFFECTS :
Conventional concrete elements: Can lead to cracking
-stressed concrete: Loss of pre-stress force

. Shrinkage Factors (Coefficients)

. AASHTO: Normal concrete
0.0002 after 28 curing days
0.0005 after 1 year of curing
. CEB–FIP Model Code
. ACI code

. For more Accurate calculations: Physical Tests

II.CREEP
. Creep strain is roughly 1.5 to 3 times the instantaneous strain

. affecting FACTORS:

. EFFECTS:

. CALCULATIONS
)

strength (when loaded)

–FIP

NOTE: Shrinkage and Creep take place at the same time and
independently have the same effect in the structure

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
III. SETTLEMENT
. INITIATING FACTORS:
overloading of supporting soil or piles
Lowering of water table for spread footing or friction piles
Vibration of live loads or seismic load
Loading embankments
Change of soil property

. Differential settlement:
. Uneven settlement
. Results in
Cracking of substructure elements
instability at superstructure Joints and support
joints
(x) tilting of abutment

. Various load combinations are used to produce the most critical

Condition Of bridge design

IV.UPLIFT
. Continuous spans:
Use of loading combination that result in the
Superstructure being lifted from substructure
. Most common in continuous spans with varying adjacent spans
. Can be avoided with proper and appropriate design of bridge
span arrangement

V.THERMAL MOVEMENT
. CAUSES:

. Dependent on
Location of bridge
Superstructure material

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
 . RESULTS in:
. High thermal stress gradient (uneven temperature
distribution)
reactions

joints

. AASHTO Recommendations
. Temperature range for design
METAL STRUCTURE
FROM TO
Moderate climate 0 F(-17.78C) 120F(48.89C)
Cold climate -30 F (-1.11C) 120F(48.89C)
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
FROM TO
Moderate climate 10 F(-12.22C) 80F(26.67C)
Cold climate 0F (-17.78C) 80F(26.67C)
WOOD STRUCTURE
FROM TO
Moderate climate 10 F(-12.22C) 75F(23.9C)
Cold climate 0F (-17.78C) 75F(23.9C)

. For bridges with skew angles:

. Excessive movement due to thermal changes accounted in all

design of deck joints

. Pin and hanger type connections are susceptible to thermal

movement

. Design consideration

. Differential in temperature between outside and

enclosed, hoklow interior of structure
Note:

maybe tensile or compressive

. TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
orthogonally to the main reinforcement, to account
for cracking due to tensile stress

. BRITTLE FRACTURE

Sudden failure of steel member prior plastic deformation

(bending in ductile fashion)

GROUP LOADING COMBINATIONS

. Loads do not act individually
. Loads act in various combinations (simultaneous loading)
. Bridge design must be able to handle all plausible grouping of loads
. All worst-case loads has a small probability
. Only a few load combinations will govern
. Different load groups govern for different structural element
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
. Designed using

. DISADVANTAGE:

probabilities of failure  waste in design

AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS

. A probability based design method

. Relative constant probability of failure for all structures and

elements during design lives regardless of;

. Measure of safety: (any structure member)

Variability of loads Resistance

BIGGER load uncertainty  BIGGER load factor

BIGGER material load resistance uncertainty  SMALLER
resistance factor  (similar factor of safety)

. Strength Limit State

Ensures structure have sufficient strength and stability
under various load conditions

. Service Limit State

used to control deflection, crack width, stress level and
stability under normal conditions to ensure structure
serviceability

. Fatigue Limit State

Restrictions on stress range at fatigue-prone detail
locations under fatigue loading to prevent fatigue failure

For each load combinations :

Where: Q = total factored force effect

ni = load modifier factor relating to ductility,
redundancy, operational importance (1.0 for most
bridges)
ri = load factor, based multiplier for specific force
effects under specific load combinations
Qi = force effect from specific loads

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
**each member and connection satisfy:
Strength I
Basic load combination
Relates to normal vehicular use of structure without wind or
any extreme event loads (Earthquake)
Mostly applied to control superstructure member

Strength II
Used for owner-specified special design vehicles or permit
vehicles
No wind or any extreme event loads considered
Not commonly used
Reduced dynamic load allowance may be allowed

Strength III
Used on bridges exposed to maximum wind velocity
No live loads is assumed present on the bridge

Strength IV
Used for structures with very high dead-live load force effect
ratios
Control load combination for certain elements if
. structure has long span length and/or large dead
load
. Bridges under construction
Make sure that various type of bridges have similar failure
probability

Strength V
Relate to normal vehicular use of bridge with wind velocity of
55mph (90kph)
Live and wind load combined – both values reduced because
probability is very low to experience very heavy live load and
extremely high wind load

Extreme Event I
Related to earthquake
Live load considered shall be based on daily traffic volume of
bridge
Normal bridge: Live load Factor, 0.5
. Implies low probability of maximum live load at time of
large earthquake may occur

Extreme Event II
Used for extreme conditions (ice load, collision by vessels and
vehicles)
Only one should be considered at a time
reduced live loads are considered

Service I
Used for normal operational use with 55mph wind
All loads are taken at nominal values
Extreme loads are excluded
Used to control deflection, crack width (for RC), compressive
stress (pre-stress), and soil slope stability
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
 Service II
Is for preventing yielding of steel due to vehicle live load
Live load used is approximately halfway between service I and
strength I

Service III
Relates only to tension in pre-stressed concrete
superstructure
Load factor of 0.80 is applied to live load  If nominal design
live load is used, superstructure is overdesigned for concrete
tensile areas

Service IV
Relates only to tension in pre-stressed concrete substructure
to control cracks
Load factor of 0.70 for wind (represents 84mph)
. Reflects probability of PC substructure will be subjected
to tensile stress once every 11years

Fatigue
Fatigue and fracture load combinations
Relate to repetitive gravitational vehicular live load and
dynamic responses
Live load factor of 0.75 represents cumulative effects of
majority truck population
Only a single 32k loads (30ft constant spacing) is applied

AASHTO STANDARD LOAD DESIGNATION

PERMANENT LOAD TRANSIENT LOAD
DD DOWNDRAG BR VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE
DC DEADLOAD CE VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL
DW DEAD LOAD OF WEARING FORCE
SURFACE AND UTILITIES CR CREEP
EH HORIZONTALEARTH PRESSURE CT VEHICULAR COLLISION FORCE
EL ACCUMULATED FORCE EFFECTS CV VESSEL COLLISION FORCE
(CONSTRUCTION PROCESS, EQ EARTHQUAKE
POST TENSIONING) FR FRICTION
ES EARTH SURCHARGE LOAD IC ICE LOAD
EV VERTICAL EARTH FILL LOAD IM VEHICULAR DYNAMIC LOAD
ALLOWANCE
LL VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD
LS LIVE LOAD SURCHARGE
PL PEDESTRIAN LIVE LOAD
SE SETTLEMENT
SH SHRINKAGE
TG TEMPERATUREGRADIENT
TU UNIFORM TEMPERATURE
CHANGE
WA WATER LOADAND STREAM
PRESSURE
WL WIND ON LIVE LOAD
WS WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURE

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES