TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Overview of KPTCL,NLDC and SLDC

 About KPTCL
 NLDC(National load dispatch center)
 SLDC(State load dispatch centre)
ABOUT KPTCL
Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited (KPTCL) is a registered
company wholly owned by the Government of Karnataka, it was formed on 18-
1999 by carving out the Transmission and Distribution functions of the
erstwhile Karnataka Electricity Board (KEB). KPTCL is mainly vested with the
functions of Transmission and Distribution of power in the entire State of
Karnataka and also Construction of Stations & Transmission Lines and
maintenance of 400/220/110/66 KV Sub-Station. It purchases power mainly
from Karnataka Power Corporation Limited and transmits it to Distribution
companies enduring minimum losses.
As per now Karnataka has, and counting.
VOLTAGE LEVEL NO OF STATIONS TRASNMISSION LINE
(Km)
400KV 5 3544
220KV 101 11279
110KV 413 10509
66KV 637 10792
33KV 358 8931
1514 45056

The various wings of KPTCL are as follows:

 Corporate Office at kaveri Bhavan,Banglore
 Six Transmission zones(Banglore, Myaore, Tumkur, Hassan, Baglkot,
Gulbarga)
 State load Dispstch center
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
Annual turnover of the organization was nearly Rs. 3380 crores during the year
2016-2017
To facilitate power from PGCL (Power Grid Cooperation of India).KPTCL is
establishing 765/400/220 Kv substations near Kudgi with associated 765 and
400 Kv transmission lines.
Taking cue from failure of grid in 2012 which affected larger part of the north
India forcing total blackout for almost two days, KPTCL is planning to improve
security of grid at the cost of 77 46 Crore within end of 2019.
Working together with KPCL and Distribution companies; KPTCL is dedicated
to provide a quality power to consumers by enduring minimum losses
  BRIEF HISTORY
The erstwhile Mysore State had the enviable and glorious position of
establishing the first major hydro-electric generating station at Shivasamudram
as early as 1902 for commercial operation. The art at that time was still in its
infancy, even in the advanced countries. The longest transmission line, at the
highest voltage in the world, was constructed to meet the power needs of mining
operations at Kolar Gold Fields
The generating capacity of the Shivasamudram Power House gradually
increased to 42 MW in stages. To meet the increasing demand for power, the
Shimsha Generating Station, with an installed capacity of 17.2 M.W, was
commissioned in the year 1938. The power demand was ever on the increase,
for industries and rural electrification, and additions to generating became
imperative. The 1st stage of 48 MW and 2nd stage of 72 MW of the Mahatma
Gandhi Hydro-Electric Station were commissioned during 1948 and 1952,
respectively.
Subsequently, the Bhadra Project, with an installed capacity of 33.2 MW, and
the Thungabhadra Left Bank Power House, with an installed capacity of 27
MW at Munirabad were commissioned during 1964 and 1965, respectively.
The State of Karnataka, with availability of cheap electric power, and other
infrastructure facilities, was conducive for increased tempo of industrial
activity. It became necessary therefore, to augment power generating capacity
by harnessing the entire potential of the Sharavathi Valley. The first unit of 89.1
MW was commissioned in 1964 and completed in 1977.
The demand for power saw a phenomenal increase in the mid sixties and
onwards with the setting up of many public sector and private industries in the
State. As power generation in the State was entirely dependent on monsoon and
was subject to its vagaries, the State Government set up a coal based power
plant at Raichur. The present installed capacity of the power plant at Raichur is
1260 MWs.
To augment the energy resources of the State, the Kalinadi Project with an
installed capacity of 810MW at Nagjhari Power House and 100 MW at Supa
Dam Power House, with an energy potential of 4,112 Mkwh, were set up.
The transmission and distribution system in the State was under the control of
the Government of Karnataka (then Mysore) till the year 1957. In the year 1957,
Karnataka Electricity Board was formed and the private distribution companies
were amalgamated with Karnataka Electricity Board. Till the year 1986, KEB
was a profit making organization. However, in the subsequent years, like other
State Electricity Boards in the country, KEB also started incurring losses,
mainly due to the increase in agricultural consumption and due to the
implementation of the socio economic policies of the Government, the
performance of the power sector was affected.
To improve the performance of the power sector and in tune with the reforms
initiated by Government of India, the Government of Karnataka came out with a
general policy proposing fundamental and radical reforms in the power sector.
Accordingly a bill, namely Karnataka Electricity Reforms Act was passed by
the Karnataka Legislature. The Reform bill has mandated major restructuring of
the Karnataka Electricity Board and its Corporatisation. As part of
Corporatization, the Karnataka Electricity Board ceased to exist and the
Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited to look after Transmission
and Distribution in the State and VVNL (VisweshwaraiahVidyuthNigama
Limited) to look after the generating stations under the control of erstwhile
Karnataka Electricity Board were constituted from 01.08.99.

NLDC(National load dispatch centre)

1.Vision:
To be a global institution of excellence for reliable & resilient power
systems, fostering efficient electricity markets, promoting economy and
sustainability.
2.Mission:

 Ensure Integrated Operation of the Indian Power System to facilitate

transfer of electric power within and across the regions and trans-
national exchange of power with Reliability, Economy and
Sustainability.
 Facilitate competitive and efficient wholesale electricity markets and
administer settlement systems.
 Promote innovation and adoption of latest technology with cyber security.
 Nurturing human & intellectual capital.
 3. FUNTIONS OF NLDC

National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) has been constituted as per Ministry
of Power (MOP) notification, New Delhi dated 2nd March 2005 and is the apex
body to ensure integrated operation of the national power system.

The main functions assigned to NLDC are:

 Supervision Over the Regional Load Despatch Centers.

 Scheduling and dispatch of electricity over the inter-regional links in
accordance with grid standards specified by the authority and grid code
specified by Central Commission in coordination with Regional Load
Despatch Centers.
 Coordination with Regional Load Despatch Centers for achieving
maximum economy and efficiency in the operation of National Grid.
 Monitoring of operations and grid security of the National Grid.
 Supervision and control over the inter-regional links as may be required
for ensuring stability of the power system under its control.
 Coordination with Regional Power Committees for regional outage
schedule in the national perspective to ensure optimal utilization of
power resources.
 Coordination with Regional Load Despatch Centers for the energy
accounting of inter-regional exchange of power.
 Coordination for restoration of synchronous operation of national grid
with Regional Load Despatch Centers.
 Coordination for trans-national exchange of power.
 Providing Operational feedback for national grid planning to the
Authority and Central Transmission Utility.
 Levy and collection of such fee and charges from the generating
companies or licensees involved in the power system, as may be
specified by the Central Commission.
 Dissemination of information relating to operations of transmission
system in accordance with directions or regulations issued by Central
Government from time to time.

SLDC(STATE LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE)

Role of SLDC:

In accordance with section 32 of Electricity Act, 2003 roles and

functions of SLDCs are as under:
i) The SLDCs shall be the Apex Body to ensure integrated
operation of the power system in a State
ii) SLDCs shall:
• Be responsible for optimum scheduling and despatch of
electricity within a State in accordance with the contracts
entered into with the licensees or the generating Companies
operating in that State.
• Monitor grid operation.
• Keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted
through State grid.
• Exercise supervision and control over the inter-State
transmission system.
• be responsible for carrying out real time operation for grid
control and dispatch of electricity within the State through
secure and economic operation of the State Grid in accordance
with the Grid standards and State Grid Code.

iii) SLDCs are performing the following functions.

• Overall supervision, monitoring and control of the integrated

power system in the State on real time basis for ensuring
stability, security and economy operation of the power system in
the State.
• Optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the
State. For this SLDCs estimate the demand of the State /
DISCOMS, as may be the case, availability of power in the
State/DISCOMS from State generators and other sources like
Central Generating stations, bilateral contracts etc., conveys the
final requisition to RLDCs on the State’s entitlement from the
Central Generating Stations and bilateral transactions under
open access, if any, and issues final dispatch schedule to the
State Generators and drawl schedule to the DISCOMS.
SCADA
A formal definition of SCADA system, as recommended by IEEE is “A
collection of equipment that will provide an operator at a remote location with
sufficient information to determine the status of particular equipment or a
process and cause actions to take place regarding that equipment or process
without being physically present”. According to abbreviation of SCADA,
Supervision, Control and Data Acquisition are the main tasks to be carried out
at every substation.
➢ Supervision - of the incoming line, Feeders, Control and Relay Panels (C&R
panel)
➢ Control - Switch gear
➢ Data Acquisition - such as Voltage (phase), current (phase), active and
reactive power, frequency etc.
Supervision, Control and Data Acquisition is done by installing ABB’s RTU
560A which consists of all facilities that is required for automation. In old
substation there was need to acquire data from existing equipment. Renewing
all equipment or replacing old equipment by new equipment will increase cost.
Hence to automate the existing substation RTU560A is integrated. SCADA
system comprises of
➢ Field instrumentations such as current transformer, potential transformer,
transformers, circuit breakers, relays, Control and Relay panel, and Remote
Terminal Unit.
➢ Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the
RTUs through LAN and VSAT
➢ Control Centre – Master Control Centre and Area Load Dispatch Centre

Figure :Components of SCADA system

As shown in the below block diagram, the C & R panels/switchgears housed in
electrical sub-station send all the analog & digital data to remote terminal unit
via cables and this in turn is processed by processors at RTU. These processed
electrical data are transmitted to SCADA Control Centre through satellite
communication, VSAT

Figure :SCADA System Architecture

It consists of 16 control centers, which includes the Main Control Centers

(MCC), a Disaster Recovery Centre (DRMCC), Area Load Dispatch Centers
(ALDC) for the Transmission Zones and Distribution Control Centers (DCC)
for the ESCOMs.
All the Transmission RTUs communicate to MCC-1 & Distribution RTUs
communicate to MCC-2. The total system is configured with 72 servers and 115
operator workstations. Communication is on an owned VSAT HUB and Leased
Lines for Inter control Centre Communication.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Figure : General Block diagram of Implementation SCADA at 110/11Kv

According to abbreviation of SCADA, Supervision, Control And Data

acquisition are the main tasks to be carried out at every substation. Supervision -
of the incoming line, Control and Relay Panels (C&R panel), Control - Switch
gear and data acquisition - such as Voltage (phase), current (phase), active and
reactive power, frequency etc. Table 1 gives information about parameters,
input and output, relation of these with SCADA at 110/11 kV substations
CONTROL AND RELAY PANEL:
Control and Relay Panel is one of the field instrumentation which belong to the
conventional systems which is integrated with the RTU560A for automating the
substation. Control and Relay Panel is mainly for metering, annunciation,
mimic/indications and protection purposes. Major Compartments / Components
of Control Relay Panel:

Metering

The metering panel incorporates measuring instruments such as ammeter,

voltmeter, KW meter / kVar meter, energy meter, frequency meter and power
factor meter for current, voltage, energy, frequency or power factor.

Annunciation/Alarms

12 Window annunciators are provided in each control panel by means of visual

and audible alarm to draw attention of the operator to the abnormal operation or
operation of the protective devices or for specific fault indication.
12 Annunciations are:

 Distance protection operated

 Back up OCR protection operated
 Back up distance protection operated
  CB lockout SF6 protection low
 CB SF6 protection low
 CB TC1 circuit faulty
 Power swing block
 Conductor broken
 Weak end infeed
 VT fuse fail
 Distance relay healthy
 CB circuit faulty

Mimic diagram/indications

It is a Coloured graphic character presenting one line diagrams of electric

circuits with dynamic representation of ON/OFF indication for circuit breakers,
relative position of isolator switches etc. with LED position indicators at
appropriate location. Indications such as, Isolator open/close, circuit breaker
auto trip, circuit breaker open/close, circuit breaker spring charged and earth
switch open/close are located in the mimic one line diagram. Non- discrepancy
type T-N-C (Trip-Neutral-Close) switch is mounted for remote operation of
circuit breaker. The switch shall be mounted in the mimic diagram such that the
stay-put ('N') position will render the continuity of the mimic.

Protection relays

Over current relay, Earth fault relay, Distance protection relay, Differential
relay, REF protection relay are equipped for fault protection of system
operation. They are designed and applied to provide maximum discrimination
between faulty and healthy circuits. System equipment will remain inoperative
during transient phenomena which may arise during switching or other
disturbance to the system.

Optocoupler

It is basically an interface between two circuits i.e. RTU and instruments in C &
R Panel which operate at different voltage levels. This is necessary for the
coupling between high voltage information gathering C & R Panel and low-
voltage digital logic RTU.
 Figure :Optocoupler

All the metering, annunciation, status indication data from 110V DC analog
Control and Relay Panel is converted, voltage isolated and transmitted to 48V
digital RTU. All the required circuits are connected to the 8 inputs of the
Optocoupler and one output from Optocoupler is connected to RTU560A DI
card. It only allows signal flow in one direction, responds to dc levels, and offer
an extremely large resistance between the input and output circuits.

Terminal blocks (TBs)

Required number of disconnecting type TBs are used to terminate all the
internal wiring to be connected to the external equipment. All TBs are arranged
for easy identification of its usages such as CT circuits, PT circuits, analog
inputs, status inputs, control outputs, auxiliary power supply circuits etc. All
equipment on and inside the panels are mounted and completely wired to the
terminal blocks ready for external connection. All the data from Control and
Relay Panel will be transferred to RTU via cables from TB.

SCADA EQUIPMENT:
At 110/11kV city substation, consists of the following SCADA equipments.
They are :
1. RTU 560A along with IF panel.
2. VSAT
 Antenna,
  IDU,
 8 port switch,
 telephone
3. 2 kVA UPS (Power One make) along with
 8 No of 100Ah, 12V cells
 Battery stand
 ACDB

RTU 560A

RTU 560A of make A.B.B. Private Limited is used in SCADA system to

automate the conventional substations. It is a multi-processor architecture
combined with the support of the full software functionality of the RTUtil560
provide the perfect solution for application in transmission substation. It is a
high speed microprocessor controlled electronic device that are installed at
remote sites such as primary/secondary substations that interfaces substation
equipments with the SCADA system. It is a hardware of SCADA systems and
acts as a standalone data acquisition and control unit which continuously
transmits data derived from various field devices for any changes such as
alarms, status of circuit breakers and isolators to the control center and controls
the addressed device within the substation on the basis of commands received
from Master control centre. So, it can be called as two-way communication
device that keeps updating the status of the field equipment continuously and
simultaneously executing the commands from the Master Control Center.

The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the

electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed
status from a switch or a value, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage
or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment
the RTU can control equipment

Transmission and distribution networks are frequently being expanded, often

resulting in more complex networks. The task of monitoring and controlling the
energy transportation in order to achieve an economical operation, ABB’s
solution for transmission and distribution application requirement is Remote
Terminal Unit system RTU560. Within the RTU560 family the communication
unit and the I/O board family is a hardware system based on standard European
format cards. To meet the requirements for typical medium stations with only
some communication links on one side and large or modern stations with a
higher number of IEDs on the other side, the RTU560, based on European
format cards, is available in two versions

RTU 560A for configurations with higher demands on communications links.

The parallel wired process interface is still part of the configuration.
RTU 560C for typical stations with a parallel wired process interface and some
communication links only.
Features of RTU 560A
 4 serial communication interfaces for host communication
 32 MB Flash Memory
 8 MB RAM
 Web Server
 PC104 module with CPU 486/66MHz
 PLC capable

The SCADA RTU560A small ruggedized computer, which provides

intelligence in the field. It allows the central SCADA master to communicate
with the field instruments. It is stand-alone data acquisition and control unit. Its
function is to control process equipment at the remote site such as to open or
close the circuit breakers. It acquires data from the equipment and transfers the
data back to the central SCADA system.

It consists of Basic rack (top rack) with CPU and communication ports,
Extension rack 1 (2nd rack) with Digital Input card (DI) Analog Input card (AI)
and Analog Output card (AO). Digital Output card (DO) at Extension rack 2
(3rd rack) and each rack is supported by separate power supply cards. For load
alarm annunciation, there is rack called SCADA annunciation panel.
Basic rack:

Basic Rack or the Communication Sub Rack houses the brain of the RTU. It
consists of a number of slots into which a set of “Cards” are mounted as shown
in the figure. The Cards are the CPUs of the RTU. They help in coordinating the
flow of data from and into the RTU.
These CPUs are of two types: 3 no. of CMU (Communication unit) Card -
560SLI 01 or 560CMU 04 and 2 no. of ETH (Ethernet) Cards - 560ETH 01.

Communication unit (CMU) Card acts as an interface between the RTU and the
IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices) like protection relays, multifunction
meters and battery charger. It consecutively reads data in and out of the IEDs
such as Numerical Relays present on the C&R Panel or MFTs placed on the
MFT panel of the RTU. It communicates with the IEDs through four ports i.e.
A, B, 1 and 2 which are RS485 type and RS232. Each CPU communication
board has an additional serial interface for MMI to a PC which are RS232 type.
The MMI is used for diagnostics, up and download of configuration files, etc

Figure : Basic Rack consisting of 3 CMU and 2 Ethernet cards

The Ethernet card controls the process events and communications with the
Control Centers. It continually reads the data from the Extension Racks, the
CMU cards and sends it to the control center. The ETH card has a port marked
by “E” used by the RTU to communicate to the Master control center. The ETH
is connected to the Extension Rack through port A or B, called COM A and
COM B. It also has an MMI port similar to the one present in the CMU card.
The ETH and the CMU cards communicate with each other through a dedicated
communication channel present on the back plane of the Basic Rack. It has the
ability to manage and control the input/output boards through RS232/485
interfaces, reads process events from input boards, send commands to output
boards and communicates with control centers via integrated serial line interface
and Ethernet LAN interface.
Extension rack 1 and 2:

It is a place, where Input/output Modules are placed. Similar to the structure of

the Basic Rack, the Extension rack 1 has 12 slots into which 8 numbers of DI
cards, 3 numbers of AI cards and 1 number of AO card are inserted. In
Extension rack 2 only 5 numbers of DO cards and 1 MIC card are inserted. It
communicates only with the ETH card of the Basic Rack. The communication
ports of both the extension racks are looped with the one succeeding it. As
mentioned before, the extension rack is connected to the ETH Card through port
A or B. The function of the input modules is to send the status of the equipment
present in the station to the MCC. The function of the output modules is to
control the status of the equipment from the MCC.

Digital input card (DI card):

Figure : Digital input cards

Status indication from control & relay panel are given to 8 binary input Digital
card (DI) card - 23BE23 located in extension rack 1. Scanning and processing
of the inputs are executed with the high time resolution of 1 ms. One DI card
have 16 channels, which can be used for connecting the status of field devices
as an indication to MCC. The board has sixteen light emitting diodes to indicate
the signal-state, Each LED indicates ON/OFF status of an input connected to
particular channel of the DI card. It has a buffer which allows the temporary
storage of 50 time-stamped event messages in chronological order designated
for transmission to the communication unit.
The DI card shall accept two types of status inputs i.e. Single point status inputs
and Double point status inputs. Single point status input will be from a
normally-open (NO) or normally-closed (NC) contact which is represented by
1bit in the protocol message. The Double point status input will be from two
complementary contacts (one NO and oneNC) which is represented by 2-bits in
the protocol message. A switching device status is valid only when one contact
is closed and the other contact is open.

Figure :Connection of DI card to C&R Panel

Analog input card (AI card):

Figure : AI Card

At substation 3 numbers of analog input card 23AE23 located in extension rack

1of RTU is interfaced to station battery and transformers tap positions of the
field, to continuously monitor battery voltage and tap positions. The 23AE23
board records up to eight analog measured values. It gives the analog value of
the signal. It has 8 channels on which eight signals can be configured. The input
to a channel in the AI card is a 4-20ma dc current, which is a proportional
output from DC Transducer required to measure DC voltages of station battery
and status indications of transformer tap position in a RTCC panel, which in
turn are sent to CMU cards for further processing.

Figure : Connection from field to AI card

Analog output card (AO card):

Via the Analog output board 23AA21 of extension rack 1, analog control
outputs for sequential or closed loop control, display instruments, measured
recorders are connected to the RTU560Atohaveacontinuousplotof analog
values. Each output has a digital to analog converter (DAC) which converts the
digital value present in the output memory into an analog signal. A received
output value is stored until a new value is received. At substation they are used
for measurement of transformer temperature etc.

AO card is an optional card, which is used during maintenance of field

equipments to know the analog values of the equipment.

Digital output card (DI card):

Connection from switch gear is connected to 5 binary output DO card - 23BA20
of extension rack 2 through relay contacts. Resistive loads of up to 60 W can be
switched with output voltages between 24 and 60 V DC. The process relays to
be switched have to be equipped with zero voltage diodes. Operating status and
faults are displayed by light emitting diodes on the front panel of the 23BA20,
ST: Common malfunction information of the board, PST: Command output
fault condition display when the monitoring system responds, CO: Command
output display during output time.
DO card is used to execute commands that are sent from the MCC. As soon as
the DO card gets a command, it sends a pulse of 48v dc to the exciting terminals
of the relay contactor which in turn operates the TNC switch. The control points
from TNC switch are terminated to circuit breaker or any field devices through
disconnecting terminal blocks. These control outputs are used for close/trip
operation of circuit breakers and isolator switches. Each control output consist
of one set of potential free NO contact. The output contacts shall be rated for at
least 0.2 Amp at 48V dc.

Figure : DO Card

Figure :Connection from DO card to field equipment

Meter interface card (MIC card):

It is an add-on functional module, as a part of SCADA system that enables to

fetch daily consumption of all interface points i.e. interEscom lines. These
interface points meter data, of 15 minutes block are transmitted to Master
Control Centre in real time. This data is primarily used for billing purposes.
MIC are specifically used for collecting ABT information from Energy Meters
over a RS485 multi drop network. MIC is just a flash memory. Following
parameters are uploaded from meter for ABT: Voltage, Current, Frequency,
Reactive energy in, Reactive energy out, Active energy in and Active energy
out.
Annunciation Panel

If operator at MCC operates any of circuit breaker or any other equipment

remotely, to indicate this information for local operator at substation SCADA
Control Annunciator is provided in RTU 560A, which alarms operator
regarding that particular operation.

AC-DC Converter:

All racks of RTU560A consists of power supply unit 560PSU01 which require
DC supply of 48V, thus AC-DC converter is used. This unit supplies required
DC power to all racks of RTU panel.

Multifunction Transducer Panel (MFT)

Figure :Multi-Functional Transducer

It is an IED that can calculate real time analog values such as line voltage, phase
current, frequency, active power, apparent power (MVA), reactive power
(MVAr) and power factor when inputs from secondary of the CTs and PTs are
given. It can measure 96 electrical parameters from single transducer. This
output is transmitted in MODBUS or IEC104 protocol to RTU unit, which in
turn processes and sends across to MCC. There is a communication port
available for each MFT with RS 485 connection scheme. The communication
ports of 8 MFTs are looped through RS485 interface and assigned to the ports
of CMU card through a cable. Baud rate of data transfer between MFTs and
RTU is 19.2 Kbps.

Figure : Connections of PT and CT in MFT and interfacing

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM: VSAT

The conveying of data from RTU to MCC and vice-versa is done over a satellite
communication system called VSAT-Very Small Aperture Terminal. A
geostationary satellite INSAT3A maintained by ISRO with 17th
transponder11.5MHz C band frequency bandwidth is used. VSAT refers to
receive/transmit terminals installed at every dispersed remote substation housed
with 1.8 Mtrs diameter antenna of parabolic reflector, connecting via satellite to
a central hub MCC housed with 9 Mtrs diameter antenna.
Components of VSAT are antenna, Indoor unit-modem (IDU) and Outdoor Unit
(ODU). To avoid communication problem separate SCADA phones (Voice
Over Internet Protocol) are provided at each substation. 8 port switch is used for
separate connection for MIC, IDU, Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP), CMU
etc.
CMU card and IDU are connected to the 8port-switch using LAN cable. Finally,
IDU is connected to VSAT antenna using RF cable. The entire data acquisition
uses Multi Frequency Time Division Multiple Axis technology (MFTDMA) on
IEC 104 communication protocol which manages the data traffic over the
network and allows understanding between two communicating devices. Star
topology is used so that data can be received individually from every substation
and unhealthiness of one node (station) does not affect the data transmission of
another node (station).VSAT networks offer value-added satellite-based
services capable of supporting the Internet, data, LAN, voice/fax
communications and provides powerful, dependable private and public network
communications solutions.

Figure : VSAT communication

Figure :VSAT Components and connections

MASTER CONTROL CENTER (MCC)

Master Control Centre is a centralized hub consisting of large computer
consoles that serve as the central processor for the SCADA system where real
time data from all substations are acquired securely through VSAT
communication for storage, scrutinizing, control and alarming purpose. The
main strategy of MCC is to balance the generation and demand load, monitor
flow and observe system limits, coordinating maintenance limits and protecting
equipment from various kinds of damage. It performs centralized monitoring
and control for field remote sites over long-distance communications networks,
including monitoring alarms and processing status data. Based on information
received from remote stations, automated or operator-driven supervisory
commands are pushed to remote station control device RTU which in turn
operates a particular equipment. Operator can access real time data such as
Feeder ON OFF indication, Circuit Breaker status, tap change of transformer,
station load, station battery voltage, current, frequency, active & reactive load,
isolator status, faults events, alarms etc. Basically, electrical operators in
SCADA master station can be able to remotely monitor and control electrical
substation/switchgears.

By combining the electronic, telecommunication and signal processing

technology, SCADA automation has upgraded and optimized the conventional
substation. By interfacing SCADA to the conventional systems, it has helped
automating the substation by performing automatic remote monitoring and
controlling of field equipments, automatic real time data acquisition, data
sharing and data analysis, automatic protection of field equipments, smart load
demand management and reduced man power is achieved. Combining the
benefits with the ability to extract information automatically leads to the
monitoring and controlling capabilities that are faster and more robust. From
this study it can be said that in order to improve the overall system performance,
reliability, stability and security it is necessary to implement the SCADA
system for controlling the whole electricity network. The combination of
Automation and SCADA has not just replaced manual procedures but also
permitted the power system to operate in a most efficient and optimal way,
based on accurate information provided in a timely manner to the decision-
making applications and devices. With the introduction of the SCADA
technology, a true redundancy is possible at reasonable cost for all functions of
the substation. Thus, SCADA has delivered the next generation solution in the
field of automation and power system monitoring and controlling. Hence
SCADA is the back bone of effective Load management and is assuming
greater importance in the Power Sector and Automation.
RTU COMPONENTS

Sl No. Components Quantity Function

30
Multifunction 30 no. of bays data can be collected.
1 Transducer (MFT)

8
Digital Input Card (DI Each card supports 16 digital inputs.
2 card)

5
Digital output Card Each card supports 16 digital outputs.
3 (DO card)

3
Analog Input Card (AI Each card supports 8 inputs.
4 card) (DC Voltage, Tap position…)

1 2 linear control
Analog Output Card
5 (AO card)

Digital Output Relays 80

40 breakers can be controlled.
6
(One relay for trip, one for close)

Meter Interface card 1

For acquiring ABT Energy meters
7 located at IF points

Communication Card 2
Each having 4 ports for
8 communication.

AC-DC Converter 2
For providing DC power supply to
9 rack (48 V).

Optocoupler 3
To isolate voltages (110V dc & 48V).
10
COMMUNICATION BACK BONE

Figure: VSAT Connections

 GSAT 16, in Extended C-band

 6.935 –6.9465 Ghz uplink frequency
 4.710 – 4.7215 Ghz downlink frequency
 KPTCL owned VSAT Hub
 Back up VSAT Hub
 Presently using 19.5 Mhz bandwidth

1. Uplink path: Uplink connects transmit earth station to satellite. Free

Space Path Loss is the major loss that can occur during transmission to
satellite. So Free Space Path Loss block is used to model this loss. This
block attenuates the signal by the free space path loss. Uplink free space
loss: 221 dB
2. Transponder: A transponder receives, amplifies and transmits radio
signals at different frequency. After receiving the signal, a transponder will
broadcast the signal at a different frequency. Sat. Tx. Ant. Gain: 31dB Sat.
Ant. Rx Gain: 38.2dB
3. Downlink path: Downlink connects satellite to the receive earth station.
In addition free space path loss Doppler and phase errors are also modeled in
this path. Free Space Path Loss block attenuates the signal. Phase /
Frequency Offset block rotates the signal to model phase and Doppler error
on the link. Downlink path loss: 217dB
OPTOMIC-

5 W RF 3.8 m COMSAT
Transceiver
Antenna

FX
E
E&
IDU S
Data M P
D
D1
Type A site : D 1 channels RTU 2 A
alone RMMI
Type B site: D1 & D2
channels
Figure :VSAT Configuration

VSAT is the main communication media for Karnataka Power Transmission

Corporation Limited (KPTCL)/ ESCOM (Electric Supply Companies)
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) network. It also
provides voice communication to all KPTCL, ESCOMS stations and major
generating stations with load dispatch centre (LDC). Implementation deals
with the modeling and simulation of RF communications link involving
satellite transponder. A transponder is a series of interconnected units
forming an RF (Radio Frequency) broadband communication channel
between the receivers and transmit antenna in a communication satellite. The
typical extended C-band communications satellite will be examined briefly
here. Each transponder is amplified by either a travelling wave tube
amplifier (TWTA) or a solid state power amplifier (SSPA). Satellites of this
type are very popular for transmitting TV channels to broadcast stations,
cable TV systems (DTH) direct to home systems. Other applications include
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) data communications network.
Integration of these information type is becoming popular as Satellite
transponders can deliver data rates in the range of 1000 Kbps to 256 Mbps.
Achieving these high data rates require careful consideration of the design
 and performance of the repeater. The methodology adopted here is QAM
technique and software-tool is Math works with simulink to explore the end
to end simulation of communication links involving satellite transponder.

Figure :Basic VSAT satellite communication system

Fig shows the block diagram of basic VSAT satellite communication system.
Satellite communication system consists of many earth stations on the ground
and these are linked with a satellite in space. The user is connected to the Earth
station through a terrestrial network and this terrestrial network may be a
telephone switch or dedicated link to earth station. The user generates a
baseband signal that is processed through a terrestrial network and transmitted
to a satellite at the earth station. The satellite transponder consists of a large
number of repeaters in space which receives the modulated RF carrier in its
uplink frequency spectrum from all the earth station in the network, amplifies
these carriers and retransmits them back to the earth stations in the downlink
frequency spectrum. To avoid the interference, downlink spectrum should be
different from uplink frequency spectrum. The signal at the receiving earth
station is processed to get back the baseband signal, It is sent to the end user
through a terrestrial network.
Commercial communication satellite uses a frequency band of 500 M Hz
bandwidth near 6 G Hz for uplink transmission and another 500 M Hz
bandwidth near 4 G Hz for downlink transmission .An uplink of 5.725 to 7.075
G Hz and downlink of 3.4 to 4.8 G Hz is used. Here the extended C-band is
used with uplink frequency of 6.9350-6.9465 GHz and downlink frequency of
4.710-4.7215 GHz downlink frequency. Modulation used here is QAM to save
the bandwidth. Extended C band is most popular because of less propagation
problem. Rain attenuation and sky noise is low at 4 GHz downlink frequency of
C band. So it is possible to build a receiving system.
The basic block diagram of a VSAT earth-station Transmitter .Thebaseband
signal from the terrestrial network is processed through modulator and then it is
converted to uplink frequency. Finally it is amplified by high power amplifier
and directed towards the appropriate part of antenna.

Figure : Block diagram of VSAT Earth station Transmitter

Figure :Block diagram of VSAT Earth station receiver

Figure :Block diagram of Satellite Transponder

The acronym VSAT is the earth station antenna used at the earth stations. In
VSAT the earth station antenna size is typically less than 2.4 m in diameter and
the trend is towards even smaller dishes measuring not more than 1.8 m in
diameter. According to European Telecommunication standard Institute, VSAT
is referred as satellite transmit –receive system that has an aperture size
smaller than 2.8m2. VSAT‟s provide cost effective solutions for the growing
telecommunication needs through- out the world. Today‟s satellites are more
powerful, enabling the use of smaller and less-expensive antennas on the
ground. Also, the developments include most of the necessary VSAT functions,
which makes VSATs more effective.

The architecture of the networks is of two types. One is star topology and the
other is mesh topology. The star topology is the traditional VSAT network
topology. Here the communication link is between the hub and the remote
terminal. This topology is well suited for data broadcasting or data collection.
This is not applicable for speech services because the time delay is too severe
(500ms). The access techniques used in a star network can be both FDMA and
TDMA. In mesh topology there is a direct communication between the remote
VSAT terminals. This minimizes the time delay which is concerned with speech
services. The access method used in mesh network is FDMA. Very Small
Aperture Terminals (VSATs) are designed for data transmission and
distribution over a wide geographical area amongst a large number of locations.
The small size and low transmit power of a VSAT station are the factors that
keep the price of the earth station at a level that makes a VSAT network an
economic alternative to a terrestrial data network using telephone lines and
modems. The hub usually houses a central host computer, which can act as a
data switching center. The architecture of the network naturally becomes star
shaped, [Maral, 1995]. The links from the hub to the VSAT are called outbound
links. The links from the VSAT to the hub are called inbound links. Both
inbound and outbound links consist of two parts, uplink and downlink. It is not
unusual that inbound and outbound links operate at different transmission
speeds, i.e. in asymmetrical mode.

1EC 61850 PROTOCOL

Communication plays an important role in the real time operation of a power

system. In the beginning, telephone was used to communicate line loadings
back to the control center as well as to dispatch operators to perform switching
operations at substations. With the entry into a digital age, we needed the
technology to cater to the hot requirements, which are;
 High-speed IED to IED communication
 Multi-vendor interoperability
 Support for File Transfer
 Auto-configurable / configuration support
 Support for security

Given these requirements, work on next generation communication architecture

began with the development of the Utility Communication Architecture (UCA)
in 1988. Today, IEC 61850 is a standard for the design of electrical substation
automation and it has been defined in cooperation with manufacturers and users
to create a uniform, future-proof basis for the protection, communication and
control of substations. IEC 61850 meets the requirements for an integrated
Information Management, providing the user with consistent Knowledge of the
System on-line rather than just Gigabytes of raw data values. IEC 61850 defines
standardized Information Models across vendors and a comprehensive
configuration standard (SCL – System Configuration Language).

Interoperability of 61850

 Each of these companies will implement IEC61850 in its power

automation products and systems.
 A roadmap for the staged implementation of IEC 61850 has been defined
in line with the progress of the standard.
 To verify the implementation of IEC61850 of all three suppliers, joint
interoperability tests have been specified.
 Interoperability is the ability of two or more IEDs from the same vendor,
or different vendors, to exchange information and uses that information
for correct co-operation.
 Interchangeability is the ability to replace a device supplied by one
manufacturer with a device supplied by another manufacturer, without
making change to the other elements in the system

Intelligent electronic device

 Microprocessor-based controllers of power system equipment –e.g.

circuit breaker, protective relay
 Receive digitalized data from sensors and power equipment, Issue control
commands in case of maintain the desired status of power grid–e.g.
tripping circuit breaker

Function Hierarchy and Interfaces of IEC 61850

The three levels in the functional hierarchy are shown
 Process level: This level includes switchyard equipmentssuch as CTs /
PTs, Remote I/O, actuators, etc.
  Bay level: Bay level includes protection and control IEDs of different
bays.
 Station level: The functions requiring data from more thanone bay are
implemented at this level.
 Process bus: This facilitates the time critical communication between
protection and control IED to the process (the primary equipment in the
substation), such as sampled values, binary status signals or binary
control signals.
 Station bus: It facilitates communication between station level and bay
level. It also allows communication among different bays.

GOOSE (Generic Object Oriented Substation Event)

 It is a mechanism for the fast transmission of substation events, such as
commands, alarms,indications, as messages
 A single GOOSE message sent by an IED * can be received and used by
several receivers
 GOOSE takes advantage of the powerful Ethernet and supports real-time
behavior
 It is used for e.g.
 tripping of switchgear
 starting of disturbance recorder
 providing position indication for interlocking

VIDYUTNET

"Vidyutnet is one of the major steps taken by KPTCL to improve operational

efficiency of the transmission and distribution network in the state. Satellite
technology is reliable and provides instantaneous connectivity. KPTCL is
actively looking at providing voice and data services at remote locations to
other government agencies as well."
When an organization requires real-time updates from over 50 units and offices
located in remote locales, spread across 800 square kilometre area, it is a big
infrastructural challenge. KEB, the utility organization, is responsible for
transmission and distribution of electricity in Karnataka. The Board consists of
a load despatch centre at Bangalore and various 400 kV power-generating
stations and 200 kV receiving stations in addition to a number of administrative
offices. Though at the moment the electricity generation role of
the corporation has been vested with Visweshwarayya Vidyut Nigam Ltd,
KPTCL is responsible for the critical activity of distribution of power across
corporates, residential, and agricultural sectors in Karnataka. And it becomes
very imperative for a central monitoring body to take stock of the total power
generation levels in the state and distribute it judiciously. Since generation and
distribution of such a scarce
resource requires real-time tracking and reporting, KEB introduced the SCADA
system. The network consisted of one Main Frame System at the load despatch
centre connected to RTUs at the generating and receiving stations. For optimal
utilization of resources, the Power Line Carrier (PLC) with PLC modems at
both ends was used as the medium for communication. The RTUs or the
"slaves" were connected to the "master" Main Frame System through a Front
End Processor (FEP). Three to four RTUs form one group, and each group was
connected to the "master" in a star configuration. Data transfer consisted of
queries sent from FEP to RTUs and response from RTUs to the FEP. Each
interaction between the FEP and RTU consisted of three successive cycles of
query and response.

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION (PLCC)

PLCC system uses the same high voltage transmission line connecting the sub-
stations for telecommunication purpose too, here conductor is used as medium
of communication.
PLCC is used in all power utilities as a primary communication service to
transmit speech, telemetry and protection tripping commands. This is economic
and reliable for inter grid message transfer as well as low bit rate RTU signals.
The voice/data are mixed with radio frequency carrier (50-500kHz), amplified
to a level of 1080W RF power and injected in to high voltage power line using
suitable coupling capacitor. The power line as a rigid long conductor parallel to
ground, guides the carrier waves to travel along the transmission line. Point to
point communication takes place between two SSB transceivers at both ends.

Option for different power utility communication:

 Microwave: Affected by atmospheric conditions, high capital cost.
 UHF/VHF SYSTEMS: Affected by atmospheric conditions, high capital
cost and high maintenance.
 RADIO link: Congested frequency band.
 FIBER OPTIC: High cost for low traffic.
 Telephone cable: Mechanically weaker, high theft chances.
 Power Line Carrier Communication.

Advantages of Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC):

 No separate wires are required for communication purpose.
 They are compact.
 Increased reliability.
 It is cost effective from distance point of view.
 They will have higher mechanical strength.
 Since they have higher mechanical strength they are immune from
atmospheric changes.
  Power lines provide the shortest route between the power stations.
 Power lines have large cross-sectional area resulting in very low
resistance per unit length. Consequently carrier signals suffer much less
attenuation than when they travel on telephone lines of equal lengths.
 Largest spacing between the conductors reduces capacitance, which
results In smaller attenuation at high frequencies. The large spacing also
reduces the cross talk to a considerable extent.
 Entirely within power utility control.

PLCC Terminal:
Translate voice and data into a high frequency carrier. Output power=10 to
80W.
 Figure :Components of PLCC

Do not allow the transmitted HF carrier to enter inside the sub-station. (L=0.5 to
2mH) without line trap HF carrier get by-passed to some other line on the same
bus bar and may leak to ground ( a earth switch inside the yard provided for
each bay is kept closed during maintenance. Wave Trap is provided in the line
after the CVT. The impedance offered by inductor Z = wL will be high which
will not allow the high frequency carrier signal to enter into the substation.

Figure : Line trap is a parallel LC circuit.

 Figure : Line Traps Mounting Options

Coupling Capacitor/Capacitor Voltage Transformer:

Coupling capacitors act as a connector between transmission line and carrier

equipment.
Couples high frequency carrier with power line (4000 to 10000pF). Coupling
capacitor or Capacitive Voltage Transformer connects the carrier equipment to
the transmission line. The coupling capacitor’s capacitance is of such a value
that it offers low impedance to carrier frequency (1/ωC) but high impedance to
power frequency (50 Hz).
Thus, coupling capacitor allows carrier frequency signal to enter the carrier
equipment. To decrease the impedance further and make the circuit purely
resistive so that there is no reactive power in the circuit, low impedance is
connected in series with coupling capacitor to form resonance at carrier
frequency.
 Figure : Coupling capacitor

Transmitters and Receivers:

The carrier transmitter and receiver are mounted in a cabin in the control house,
and the line tuner are placed in the switchyard. The equipment and the tuner
connected using coaxial cable as there is a large distance between them. The
coaxial cable shields the signal from noise interference. A connection is made
between the coaxial cable and the line tuner mounted in the coupling capacitor’s
base. In case of more than one terminal, before connection to the line tuner, the
signal should pass through an isolation circuit.
LINE TUNER
The line tuner along with the coupling capacitor provides high impedance path
to the power frequency energy and a path of lower impedance for the carrier
energy to the transmission line. The line tuners and coupling capacitors line by
forms a carrier frequency tuned series resonant circuit providing a path of low
impedance to the power line. The capacitor in the coupling capacitor provides a
path of higher impedance to power frequency energy. Though the coupling
capacitors provide high impedance path to power frequencies, they must be
grounded. Grounding is provided by the drain coil placed at coupling
capacitor’s base. As a result of drain coil’s inductance it provides high
impedance to carrier frequency and low impedance to power frequency. The
coupling capacitor, line tuner and drain coil will block the power frequency and
couples the carrier energy to the transmission line. The line tuner also provides
impedance matching between the power line having an impedance of 150 to 500
ohms and coaxial cable, usually with 50 to 70ohms.

Figure : Line tuner

Figure :Line tuning unit

Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipment:

Over voltage caused due to lightning, switching or sudden loss of load may
produce stress in the coupling equipment and line trap unit. Nonlinear resistor in
series with protective gap is connected across line trap unit and indicator of
coupling unit. The spark is adjusted to spark at a set value of over voltage.
Coupling unit and PLCC equipment are earth through a separate and dedicated
system so that ground potential rise of station earthing system does not affect
the voltage reference level or power supply common ground of the PLCC
equipment.

Figure :Protection and Earthing of coupling Capacitor

Surge Arrestor and Tuning Device:

Surge arrestor is connected across the main coil and the tuning device to the LT
prevent from being damaged by transient over voltages.
Tuning devices-To tune for the required frequency using suitable capacitor in
parallel with the inductance of the coil.
Line Matching Unit (LMU):
For impedance matching between line and co-axial cable, includes high voltage
protection devices like drainage coil (20mH), lightning arrestor (500V) and an
earth switch.
LMU functions:
Impedance matching transformer + high voltage protection
To match the impedance of PLCC set and transmission Line.
 Figure :PLCC Panel ( ABB ETL 41/42)
ABB PLCC terminal ETL-41 system data-complies to IEC 495:
 Operating mode: Single side band suppressed carrier.
 Frequency range: 40-500kHz (programmable in 4kHz steps).
 AF bandwidth: 4kHz (speech band=300-3400Hz).
 Transmitter RF output power: 40W(+46dBm)
 Receiver Selectivity: 70dB(300Hz from band limit)
 Receiver image rejection>=80dB

Factors Affecting Reliability of Power Line Carrier Communication:

 The amount of power out of the transmitter.
 The type and number of hybrids required to parallel the transmitter and
receiver
 The type of line tuner applied
 The capacitance of the coupling capacitors
 The inductance of the line trap used
 The power line voltage and the physical configuration of the power line
 The phases to which the PLC signals are coupled
 The length of the circuit and transpositions in the circuit
 The decoupling equipment at the receiving terminal
  The type of modulation used to transmit the information and the type of
demodulation circuit in the receiver
 The received signal to noise ratio

Applications of Power Line Carrier Communication:

 Power Line Carrier Communication in modern electrical power
system substation is used for the following
 Carrier protection relaying of transmission lines so that
 Inter trip command can be issued by relay due to tripping of circuit
breaker at any one end.To trip the line circuit breaker nearest to the
fault. This is done by distance protection relays, differential
comparison method, phase comparison method
 Station to station communication between operating
personals.Carrier telemetering: kW, kVA, kVAR, voltage and
power factor are the electrical quantities that are telemetered. The
methods used for telemetry as well as telecontrol are simplex,
duplex, multiplex and time division multiplex.

SUBSTATION DESIGN ,EQUIPMENT AND SWITCHGEAR

PROTECTION
SwitchGear:
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the
switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also
includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of
electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms
switchgear. In other words apparatus used for switching, controlling and
protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is known as switchgear. This is
very basic definitionofswitchgear.
Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network, right
from generation through transmission to distribution end. The current
interruption device or switching device is called circuit breaker in switchgear
protection system. The circuit breaker can be operated manually as when
required and it is also operated during over current and short circuit or any other
faults in the system by sensing the abnormality of system. The circuit breaker
senses the faulty condition of system through protection relay and this relay is
again actuated by faulty signal normally comes from current transformer or
voltage transformer.
The switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making and breaking
the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of
clearing the fault in addition to that it also has provision of metering and
regulating the various parameters of electrical power system
Thus the switchgear includes circuit breaker, current transformer, voltage
transformer, protection relay, measuring instrument, electrical switch, electrical
fuse, miniature circuit breaker, lightening arrester or surge arrester ,electrical
isolator and other associated equipment.
Faults and Abnormal Conditions:

A fault in an electric power system can be defined as, any abnormal condition
of the system that
involvestheelectricalfailureoftheequipment,suchas,transformers,generators,busb
ars,etc.
Faults–Types and their Effects
1. Active faults
2. Passive faults
3. Transient faults
4. Permanent faults
5. Symmetrical Faults
6. Unsymmetrical Faults
7. Open circuit faults
8. Short circuit faults
Active Faults:
The “Active” fault is when actual current flows from one phase conductor to
another (phase-to-phase) or alternatively from one phase conductor to earth
(phase-to-earth).This type of fault can also be further classified into two areas,
namely the “solid” fault and the “incipient” fault. The solid fault occurs as a
result of an immediate complete breakdown of insulation as would happen if,
say, a pick struck an underground cable, bridging conductors etc. or the cable
was dug up by a bulldozer. In mining, a rock fall could crush a cable as would a
shuttle car. In these circumstances the fault current would be very high,
resulting in an electrical explosion. This type off fault must be cleared as
quickly as possible otherwise there will be:
 Greatly increased damage at the fault location. (Fault energy = 1² Rf t
where ‘t’ is time).
 Danger to operating personnel(Flashproducts).
 Danger of igniting combustible gas such as methane in hazardous areas
giving rise to a disaster of horrendous proportions.
 Increased probability of earth faults spreading to other phases.
 Higher mechanical and thermal stressing of all items of plant carrying the
current fault. (Particularly transformers whose windings suffer
progressive and cumulative deterioration because of the enormous
electromechanical forces caused by multi-phase faults proportional to the
current squared).
 Sustained voltage dips resulting in motor (and generator) instability
leading to extensiveshut-down at the plant concerned and possibly other
near by plants.

The “incipient” fault, on the other hand, is a fault that starts from very small
beginnings, from say some partial discharge (excessive electronic activity often
referred to as Corona) in a void in the insulation, increasing and developing
over an extended period, until such time as it burns away adjacent insulation ,
eventually running away and developing into a “solid” fault.
Passive Faults:
Passive faults are not real faults in the true sense of the word but are rather
conditions that are stressing the system beyond its design capacity, so that
ultimately active faults will occur. Typical examples are:  Overloading –
leading to overheating of insulation (deteriorating quality, reduced life and
ultimate failure).
 Overvoltage – stressing the insulation beyond its limits.
 Under frequency – causing plant to behave incorrectly.
  Power swings – generators going out-of-step or synchronism with each
other.
It is therefore very necessary to also protect against these condition.
Transient & Permanent Faults
Transient faults are faults which do not damage the insulation permanently and
allow the circuit to be safely re-energized after a short period of time. A typical
example would be an insulator flashover following a lightning strike, which
would be successfully cleared on opening of the circuit breaker, which could
then be automatically reclosed. Transient faults occur mainly on outdoor
equipment where air is the main insulating medium. Permanent faults, as the
name implies, are the result of permanent damage to the insulation. In this case,
the equipment has to be repaired and reclosing must not be entertained.
Symmetrical & Unsymmetrical Faults:
 Symmetrical Faults:
A symmetrical fault is a balanced fault with the sinusoidal waves being
equal about their axes, and represents a steady state condition.A
symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault 10 currents that are
displaced with 120˚ each other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced
fault. This fault occurs when all the three phases are simultaneously short
circuited. These faults rarely occur in practice as compared with
unsymmetrical faults. Two kinds of symmetrical faults include line to line to
line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G).
 Unsymmetrical Faults:
The most common faults that occur in the power system network are
unsymmetrical faults. This kind of fault gives rise to unsymmetrical fault
currents (having different magnitudes with unequal phase displacement).
These faults are also called as unbalanced faults as it causes unbalanced
currents in the system. An asymmetrical fault displays a dc offset, transient
in nature and decaying to the steady state of the symmetrical fault after a
period of time. The amount of offset depends on the X/R (power factor) of
the power system and the first peak can be as high as 2.55 times the steady
state level. The figure below shows the three types of symmetrical faults
occurred due to the short circuit conditions, namely phase or line to ground
(L-G) fault, phase to phase (L-L) fault and double line to ground (L-L-G)
fault.
Open circuit faults:
These faults occur due to the failure of one or more conductors. The figure
below illustrates the open circuit faults for single, two and three phases (or
conductors) open condition. The most common causes of these faults
include joint failures of cables and overhead lines, and failure of one or
more phase of circuit breaker and also due to melting of a fuse or conductor
in one or more phases. Open circuit faults are also called as series faults.
These are unsymmetrical or unbalanced type of faults except three phase
open fault.
Effects
 Abnormal operation of the system
 Danger to the personnel as well as animals
 Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the
network, which further leads to insulation failures and developing of
short circuit faults. 11.
 Under normal or safe operating conditions, the electric equipments in a
power system network operate at normal voltage and current ratings
 Once the fault takes place in a circuit or device, voltage and current
values deviates from their nominal ranges.
 The faults in power system causes over current, under voltage, unbalance
of the phases, reversed power and high voltage surges.
 This results in the interruption of the normal operation of the network,
failure of equipments, electrical fires, etc.
Usually power system networks are protected with switchgear protection
equipments such as circuit breakers and relays in order to limit the loss of
service due to the electrical failures. Electrical networks, machines and
equipments are often subjected to various types of faults while they are in
operation. When a fault occurs, the characteristic values (such as
impedance) of the machines may change from existing values to different
values till the fault is cleared. Although open circuit faults can be tolerated
for longer periods than short circuit faults, these must be removed as early
as possible to reduce the greater damage.

Short Circuit Faults:

 A short circuit fault can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low
impedance between two points of different potential, whether made
intentionally or accidentally. These are the most common and severe kind of
faults, resulting in the flow of abnormal high currents through the equipment
or transmission lines. If these faults are allowed to persist even for a short
period, it leads to the extensive damage to the equipment. Short circuit faults
are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to the insulation
failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or
both. The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase
to earth, three phase clear of earth, phase to phase, single 12 phase to earth,
two phase to earth and phase to phase plus single phase to earth as shown in
figure. The three phase fault clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are
balanced or symmetrical short circuit faults while other remaining faults are
unsymmetrical faults.
Causes
These may be due to internal or external effects
 Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or
equipment, aging of insulation, deterioration of insulation in
generator, transformer and other electrical equipment, improper
installations and inadequate design.
 External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure
due to lighting surges and mechanical damage by public.

Effects
 Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as
transformers and circuit breakers.
 Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which
further leads to reduction of life span of their insulation.
 The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their
acceptance values that creates harmful effect to the service rendered
by the power system.
 The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as
long as the short circuit fault persists

Current and Potential Transformers

Current Transformers:
The Current Transformer ( C.T.) is a type of “instrument transformer” that
is designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which
is proportional to the current being measured in its primary. Current
transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current
flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal
of operation of a basic current transformer is slightly different from that of
an ordinary voltage transformer.
• The current in instrument transformer is directly proportional to line
current, which can neither be measured, nor used
• This transformer is used to step down the current in the transmission lines
which can be further measured
• And hence this current is used for metering as well as protection purposes
Purpose:
• In metering like Ammeter, power meter and energy meters
• And the process is followed for protection purposes and they are given to
relays
• Common faults are over current, short circuit, earth fault and reverse
power etc

Instrumental or Potential Transformers:

The potential transformer may be defined as an instrument transformer used
for the transformation of voltage from a higher value to the lower value.
This transformer step down the voltage to a safe limit value which can be
easily measured by the ordinary low voltage instrument like a voltmeter,
wattmeter and watt-hour meters, etc.
The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential
transformer or instrumental transformer, when rated burden gets connected
across the secondary; the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of
transformer is equal to the turns ratio and furthermore, the two terminal
voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual
transformer, there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as in the
phase angle between primary and secondary voltages. The errors in potential
transformer or voltage transformer can be best explained by phasor diagram,
and this is the main part of potential transformer theory.

Lightning Arrester
The device which is used for the protection of the equipment at the
substations against travelling waves, such type of device is called lightning
arrester or surge diverter. In other words, lightning arrester diverts the
abnormals high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of
supply. It is connected between the line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the
equipment to be protected at the substation
The following are the damages that are caused by the travelling wave on the
substation equipment.
1. The high peak or crest voltage of the surge may cause flash-over in the
internal winding thereby spoil the winding insulation.
2. The steep wave fronts of the surges may cause external flashover between the
terminal of the transformer.
3. The highest peak voltage of the surge may cause external flashover, between
the terminal of the electrical equipment which may result in damage to the
insulator.
Working of Lightning Arrester
When a travelling wave reaches the arrestor, its sparks over at a certain prefixed
voltage as shown in the figure below. The arrestor provides a conducting path to
the waves of relatively low impedance between the line and the ground. The
surge impedance of the line restricts the amplitude of current flowing to ground.
The lightning arrester provides a path of low impedance only when the
travelling surge reaches the surge diverter, neither before it nor after it. The
insulation of the equipment can be protected.

Wave trap
Line trap (high-frequency stopper) is a maintenance-free parallel resonant
circuit, mounted inline on high-voltage (HV) AC transmission power lines to
prevent the transmission of high frequency (40 kHz to 1000 kHz) carrier signals
of power line communication to unwanted destinations. Line traps are cylinder-
like structures connected in series with HV transmission lines. A line trap is also
called a wave trap.
The line trap acts as a barrier or filter to prevent signal losses. The inductive
reactance of the line trap presents a high reactance to high-frequency signals but
a low reactance to mains frequency. This prevents carrier signals from being
dissipated in the substation or in a tap line or branch of the main transmission
path and grounds in the case of anything happening outside of the carrier
transmission path. The line trap is also used to attenuate the shunting effects of
high-voltage lines.
 Wave trap is a parallel tuned inductor - capacitor tank circuit made to be
resonant at desired communication frequency . It reduces corona losses in
transmission lines in power system.
 Wave trap is installed in the substation for trapping the high frequency
communication signal sent on the line from remote substation and diverting
them to the telecom panel in substation control room. These high frequency
signal should not be coming on the buses as these may damage the equipments .
 A wave trap is a device that allow only a particular frequency to pass through
it that it filters the signals coming on to it . So a wave trap is connected between
buses and the transmission line which allow only 50 Hz signal to pass through
it.
 Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high
frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation
and diverting them to the telecom/teleportation panel in the substation control
room (through coupling capacitor and LMU). 17
 This is relevant in power carrier communication (PLCC) system for
communication among various substation without dependence on telecom
company network. The signals are primarily teleportation signal and in addition
to voice and data communication signal.

ISOLATOR:
Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch that isolates the faulty
section or the section of a conductor or a part of a circuit of substation meant for
repair from a healthy section in order to avoid occurrence of more severe faults.
Hence, it is also called as a dis connector or disconnecting switch. There are
different types of isolators used for different applications such as single-break
isolator, double-break isolator, bus isolator, line isolator, etc.
 Isolator, on the contrary to the circuit breaker, is an off-load device and
performs the task as the name implies. It disconnects or Isolates the circuit from
the main power supply. Isolators are most commonly found in industry level
electric systems.Even though, Isolator is a switch, it is not used as a normal on
off switch. It is used only when the electrical system has to be disconnected
from the main supply, to perform maintenance or related activities, which
involve direct contact with the current carrying components of machinery.
Isolators may provide additional safety features like, when switched off the
trapped charge will be ground through a ground terminal in the isolator.
Isolators are normally placed after the circuit breaker allowing the internal
circuit to be disconnected from the main supply without affecting the
realy.Isolators may be used in high voltage devices like transformers. Isolators
are secured using a locking mechanism on the outside or by a padlock to
prevent inadverten usage.In electronics, the term isolator is used to denote a
device which separates the internal circuits from the main supply, but it is
different from the Isolator switch discussed above. Using opto-couplers an
electronics circuit can be isolated such that overloads do not pass through the
circuit.
Circuit Breaker
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually
and automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system
respectively. As the 18 modern power system deals with huge currents, the
special attention should be given during designing of circuit breaker for safe
interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker. This was
the basic definition of circuit breaker.
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In
normal "ON" condition of the circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically
connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving
contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating
mechanism of circuit breaker which is released if the switching signal is given
to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by
different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by
hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be
released during operation. The release of potential energy makes the sliding of
the moving contact in a speedy manner.
Types of Circuit Breaker
According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker.
According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as-
1. Oil circuit breaker.
2. Air circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker
Air Circuit Breaker
This circuit breaker will operate in the air; the quenching medium is an Arc at
atmospheric pressure. In many of the countries air circuit breaker is replaced by
oil circuit breaker. About oil circuit breaker we will discuss later in the article.
Thus the importance of ACB is still preferable choice to use an Air circuit
breaker up to 15KV. This is because; oil circuit breaker may catch fire when
used at 15V.
Air Blast Circuit Breaker
Air blast circuit breakers are used for system voltage of 245 KV, 420 KV and
also even more. Air blast circuit breakers are of two types:
 Axial blast breaker
 Axial blast with sliding moving contact.
SF6 Circuit Breaker
In the SF6 circuit breaker the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur
hexafluoride gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker. It is an excellent insulating
property and high electro- negativity. It can be understood that, high affinity of
absorbing free electron. The negative ion is formed when a free electron
collides with the SF6 gas molecule; it is absorbed by that gas molecule. The two
different ways of attachment of electron with SF6 gas molecules are

SF6+e=SF6
SF 6 + e = SF5- + F
The negative ions which are formed will be much heavier than a free electron.
Therefore, when compared with other common gases overall mobility of the
charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less. The mobility of charged particles
is majorly responsible for conducting current through a gas. Hence, for heavier
and less mobile charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires very high dielectric
strength. This gas good heat transfer property because of low gaseous viscosity.
SF6 is 100 times more effective in arc quenching media than air circuit breaker.
It is used for both medium and high voltage electrical power system from 33KV
to 800KV.
Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker
 Single interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 220
 Two interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 400
 Four interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 715V
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
A Vacuum circuit breaker is a circuit which vacuum is used to extinct the arc. It
has dielectric recovery character, excellent interruption and can interrupt the
high frequency current which results from arc instability, superimposed on the
line frequency current.
In the principle of operation of VCB will have two contacts called electrodes
will remain closed under normal operating conditions. Suppose when a fault
occurs in any part of the system, then the trip coil of the circuit breaker gets
energized and finally contact gets separated.
The moment contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum, i.e. 10-7 to 10-5
Torr an arc is produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors
of contacts. Here the arc quickly gets extinguished, this happens because the
electrons, metallic vapors and ions produced during arc, condense quickly on
the surface of the CB contacts, resulting in quick recovery of dielectric strength.
Oil Circuit Breaker
In this type of circuit breaker oil is used, but mineral oil is preferable. It acts
better insulating property than air. The moving contact and fixed contact are
immerged inside the insulating oil. When the separation of current takes place,
then carrier contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the
moment of separation of contacts, and because of this arc in the oil is vaporized
and decomposed in hydrogen gas and finally creates a hydrogen bubble around
the arc.
This highly compressed gas bubble around and arc prevents re-striking of the
arc after current reaches zero crossing of the cycle. The OCB is the oldest type
of circuit breakers.
Different types of Oil Circuit Breaker
 Bulk oil circuit breaker
 Minimum oil circuit breaker
PROTECTION RELAYS
There are different function of protection relays, Each one of these relays are
able to deal with certain type of faults. Every equipment needs different type of
protection relays. As example, Distance relays are suitable for transmission
lines, and differential relays for power transformers and bus bars.
Over Current Protection
Over current protection is practical application of magnitude relays since it
picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds some value (setting value ).
There are four types of over current relays
Instantaneous Over Current Relay Instantaneous over current. Relays which
operation criteria is only current magnitude (without time delay) . This type is
applied to the outgoing feeders.
Definite Time Over Current Relay
In this type, Two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping), Current
must exceed the setting value and the fault must be continuous at least for a
time equal to time setting of the relay. Modern relays may contain more than
one stage of protection each stage includes each own current and time setting.
Definite time over current relay is the most applied type of over current. It is
used as :
1- Backup protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay
equal to fourth stage of distance relay which is 2.5 second in 220 kV lines,
and 1.5 second in 66 kV lines
2- 2- Backup protection to differential relay of power transformer with time
delay equal to 2.0 second in 220/66 kV transformers, and 1.1 second in the
66/11 kV transformers
3- 3- Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable
time delay setting.
Inverse Time Over Current Relay
In this tape of relays, operating time is inversely changed with current. So,
high currents will operate over current relay faster than lower ones. Different
currents of inverse time type are defined as standard inverse, very inverse ,
extremely inverse all these types
Distance Relay or Impedance Relay Working Principle
There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault
in the line. More specifically, the relay operates depending upon the impedance
between the point of fault and the point where relay is installed. These relays
are known as distance relay or impedance relay.
Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay
The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple.
There is one voltage element from potential transformer and a current element
fed from current transformer of the system. The deflecting torque is produced
by secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by voltage of
potential transformer.
In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting torque.
Hence relay will not operate. But in faulty condition, the current becomes quite
large whereas voltage becomes less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes
more than restoring torque and dynamic parts of the relay starts moving which
ultimately close the No contact of relay. Hence clearly operation or working
principle of distance relay depends upon the ratio of system voltage and
current. As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but impedance so a
distance relay is also known as impedance relay. The operation of such relay
depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current ratio. This ratio is
nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate when this voltage to current
ratio becomes less than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said that the
relay will only operate when the impedance of the line becomes less than
predetermined impedance (voltage/current). As the impedance of a
transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can easily be
concluded that a distance relay can only operate if fault is occurred within a
predetermined distance or length of line.
Differential Relays
Different relay is that relay which checks the different between the input and
output currents for a power system current. The difference between the currents
may be in magnitude or in phase angle or in both. For healthy operation,
magnitude and angle differences must be zero. If there is a difference and that
difference exceeds some value (setting value) the relay will operate and
associated circuit breaker will trip .
Buchholz Relays
A Buchholz relay is a protection device for monitoring the gas and oil
movements in oil immersed transformers. It is used on practically all power
transformers with the exception of small distribution sizes. In practice it has
proved to be the only protective device that can clear certain types of faults. The
Buchholz relay relies on the principle that during fault conditions, gas is
generated inside the transformer tank from the insulating oil.

The internal mechanism of a Buchholz relay mainly comprises two floats and is
illustrated in figure. During normal operation, the relay is completely filled with
oil keeping the floats in their top limit or rest position. The contact mechanisms
in the relays respond to:
 Slight faults causing a slow evolution of gas in the transformer (e.g.
overheating)
 Serious faults creating an immediate surge of oil (e.g. short circuits etc.)
 Oil leakage

SUBSTATION AUTOMATION SYSTEM

Power System Automation is controlling the power system automatically with
the help of certain instruments and the control devices. Substation automation
refers to using data from intelligent electronic devices (IED), control and
automates the network within the substation. This makes monitoring and control
easier, with lesser or no human interference.
COMPONENTS OF SAS:
1. Intelligent Electronic Devices: (like BCU’S, relay etc) Bay control unit:
Conventional CT, PT, switchgear are connected to the bay control unit, using
the readings of these instruments BCU’s calculate the other parameters like
active power, reactive power, power factor etc..,It uses microprocessors-based
relay to perform online monitoring and control operations, the relay
communicates among themselves and the control centre.
2. Fibre Optic/Lan Cable: Theses are the cables used to transmit data and
receive the commands. It works on the total internal reflection of light(fibre
optic). It is very useful to transmit data over long distances.
3. Switches for connecting all IED’s with HMI
4. Human interface machine.
ADVANTAGES
Improved Technology:
 Provides ability to access full capabilities of the IED’s
 Reduce rewiring, as most paths are retrieved through virtual paths
 Provides excellent transition path, as mix of hard wiring and virtual
path is present.
Improved Operability:
 All data available at a single user interface, avoiding multiple
interfaces in a station
 All data accessible locally or remotely
 Tap changer are operated remotely
 Ability to control auto/manual switches remotely
 Provides ability to turn reclosing on/off remotely.

Modernization and Expansion:

 Provides ability to change IED’S without any substation automation
hardware changes as it requires only software configuration
 Provides a modular, easy and expandable system
 Reduces equipment footprint
 Reduces man hour needed in the station.
 Successful substation automation starts with the system’s ability to effectively
mine data from IED’s. As more utilities move towards installation of
microprocessor-based IED’s more of the important data captured by these IED’s
can be made available to the utility enterprise. Unlike RTU’s IED’s consume
little space, hence enabling these implementations very early with less space.
As shown in the fig, the BCU’s, Relays are connected to the conventional
switchgear, conventional CT /PT provided in the network. Up to this part is
pure electrical wiring. 4 to 5 bays are connected to a single bay controller,
further reducing space as well as the price.
The data from bay control and relays go to the ethernet. Here we notice ring
type architecture, which is used to increase the reliability for the system, even a
double ring could be used. 3 to 4 networks are connected to each ethernet
module, the data is then sent to the router using IEC 61850-81 protocol, which
further is sent to human interface machine, resent in the substation and to the
state load dispatch centre as well.
There are two HMI’S, Main HMI and RHMI.
The main HMI receives the data and continuously pushes the data to RHMI,
which is a hot standby, in case, if the main HMI fails immediately within
milliseconds RHMI takes up, there is continuous handshaking between them.
In the engineering part shown in the fig, DRPC (disturbance recording PC) is
connected, it helps the operator to understand and analyse the details regarding
the fault or disturbance that occurred in the network, it is interfaced with HMI.
When fault occurs it auto downloads the report in the system, using this
overcurrent duration, severity, extent, type of fault etc can be analysed.
Metering PC: This is required for the billing purpose and has 0.2 accuracy, it
doesn’t work on the IEC 61850 protocol, hence we use an gateway, so that
communicating the metering to HMI data is possible.
The meters are connected in series and got to the gateway for the further
modification of the protocol.
Control Centre Reporting: The SLDC uses IEC-104 protocol, hence IEC 61850
protocol data is converted to 104 using an gateway.
RDMS is used to store the HMI data for up to three months period.
SUBSTATION CONFIGURATION LANGUAGE:
It is the language and is represented specified by the IEC 61850, for the
configuration of electrical substation devices. The complete SCL
representations and its details are specified in IEC 61850-6 standard document.
It includes data representation for the substation device entities; it is associated
functions are represented as logical nodes, communication system and
capabilities. The complete representation of data as SCL enhances the different
devices of a substation to exchange the SCL files and to have a complete
interoperability.
 Parts of SCL files :
1. Header
2. Substation
3. Communication
4. IED
5. Data Type Templates

 Types of SCL File:

1. IED capability description file
2. System Specification description file
3. Substation Configuration description file
4. Configured IED description file(CID)
5. Instantiated IED description file
6. System Exchange description file
In bay controller, CID file is formed at all individual id’s, these files are mapped
with nodes and sent to the HMI, which has the master configuration file with
the extension ‘.scl’.
The master file in HMI, is configured with certain logics to monitor and to
control the field equipment and the devices. Each output given by the IED’s will
have an particular logic associated with it, based on the logic, the required
action will be automated.

61850 SERVICES:
 Control (normal/enhanced, select before operate)
 Buffered and Unbuffered report
 Logging
  GOOSE (Generic Object-Oriented Substation): is a controlled model
mechanism, in which any format of data is grouped (data packet) into
a set and transmitted within 4 milliseconds. This technology enables
fast inter device communication. The events reported by GOOSE are
soft configured in the master file.
Equipment report to the IED in case any fault occurs, which is
communicated to HM, the HMI in turn sends GOOSE message to the
equipment node to take the action as required, hence there is no hard wiring and
al the above required communication happens through the software
configuration itself, hence termed as object oriented.
 Substitution
 Setting Group
 Sampled Value
 File transfer
 Time synchronization.

TIME SYNCHRONIZATION:
It is very important, but in the conventional stations, where in an engineer
records the reading, especially in the huge stations, time synchronized readings
of all the equipment is not possible.
Hence to achieve time synchronization, the nodes within the network are
synchronized with GPS. The GPS receiver is present for the purpose, which is
connected to the Ethernet.
In the substation automation, the following application requires
synchronization:
 Transmission of Ethernet protocols like GOOSE
 Real time data acquisition from IED’s, RTU’S and MU’s
 Real time process control of the field equipment
 Fault analysis and performance study.

BACKIOS: It is a control unit placed in the yard itself, to reduce the number of
hardwires running to the control room. Simple control panel architecture is
present and only the lan cable is carried to the control room, where the HMI is
present.
NETWORKING
IP Addressing & Subnetting
 IP Addressing
 Subnetting
 VLSM
 CIDR
IP Addresses
 An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP
network.
 The address is made up of 32 binary bits which can be divisible into a
network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
 Dotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100).
IP Address Classes
 Class A: The first octet is the network portion. Octets 2, 3, and 4 are for
subnets/hosts.
 Class B: The first two octets are the network portion. Octets 3 and 4 are
for subnets/hosts.
 Class C: The first three octets are the network portion. Octet 4 is for
subnets/hosts.
Private Address Range
Class A :10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
Network Masks
 Distinguishes which portion of the address identifies the network and
which portion of the address identifies the node.
 Default masks:
Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0
Subnetting
 Creates multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or
C network.
 If you do not subnet, you will only be able to use one network from your
Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic
 Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every
node on that link being a member of the same network
Benefits of Subnetting
 Reduced network traffic
 Optimized network performance
 Simplified management
 Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances
IP Subnet-Zero
 This command allows you to use the first and last subnet in your network
design.
 For example, the Class C mask of 192 provides subnets 64 and 128, but
with the IP subnet-zero command, you now get to use subnets 0, 64, 128,
and 192.
How to create subnets
 Determine the number of required network IDs:
One for each subnet
One for each wide area network connection.
 Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
One for each TCP/IP host
One for each router interface.
 Based on the above requirements, create the following:
One subnet mask for your entire network
A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
A range of host IDs for each subnet.
CIDR
 Classless Interdomain Routing
 Improve address space utilization
 Routing scalability in the Internet
 For example, if an ISP owns network 172.16.0.0/16, then the ISP can
offer 172.16.1.0/24, 172.16.2.0/24,and so on to customers. Yet, when
 advertising to other providers, the ISP only needs to advertise
172.16.0.0/16
RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA
India is one of the countries with the largest production of energy from
renewable sources. In the electricity sector, renewable energy account for 34.6%
of the total installed power capacity. Large hydro installed capacity was 45.399
GW as of 30 June 2019, contributing to 13% of the total power capacity.[1] The
remaining renewable energy sources accounted for 22% of the total installed
power capacity (80467 GW) as of 30 June 2019.
Wind power capacity was 36,625 MW as of 31 March 2019, making India the
fourth-largest wind power producer in the world. The country has a strong
manufacturing base in wind power with 20 manufactures of 53 different wind
turbine models of international quality up to 3 MW in size with exports to
Europe, the United States and other countries. Wind or Solar PV paired with
four-hour battery storage systems is already cost competitive, without subsidy,
as a source of dispatchable generation compared with new coal and new gas
plants in India.
The government target of installing 20 GW of solar power by 2022 was
achieved four years ahead of schedule in January 2018, through both solar
parks as well as roof-top solar panels. India has set a new target of achieving
100 GW of solar power by 2022. Four of the top seven largest solar parks
worldwide are in India including the second largest solar park in the world
at Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, with a capacity of 1000 MW. The world's largest
solar power plant Bhadla Solar Park is being constructed in Rajasthan with a
capacity of 2255 MW and is expected to be completed by the end of 2018.
Biomass power from biomass combustion, biomass
gasification and bagasse cogeneration reached 9.1 GW installed capacity as of
31 March 2019. Family type biogas plants reached 3.98 million .
Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy (MNRE). India was the first country in the world to set
up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Solar
Energy Corporation of India is responsible for the development of solar energy
industry in India. Hydroelectricity is administered separately by the Ministry of
Power and not included in MNRE targets.
India is running one of the largest and most ambitious renewable capacity
expansion programs in the world. Newer renewable electricity sources are
projected to grow massively by nearer term 2022 targets, including a more than
doubling of India's large wind power capacity and an almost 15 fold increase in
solar power from April 2016 levels. These targets would place India among the
world leaders in renewable energy use and place India at the centre of its
"Sunshine Countries" International Solar Alliance project promoting the growth
and development of solar power internationally to over 120 countries. India set
a target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel
sources by 2030, as stated in its Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions statement in the Paris Agreement. A blueprint draft published
by Central Electricity Authority projects that 57% of the total electricity
capacity will be from renewable sources by 2027. In the 2027 forecasts, India
aims to have a renewable energy installed capacity of 275 GW, in addition to 72
GW of hydro-energy, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from “other
zero emission” sources.
Renewable energy overview and targets
The 2022 electrical power targets include achieving 227GW (earlier 175 GW)
of energy from renewable sources - nearly 113 GW through so
lar power, 66 GW from wind power, 10 GW from biomass power, 5GW
from small hydro and 31GW from floating solar and offshore wind power. The
bidding process for the further additional 115 GW or thereabouts to meet these
targets of installed capacity from January 2018 levels will be completed by the
end of 2019-2020. The government has announced that no new coal-based
capacity addition is required beyond the 50 GW under different stages of
construction likely to come online between 2017 and 2022.
Unlike most countries, until 2019 India did not count large hydro power
towards renewable energy targets as hydropower was under the older Ministry
of Power of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. This system was changed
in 2019 and the power from large hydropower plants is since also accounted for.
This was done to help the sale of the power from the large Hydropower plants,
as this reclassification has made such plants able to sell their power under the
Renewable Energy Purchase Obligation. Under the Renewable Energy Purchase
Obligation, the DISCOMs (Distribution Company) of the various states have to
source a certain percentage of their power from Renewable Energy Sources
under two categories Solar and Non-Solar. The power from the large
Hydropower plants now classifies under the Non-Solar Renewable Energy
Category.
Installed grid interactive renewable power capacity (excluding large
hydropower) as of 30 June 2019 (RES MNRE)
Grid connected installed capacity from all sources as of 30 June 2019
SOURCE TOTAL INSTALLED 2022 TARGET(MW)
CAPACITY(MW)
Wind power 36368 60000
Solar power 29549 1000000
Biomass power 9806 10000
Waste to power 138 10000
Small Hydropower 4604 5000
Total 80467 175000
SOURCE INSTALLED SHARE
CAPACITY(MW)
COAL 194489.50 54.17%
Large Hydro 45399.22 12.64%
Other Renewables 80467.22 22.41%
Gas 24937.22 6.9%
Diesel 637.63 0.24%
Nuclear 6780.00 1.97%
Total 358970.78 100.00%

Abstract of Indian Electricity Rules:

1) Cut-out on consumer’s premises:
 The supplier shall provide a suitable cut-out in each conductor of
every service-line other than an earthed or earthed neutral
conductor or the earthed external conductor of a concentric cable
within a consumer’s premises, in an accessible position. Such cut-
out shall be contained within an adequately enclosed fireproof
receptacle.
 Where more than one consumer is supplied through a common
service-line, each such consumer shall be provided with an
independent cut-out at the point of junction to the common service.
 Every electric supply line other than the earth or earthed neutral
conductor of any system or the earthed external conductor of a
concentric cable shall be protected by a suitable cut-out by its
owner
 No cut-out, link or switch other than a linked switch arranged to
operate simultaneously on the earthed or earthed neutral conductor
and live conductors shall be inserted or remain inserted in any
earthed or earthed neutral conductor of a two wire-system or in any
earthed or earthed neutral conductor of a multi-wire system or in
 any conductor connected thereto with the following exceptions:(a)
A link for testing purposes, or (b) A switch for use in controlling a
generator or transformer.
2) Danger Notices:
 The owner of every medium, high and extra-high voltage
installation shall affix permanently in a conspicuous position a
danger notice in Hindi or English and the local language of the
district, with a sign of skull and Bones on
 (a) Every motor, generator, transformer and other electrical plant
and equipment together with apparatus used for controlling or
regulating the same;
 (b) All supports of high and extra-high voltage overhead lines
which can be easily climb- upon without the aid of ladder or
special appliances.
3) Cables :
 Flexible cables shall not be used for portable or transportable
motors, generators, transformer rectifiers, electric drills, electric
sprayers, welding sets or any other portable or transportable
apparatus unless they are heavily insulated and adequately
protected from mechanical injury.
 Where the protection is by means of metallic covering, the
covering shall be in metallic connection with the frame of any such
apparatus and earth.
 The cables shall be three core type and four-core type for portable
and transportable apparatus working on single phase and three
phases supply respectively and the wire meant to be used for
ground connection shall be easily Identifiable
 used for ground connection shall be easily Identifiable Where A.C.
and D.C. circuits are installed on the same support they shall be so
arranged and protected that they shall not come into contact with
each other when live.
4) Safety:
 Two or more gas masks shall be provided conspicuously and
installed and maintained at accessible places in every generating
station with capacity of 5 MW and above and enclosed sub-station
with transformation capacity of 5 MVA and above for use in the
event of fire or smoke.
 Provide that where more than one generator with capacity of 5 MW
and above is installed in a power station, each generator would be
 provided with at least two separate gas masks in accessible and
conspicuous position.
5) High Voltage Equipments installations:
 High Voltage equipments shall have the IR value as stipulated in
the relevant Indian Standard.
 At a pressure of 1000 V applied between each live conductor and
earth for a period of one minute the insulation resistance of HV
installations shall be at least 1 Mega ohm Medium and Low
Voltage Installations- At a pressure of 500 V applied between each
live conductor and earth for a period of one minute, the insulation
resistance of medium and low voltage installations shall be at least
1 Mega ohm.
6) Every switchboard shall comply with the following provisions, namely:
 A clear space of not less than 1 meter in width shall be provided in
front of the switchboard;
 If there are any attachments or bare connections at the back of the
switchboard, the space (if any) behind the switchboard shall be
either less than 20 centimeters or more than 75 centimeters in
width, measured from the farthest outstanding part of any
attachment or conductor;
 ductor; If the space behind the switchboard exceeds 75 centimeters
in width, there shall be a passage-way from either end of the
switchboard clear to a height of 1.8 meters.
7) Declared voltage of supply to consumer:
 In the case of low or medium voltage, by more than 6 per cent, or;
 In the case of high voltage, by more than 6 per cent on the higher
side or by more than 9 per cent on the lower side, or;
 In the case of extra-high voltage, by more than 10 per cent on the
higher side or by more than 12.5 per cent on the lower side.
8) Declared frequency of supply to consumer:
 Except with the written consent of the consumer or with the
previous sanction of the State Government a supplier shall not
permit the frequency of an alternating current supply to vary from
the declared frequency by more than 3 per cent.
9) Meters, maximum demand indicators and other apparatus on consumer’s
premises:
 Any meter or maximum demand indicator or other apparatus
placed upon a consumer’s premises in accordance with section 26
shall be of appropriate capacity and shall be deemed to be correct if
 its limits of error are within the limits specified in the relevant
Indian Standard Specification and where no such specification
exists, the limits of error do not exceed 3 per cent above or below
absolute accuracy at all loads in excess of one tenth of full load and
up to full load Connection with earth Neutral conductor of a phase,
4 wire system and the middle conductor of a 2 phase, 3-wire
system shall be earthed by not less than two separate and distinct
connections with a minimum of two different earth electrodes of
such large number as may be necessary to bring the earth resistance
to a satisfactory value both at the generating station and at the sub-
station. The earth electrodes so provided, may be interconnected to
reduce earth resistance. It may also be earthed at one or more
points along 32 the distribution system or service line in addition to
any connection with earth which may be at the consumer’s
premises
 e consumer’s premises In the case of a system comprising electric
supply lines having concentric cables, the external conductor of
such cables shall be earthed by two separate and distinct
connections with earth.
 The connection with earth may include a link by means of which
the connection may be temporarily interrupted for the purpose of
testing or for locating a fault.
 All metal castings or metallic coverings containing or protecting
any electric supply-line or apparatus shall be connected with earth
and shall be so joined and connected across all junction boxes and
other openings as to make good mechanical and electrical
connection throughout their whole length.
10) Use of energy at high and extra-high voltage:
VOLTAGE GROUND SECTIONAL
CLEARENCE(mts) CLEARENCE(mts)
11KV 2.75 2.6
33KV 3.7 2.8
66KV 4.0 3.0
132KV 4.6 3.5
220KV 5.5 4.3
400KV 8.0 6.5
11) Transformer:
 Where transformer or transformers are used, suitable provision
shall be made, either by connecting with earth a point of the circuit
at the lower voltage or otherwise, to guard against danger by
reason of the said circuit becoming Accidentally charged above its
 normal voltage by leakage from or contact with the circuit at the
higher voltage
 A sub-station or a switch station with apparatus having more than
2000 litres of oil shall not be located in the basement where proper
oil draining arrangement cannot be provided.
 Where a sub-station or a switch station with apparatus having more
than 2000 litres of oil is installed, whether indoor or out-doors, the
following measures shall be taken, namely: –
 The baffle walls 4[of 4 hour fire rating] shall be provided between
the apparatus in the following cases: –
 (1) Single phase banks in the switch-yards of generating stations
and substations
 (2) On the consumer premises;
 (3) Where adequate clearance between the units is not available
 Provisions shall be made for suitable oil soakpit and where use of
more than 9000 litres of oil in any one oil tank, receptacle or
chamber is involved, provision shall be made for the draining away
or removal of any oil which may leak or escape from the tanks
receptacles or chambers containing the same
 The transformer shall be protected by an automatic high velocity
water spray system or by carbon dioxide or BCF (Bromo chlorodi
feuromethane) or BTM (Bromo tri fluromethane) fixed installation
system; and
 Oil filled transformers installed indoors shall not be on any floor
above the ground or below the first basement.
 Isolators and the corresponding earthing switches shall be
interlocked so that no earthing switch can be closed unless and
until the corresponding isolator is in open position.
 When two or more transformers are operated in parallel, the system
shall be so arranged as to trip the secondary breaker of a
transformer in case the primary breaker of that transformer trips.
 Where two or more generators operate in parallel and neutral
switching is adopted, interlock shall be provided to ensure that
generator breaker cannot be closed unless one of the neutrals is
connected to the earthing system.
 Gas pressure type protection to given alarm and tripping shall be
provided on all transformers of ratings 1000 KVA and above
 Transformers of capacity 10 MVA and above shall be protected
against incipient faults by differential protection; and All
 generators with rating of 100 KVA and above shall be protected
against earth fault/leakage. All generators of rating 1000KVA and
above shall be protected against faults within the generator winding
using restricted earth fault protection or differential protection or
by both.
1) Connection with earth:
 In case of the delta connected system the neutral point shall be
obtained by the insertion of a grounding transformer and current
limiting resistance or impedance wherever considered necessary at
the commencement of such a system. Where the earthing lead and
earth connection are used only in connection with earthing guards
erected under high or extra-high voltage overhead lines where they
cross a telecommunication line or a railway line, and where such
lines are equipped with earth leakage relays of a type and setting
approved by the Inspector, the resistance shall not exceed 25 ohms.
2) Clearance above ground of the lowest conductor:
 No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines, erected
across a street shall at any part thereof be at a height of less than:
 For low and medium voltage lines 5.8 meters
 For high voltage lines 6.1 metres
 No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines, erected
along any street shall at any part thereof be at a height less than:
 For low and medium voltage lines 5.5 metres
 For high voltage lines 5.8 metres
 No conductor of in overhead line including service lines, erected
elsewhere than along or across any street shall be at a height less
than:
 For low, medium and high voltages lines=4.6 meters.
 For low, medium and high voltage=4.0 meters.
 For high voltage lines above 11,000 volts=5.2 meters.
 For extra-high voltage lines the clearance above ground shall not
be less than 5.2 metres plus 0.3 meter for every 33,000 volts or part
thereof by which the voltage of the line exceeds 33,000 volts.