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word �problem�. Problems show up in di?erent contexts, universes of

discourse,�worlds�. We are used to problems, we solve problems everyday, applying
di?er-ent methods and tools that are available to us. Let us consider some
examplesof problems and possible solutions.Example 2 (River crossing (ancient)).
Imagine that sometimes at the dawnof humanity a person stands by a river observing
that on the other side atree full of fruit. The problem is how to get there. There
are many solutionsto this problem, and the early humnans reached those solutions
accumulatingexperience from failed attepmts, observing their environment, learning
from e.g.animals how to dam the river, how to ?nd fords in the river, how to bridge
theriver by cutting down a tree long enough to support them, and then re?ningthese
solutions by developing tools to build more permanent and reliable bridges,boats,
etc.These solutions are part of the succes of humanity as a race. However, notethat
this will be of little confort to that one individual at the dawn of
humanity,trying to cross that river and reach the fruit, for whom these solutions
mighthave taken a bit long to achieve. That is because this method of directly
tryingto solve the problem, essentially by trial-and-error, could be:� slow: coming
up with a successful solution can take a long time (genera-tions),� expensive: many
resources may be needed in order to reach the solution,� exhausing: reaching the
solution could also require sustained e?ort,� potentially irreversible: if the
person gets badly injuried, or drowns at-tempting to reach the other side, then no
other potential solution may beattempted.Of course, this direct approach should not
be discarded. It is a successfulapproach (it goes by the name of evolution). While
it may not have servedthe person in our story trying to get on the other side,
humanity has evolvedto be able to solve these problems. But is there a more e?cient
way to solveproblems?Example 3 (Black box problem solving (modern)). In modern life
there is a bigpressure to solve problems quickly, and as directly as possible. To
do so, weare used to call upon di?erent tools, services, black boxes: there is an
app foranything, a swipe on the screen of a mobile and as if by magic, we have
thesolution. Hardly anyone has patience if the solution is not available
instantly.This technology-based method is:� fast: complying with the demand of the
modern world,� cheap: more and more we expect the black boxes to be available,
butnote that this may be a position of privilege, and in general such blackboxes
are not widely available, one could even argue that where they areavailable their
availability is at the expense of others (but this discussionis beyond the scope of
these notes)